= 
Pe 
Sey PES 


ser; 


eS 


by — as et aa ar 
a So * reg sabe Vehe it i ; 


Trill Pali x. 


IT) BUILDING 


ABBAYE AUX HOMMES 
The church of S. Etienne (S. Stephen) at Caen, 


in Normandy. Its popular name signifies that it 
was the church of a religious community of men, 
as distinguished from the Abbaye aux Dames, 
which was the church of a nunnery. The build- 
ing was begun about 1065; the western towers 
(in the background of this plate) being ten years 


later, and the pinnacles, together with the system 
of flying buttresses and the tracery of the western 
windows, as well as the pointed windows in their 
present condition, all being of the next century. 
The central tower represents a much more lofty 


one which was destroyed during the religious 
wars, 


A DICTIONARY 


OF 


ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING 


Biographical, Historical, and Wescriptive 


BY 


RUSSELL STURGIS, A.M., Px.D. 
FELLOW OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS 
AND MANY 


ARCHITECTS, PAINTERS, ENGINEERS, AND OTHER EXPERT 
WRITERS, AMERICAN AND FOREIGN 


IN THREE VOLUMES 
VOL. I 


A—E 


New Bork 


THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Lr. 
1901 


All rights reserved 


e 


MPANY. 


ere 
EE 
22 
5 
A 


Nortoood ress 
J. 8. Cushing & Co. — Berwick & Smith 


Norwood Mass. U.S.A. 


GETTY CENIER LIBRARY 


LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS 


TO THE 


DICTIONARY OF ARCHITECTURE 


CLEVELAND ABBE, Ph.D., LL.D. 

Meteorologist U.S. Weather Bureau, Washing- 
ton, D.C. 

WiiiiaAM Martin AIKEN, F.A.I.A. 

Architect ; New York. Late Supervising Archi- 
tect of U.S. Treasury Department. 

Epwarp Artxkinson, Ph.D., LL.D. 

Economist, and President Manufacturers’ Mutl. 
Ins. Co., Boston, Mass. Author Mill Con- 
struction. What It Is and What It Is Not; 
Right Methods of Preventing Fires in Mills. 

Cuar.Les Bascockx, M.A., Hon. Mem. A.I.A., 
Hon. Mem. R.1.B.A. 

Emeritus Professor of Architecture, Cornell 

University, Ithaca, N.Y. 

W. J. Batpwin, Mem. Am. Soc. C.E., Mem. Am. 
Soc. M.E. 

Expert and Consulting Engineer in Heating 

and Ventilation ; New York. 
CuarteEs I. Bere, F.A.LA. 

Architect ; New York. 

(di. BuAcKALL, M.A., F.A.LA. 

Architect ; Boston, Mass. 

Epwin H. Buasurievp, N.A., Hon. Mem. A.I.A. 

Mural Painter; New York. Joint Author 
Italian Cities ; Joint Editor Vasari. 

H. W. Brewer, Hon. Assoc. R.I.B.A. 
Author many papers published*in the Pro- 
ceedings R.1.B.A. ; London, England. 
ARNOLD W. Brunner, F.A.LA. 
Architect ; New York. 
CaryLt CoLeman, A.B. 

Ecclesiologist and Decorative Designer ; Presi- 

dent Church Glass and Decorating Co. 
Water Cook, F.A.LA. 

Architect ; New York. President Soc. of Beaux 
Arts Architects; President N.Y. Chapter 
A.T.A. 

Epwarp Cow rss, A.M., M.D. 

Medical Supt. McLean Hospital, Waverley, 
Mass. ; Clin. Instruc. Ment. Dis. Harvard 
University. 

R. A. Cram. 
Architect ; Boston, Mass. 
FREDERIC CROWNINSHIELD. 
Mural Painter and Decorative Artist; New 
York. Author Mural Painting. 
Frank Mixes Day, F.A.I.A. 
Architect ; Philadelphia, Penn. 
CHARLES DE Kay. 

Writer on Fine Art; New York. Author Life 

and Works of Barye, the Sculptor. 
F. S. DELLENBAUGH. 

Painter; Writer and Lecturer on American 

Archeology and Ethnology ; New York. 
WicuiaM vE Moreay. 
Keramist and Designer ; London, England. 


ALEXANDER GRAHAM, 


Barr FrerreeE, Hon. Cor. Mem. R.I.B.A., Cor. 
Mem, A.I.A. 
JoHN SAFrorp Fiske, L.H.D. 

Alassio, Province of Genoa, Italy. 

Fine Art, especially of Italy. 
ArTHUR L. FrorHincHam, Jr., Ph.D. 

Princeton, N.J. Professor Ancient History and 
Archeology, Princeton University; Late 
Editor Am. Journal Archeology; Joint 
Author History of Sculpture. 

WiviiamM Paut GERHARD, C.E. 

New York. Consulting Engineer for Sanitary 
Works; Cor. Mem. A.I.A. ; Author volume 
on American Plumbing in the Handbuch 
der Architektur publishing at Darmstadt 
and Stuttgart, Germany ; and many works 
and articles, in English and German, on 
Sanitary Engineering. 

Rospert W. Gisson, F.A.I.A. 

Architect ; New York; President Architectural 
League. 

Wittram H. Goopyear, M.A. 

Archeologist ; New York. Professor Brooklyn 
Inst. of Arts and Sciences (Curator since 
1899) ; Author The Grammar of the Lotus ; 
Roman and Medieval Art; Renaissance 
and Modern Art. 


Writer on 


F.S.A., Mem. Council 
R.I.B.A. 

London, England. Author Travelsin Tunisia ; 
Remains of the Roman Occupation of North 
Africa. 

A. D. F. Hamurn, A.M. 

Adjunct Professor Department of Architecture, 
Columbia University, New York; Author A 
Text-book of the History of Architecture. 

H. J. HarpEnBERGH, F.A.LA. 

Architect ; New York. 

GrorceE L. HEINs. 

Architect ; New York. 

GrEorGE Hitt. M.S., C.E., Assoc. Mem. Am. Soc. 
C.E., Mem. Am. Soc. M.E. 

Architect; New York. Author Office Help 
for Architects ; Modern Office Buildings ; 
Test of Fireproof Floor Arches. 

Frep. B. HincuMaAn. 

Architect ; New York. Late U. S. Engineer 
Corps. 

Witu1am Rica Hurron, C.E., Mem. Am. Soc. 
C.E., Mem. Inst. C.E., Mem. Inst. C.E. of 
London. 

Civil Engineer ; New York. 

Jonun La Farce, N.A., Hon. Mem. A.I.A. 

Mural Painter, Artist in Mosaic and Decorative 
Windows ; New York. Author Considera- 
tions on Painting ; An Artist’s Letters from 
Japan. 


LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS 


W. R. Letuasy. 

London; England. Joint Author Sancta 
Sophia, Constantinople; Author <Archi- 
tecture, Mysticism, and Myth; Leadwork, 
Old and Ornamental. 

W. P. P. Loneretiow, S.B., Hon. Mem. A.I.A. 

Cambridge, Mass. Editor Cyclopedia of Archi- 
tecture in Italy, Greece, and the Levant ; 
Author Essays on Architectural History ; 
The Column and the Arch. 

ALLAN MarquanpD, Ph.D., L.H.D. 

Professor Archeology and the History of Art, 
Princeton University, Princeton, N.J.; 
Joint Author History of Sculpture. 

Henry Rutcers Marsnatt, M.A., F.A.LA. 

Architect; New York. Author Pain, Pleas- 
ure, and disthetics; -disthetic Princi- 
ples. 

Grorce P. MERRILL. 

Head Curator Dept. of Geology, U.S. National 
Museum, Washington, D.C.; Professor 
Geology and Mineralogy, Corcoran Scien- 
tific School of Columbian University, Wash- 
ington, D.C.; Author Stones for Building 
and Decoration; Rocks, Rock-weathering, 
and Soils; The Onyx Marbles. 

W. T. PartRIpGE. 

Lecturer on Architectural Design, Columbia 

University ; New York. 
Cuartes A. Pratt. 

Architect and Landscape Architect ; New York. 
Author Jtalian Gardens. 

Coryrpon T. Purpy, C.E., Mem. Am. Soc. C.E. 

Civil Engineer; New York. Author Pam- 
phlets and Reports on Construction and 
Fire-proofing. 

Russett Ross, S.B., M.A.1LE.S. 

Boston, Mass. Author Electric Wiring for 

the Use of Architects. 
W. C. Sasine. 

Assistant Professor of Physics, Harvard Uni- 
versity, Cambridge, Mass. Engineer for 
Acoustics, Boston Music Hall (1900). 

ALEXANDRE SANDIER. 

Architect ; Directeur,des Travaux d’ Art, Manu- 

facture Nationale, Sévres, France. 
JEAN SCHOPFER. 

Paris, France. Author many articles on 
Architecture in American and European 
periodicals. 


vi 


MontrcomEerY Scuuyter, A.M., Cor. Mem. 
A.LA. 
New York. Author Studies in Ameri- 


can Architecture; Joint Editor New York 
Times. 
F. D. Suerman, Ph.B. 

Adjunct Professor of Architecture, Columbia 
University, New York. 

Epwarp R. Situ, B.A. 

Librarian Avery Architectural Library, Colum- 
bia University, New York. 

Cuar_es C. SOuLe. 

Boston, Mass. President Boston Book Com- 
pany ; Trustee Am. Library Assoc. ; Trus- 
tee Brookline, Mass., Pub. Lib. 

R. Puené Spiers, F.S.A., Mem. Council R.I.B.A. 

London, England. Editor Fergusson’s His- 
tory of Ancient and Medieval Architecture, 
Third Edition ; Editor Pugin’s Normandy, 
Second Edition. 

Danrorp N. B. Strureis. 

Architect ; New York. 

RicHarp Cuieston Stureis, F.A.I.A. 

Architect ; Boston, Mass. 

ANDREW T. Taytor, F.R.I.B.A., R.C.A. 

Architect; Montreal. Author Towers and 
Spires of Sir Christopher Wren ; Dominion 
Drawing Books. 

Epwarp L. Titton. : 

Architect ; New York. Late Student and Ex- 
plorer, Am. School of Classical Studies, 
Athens, Greece. 

Henry vAN Brunt, F.A.I.A. and late President 
A.LA. 

Architect ; Kansas City, Mo. Author Greek 

Lines and other Architectural Essays. 
Wiiiiam R. Ware, LL.D., F.A.LA. 

Professor of Architecture, Columbia University, 
New York. Author A Treatise on Plain 
and Curvilinear Perspective. 

H. Lanerorp WarREN, F.A.LA. 

Architect ; Boston, Mass. Asst. Professor of 
Architecture, Lawrence Scientific School, 
Harvard University. 

Epmunp M. WuHeetwnicnat, A.B., F.A.LA. 

Late City Architect of Boston, Mass. Author 
Municipal Architecture in Boston. 

PETER B. Wieut, F.A.LA. 

Architect ; Chicago, Il. Secretary Illinois 

State Board of Examiners of Architects. 


PREFACE TO THE DICTIONARY OF ARCHITECTURE 


THERE is apparently no dictionary of architecture in English except the work in eight 
volumes, small folio, begun about 1850 and finished ten years ago: the work of a Society 
organized for the purpose of this publication. Apart from this there are only glossaries, and 
those avowedly partial and limited in character. 

Even in seeking such aid as a dictionary in a foreign language can give him, the student is 
compelled to use two or even three different works, together and in conjunction, since no one book 
presents the subject fairly complete under one alphabet. It is this comment also which is to be 
made upon the few attempts toward a cyclopedia of the building arts as such. Such cyclo- 
peedias, whether special or general in character, have never possessed that essential feature of a 
dictionary, the alphabetical arrangement carried into detail. Alphabetical arrangement where it 
exists is limited to the mere displaying in that order of a limited number of separate essays, 
Cyclopeedias of this character have little to differentiate them from a series of separate volumes. 
_ Neither the cyclopzdia nor the collection of volumes is likely to have a full alphabetical index ; 
and without it the work in question does not fulfil that requirement of the dictionary which is 
its first and most essential one. 

_ This requirement is fitness for ready consultation. In order to meet this requirement two 
separate features must be combined, alphabetical arrangement carried to minute subdivision, and 
cross references in abundance. In a glossary, that is, a list of words with their apparent mean- 
ings briefly stated, no cross references are needed other than the occasional definition of one term 
as the “‘same as” that of another. As soon, however, as the definitions grow into explanation, 
and these explanatory definitions into essays or descriptions, which exceed in length three or four 
score words each, it becomes evident that much matter given under one caption may be very 
useful indeed if found in connection with another caption in another part of the work. Therefore, 
to avoid the obviously impracticable repetition of the substance of whole paragraphs, there 
suggests itself an elaborate system of references, backward and forward. By the use of these 
references the student may, at his pleasure, enlarge the description or the discussion before him 
by consulting two or three or perhaps a dozen articles. The possibility of such reference from 
one article to another may be increased indefinitely by the insertion of articles serving primarily 
as indices to other articles in the same work. Thus in the book now presented the article 
Aboriginal American Architecture refers to a great number of terms under which treatment of 
that general subject will be found ; under Columnar Architecture will be found a list of terms in 
common use, each of which is defined in its alphabetical place, and by comparison of which the 
whole subject may be thought to be adequately presented. The value of this feature will be 
recognized by those persons who have ever thought how much we need a reversed dictionary, — 
a book which shall tell us the names of the things which we know of and cannot ‘“ put a name 
to.” Thus, in the matter of Columnar Architecture, it is sometimes desirable to find out quickly 
the proper term for the colonnade of seven columns ; but no dictionary, unless elaborated in the 
way above suggested, will do that. It will only tell you that heptastyle means having seven 
columns, which is a different thing. 

The reader is advised, however, that in this dictionary the actual printed reference has been 
omitted whenever the term referred to is obviously one to be found in the dictionary. Thus, if, 
in defining Vault, the terms Arch, Arched, Groin, Voussoir, are used, the reader will naturally 
assume that these terms are given in their place in the dictionary, and that other kindred matter 

: Vil 


is to be found under those terms. He will not expect to inform himselt thoroughly about ae 
and vaulting without consulting the articles, or some of them, to be fouaie under the technical 
terms used passim in the cross articles given under Vault and Waning: The terms not so 
obviously a part of the dictionary nor so obviously related to the question in hand will be found 
named in the special references. 34 

It has been thought good to add to the vocabulary the names of such important buildings as 
can be said to have names of their own apart from geographic significance. — Thus the Pantheon 
at Rome and the Panthéon at Paris are often mentioned in writing and in print without allusion 
to the places where they stand. So, Westminster Abbey, the Superga, and ‘the Church of — 
Brou” are named currently in literature without any mention of London town, Turin, or Bourg- 
en-Bresse; and, although their very titles are geographic, are not to be found in a gazetteer. 
These and other similar proper names of important buildings have been added therefore to the 
already too large vocabulary ; but the number of such titles is perforce very limited. 

The sympathetic manner in which the contributors have aided in the making up of this 
dictionary cannot be spoken of in such terms as would rightly describe it. The object having 
been to procure each separate article of importance from a recognized expert in the special field 
has been attained in the mere fact of securing such contributors as those whose names are found 
in the pages following the title. The work of these men is generally to be found in signed articles, 
in which the reader may appreciate its freshness, its thoroughness, its originality of treatment, 
the novelty of its point of view. That is what comes of the work of men of profound —of gen- 
erally practical and often lifelong — familiarity with their subjects. Some few names, however, 
must be specially mentioned here as those of persons whose work does not appear chiefly in long ~ 
and notable articles over the writer’s own name. Thus Mr. Van Brunt and Professor Hamlin 
have contributed the most largely to the great mass of briefer definitions ; Mr. Dellenbaugh has 
furnished, in the matter of American antiquities, a somewhat complete essay cut up into short 
articles ; Mr. Hutton has added to his longer papers a mass of engineering material in the form 
of definitions which it is impossible to overrate; Mr. Merrill has given to his brief accounts of 
different stones and marbles as scientific a treatment as to his larger contributions. All the 
biographies in the dictionary (except a very few signed R. 8.) are the work of Mr. Edward R. 
Smith, and to him is to be ascribed not merely the writing of each separate notice, but also the 
choice, arrangement, and proportioning within the limits of subjects assigned to him. Mr. D. 
N. B. Sturgis has acted as assistant editor during the past eighteen months, and in the course 
of this long-continued service has contributed very much technical and semiscientific matter, 
especially in connection with the modern terms of the building trades. 

The illustrations have been drawn from many sources, of which a complete list will be given 
at the close of the work. It is right, however, to mention here the names of those contributors 
who have, without additional remuneration, furnished illustrations to their own articles. These 
are, for Vol. I, Mr. Hill to the article Apartment House, Mr. Gerhard to the article Bath House 
and those following, Mr. Hutton to several minor articles, and Mr. Dellenbaugh to Casa Grande 
and Cliff Dwellings. Original diagrams have been provided for a number of articles. | 


R. §. 


NOVEMBER, 1900. 


villi 


XXI. 
XXII. 
XXIII. 
XXIV. 
XXV. 


ok Vs 


May AL 
XXVIII. 
XXIX. 
AXX, 
XXXI. 
XXXII. 
XXXII. 
SAALV. 
XXXYV. 
XXXVI. 


FULL PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS 


Abbaye aux Hommes; Caen; East End 

Altar Piece ; Cathedral of Fiesole . 

Apartment House ; Paris 

Arch of Septimius Severus ; Rome 

Austrian States ; Church of S. Stephen, Vienna 
Bargello ; Florence ; View in Court 

Belgium ; Town Hall of Louvain 


Blind Story ; Academy of Design Building, New York . 


Block House; Cascades on the Columbia River 
Bourse ; at Paris 

Bridge of Sighs; Venice. 

Ca’ Dario; Venice . 

Campanile ; that of the Cathedral « of Florence 


. Cancelleria ; ; the Palazzo so called, Rome 


Certosa ; near Pavia, Lombardy 
Chapel; King’s College, Cambridge 
Chateau ; that of Pierrefonds . 
Chateau ; that of Ecouen 

Choir Screen ; Chartres Cathedral . 
Church ; S. Paul’s Cathedral, London 
City Hall ; New York City 


. Cliff Dwelling ; Mancos Cafion, Colorado 


Cloister ; Mont Saint Michel, Normandy 
Collegiate Architecture ; Magdalen College, Oxford 
Corbelling ; House, Fifteenth Century, Venice 
Cortile ; Palazzo Vecchio, Florence 

Cupola; S. Peter’s Church, Rome . 

Doge’s Palace ; Venice 

Ducal Palace ; Urbino 

East End ; that of Bourges Cathedral ; rounded 
East End; ; that of Lincoln Cathedral; square 
Egypt; Pylon at Karnak , 

Egypt ; Temple of Horus at Edfu . 

Engaged Column ; Church of 8. Giuliano, Venice . 
England ; Kirkstall Abbey, Yorkshire , 
England ; Canterbury Cathedral, from Northwest . 
England ; Ely Cathedral, East End 

England ; Natural History Museum, London . 


ax 


Frontispiece 


FACING 
COLUMNS 


57, 58 

81, 82 
109, 110 
178, 174 
209, 210 
271, 272 
307, 308 
307, 308 
341, 342 
367, 368 
419, 420 
427, 428 
437, 438 
491, 492 
515, 516 
525, 526 
525, 526 
547, 548 
553, 554 
607, 608 
613, 614 
617, 618 
637, 638 
675, 676 
689, 690 
727, 728 
793, 794 
837, 888 
843, 844 
847, 848 
851, 852 
855, 856 
881, 882 
885, 886 
889, 890 
897, 898 
901, 902 


DICTIONARY OF ARCHITECTURE 


A 


AARON’S-ROD. An ornament consisting 


of a straight moulding of rounded section, with 
leafage or scroll work seeming to emerge from it. 

ABACISCUS; ABACULUS. A single tile, 
slab, or tessera as used in mosaic and the like. 

ABACUS. The uppermost member of a 
capital; a plain square slab in the Grecian 
Doric style, but in other styles often moulded 
or otherwise enriched. Egyptian and Asiatic 
capitals are often without the abacus. 

ABADIE, PAUL, the Elder; architect ; 
b. July 22, 1783, at Bordeaux, France ; d. Dec. 
3, 1868. 

In 1805 he entered the atelier of Percier 
{see Percier), in Paris. In 1818 he was ap- 
pointed architect of the city of Angouléme and 
the department of Charente. At Angouléme 
he built the palais de justice (1825), the hotel 
of the prefecture (1 Bas), the lycée, the grain 
market. 

Gourlier, Biet, etc., Choix d’édifices publics , 
Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 

ABADIE, PAUL, the Younger ; architect ; 
b. Nov. 9, 1812 at Paris; d. August 2, 1884. 

A son of Paul Abadie the Elder (see Abadie). 
In 1835 he entered the Ecole des Beaux Arts 
(Paris) under the direction of Achille Leclére 
(see Leclére). In 1848 he was made architect 
of the dioceses of Angouléme, Périgueux, and La 
Rochelle, and in 1861 znspecteur général des 
édifices diocésains. Abadie was interested in 
the restoration of many medieval monuments, 
especially the Church of 8S. Front at Périgueux 
and the Cathedral of Angouléme. He built also 
the Hétel de Ville at Angouléme. In 1874 he 
replaced Viollet-le-Duc (see Viollet-le-Duc), as 
architect of Notre Dame (Paris). He began 
the Church of the Sacré Ceeur on Montmartre 
(Paris), but did not finish it. 

Daumet, Notice Biographique. 


ABATED. Im stone cutting, hammered 
metal work, and the like, cut away or beaten 
down, lowered in any way, as the background of 
a piece of ornament, so as to show a pattern or 
figure in relief. 

ABAT-JOUR. In French, anything which 
serves to throw daylight or other light down- 
ward, or in a given direction ; from the movable 
shade of a lamp to the sloping soffit of a window. 

ABAT-SONS. In French, anything in- 
tended to reflect sound, as of a bell, downward 
or horizontally. (See Belfry ; Louver Board.) 

1 


ABATTOIR. In French, a Slaughter House 
(which see for special article); used in English 
for such an establishment when of an approved 
build and arrangement ; a public slaughter house. 

ABAT-VOIX. In French, a_ sounding 
board. 

ABBADIA. Same as Badia. 

ABBATE, NICCOLO DEL. 
del Abbate). 

ABBAYEH AUX DAMES. The Church of 
the Trinity at Caen, in Normandy; once the 
church of a nunnery founded by the Duchess 
Matilda, wife of William the Conqueror. 
(See France, Architecture of.) 

ABBAYE AUX HOMMES. The Church 
of S. Etienne at Caen, in Normandy ; once the 
church of a monastery founded by the Duke 
William the Conqueror. (See France, Architec- 
ture of.) 

ABBEY. 4A. A monastic establishment, 
governed by an abbot or abbess, and belong- 
ing to the highest rank of such institutions. 
(Compare Convent; Monastery ; Monastic Ar- 
chitecture ; Priory.) 

The buildings of a large abbey include, be- 
sides a church, a cloister, around which are 
ranged such buildings as the refectory, dormi- 
tory, storehouses, and cellars, lodgings for 
guests, and the abbot’s lodging, which was 
generally a place of some importance and with 
many conveniences. - 

B. By extension, and erroneously, the same as 
Abbey Church (which see under Church) ; thus, 
Westminster Abbey is merely the church of 
what was once a large monastic establishment. 

Bath Abbey. A late Gothic church at Bath, 
Somersetshire, England. It was begun at the 
close of the fifteenth century. 

Battle Abbey. A ruined church in Sussex, 
England, near the little town of Battle, and 
commemorating, as does its name, the victory 
of William the Conqueror over Harold. 

Westminster Abbey. More properly the 
Abbey Church of S. Peter, in London. 
This building is one of the most important 
Gothic buildings in England. The exterior 
has suffered from rebuilding and restoration ; 
but the interior, the cloisters, chapter house, 
and other adjuncts are of remarkable beauty. 
At the extreme eastern end is Henry the 
Seventh’s Chapel (which see under Chapel). 
The Abbey contains a great number of fune- 
real monuments of celebrated persons. (Cut, 
cols. 3, 4.) 


(See Niccolo 


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ESTMINSTER ABBEY 


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A. Nave, of which the eastern 


ys of 


E. Henry the 


; the three ba 
D. Chapter house. 


North transept 
s Chapel. 


. 
b] 


of which the western aisle is thrown 


pt 
> Corner. 
G. Edward the Confessor 


C. South transe 


he ‘* Poets 


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apels. 


part is used as the choir. 
1ainder 


as ch 
F.. Cloister. 


to the cloister: the rey 


Seventh’s Chapel. 


the eastern aisle are used 
in j 


4 


“ABBEY CHURCH 
ABBEY CHURCH. (See under Church.) 
ABBEY OF S. GEORGE. Abbaye de 8. 
Georges de Boscherville is in the little village of 
Saint Martin de Boscherville (Seine Inférieure) 
in Normandy. The two names of saints often 
cause confusion. The abbey church has suf- 
fered little, and the chapter house preserves 
much ancient work. The whole is important 
in the history of Romanesque architecture. 

ABBEYS OF SCOTLAND. Valuable in 
some cases as a study of the earliest northern 
round arched work, and in other cases for their 
transitional architecture. (Compare Abbeys of 
Yorkshire.) The principal ones are Iona, Dun- 
fermline, Holyrood (now enclosed in the city of 
Edinburgh), Jedburgh, Kelso, Melrose, Dry- 
burgh, Arbroath, Pluscarden, Crosraguel, Glen- 
luce, and Lincluden; but there are several others 
of which the remains are but slight. In these, 
as in the abbeys of Yorkshire, there has been 
very little truly archeological investigation, and 
almost nothing has been done in the way of 
digging to ascertain the original plans of the old 
structure. 

See Scotland’s Ruined Abbeys, by H. C. Butler, 
New York, 1899, and Castellated and Domestic 
Architecture of Scotland, by eee phon and Ross, 
Edinburgh, 1887-1892.  - 

ABBEYS OF YORKSHIRE. In Eng- 
land ; mainly in ruins, but most interesting as 
a study of the transitional art of England. The 
principal ones are Whitby (Benedictine), By- 
land, Rievaulx, Fountains, Jervaulx, Kirkstall, 
and "Sawley (all Cistercian), Bolton (Augustin- 
ian); but there are several others, for which 

see Murray’s Handbook to Y orkshire (Intro- 
duction, and under the separate geographical 
terms) and books on English Romanesque and 
English Gothic. 

ABBONDI, ANTONIO (called lo Scarpa- 
gnino) ; architect 3 d. 1549. 

Scarpagnino was proto or chief architect of 
the Proveditor: del Sale in Venice. Oct. 13, 
1505, he was appointed superintendent of the 
reconstruction of the Fondaco dei Tedeschi, 
(Venice), from the model of Girolamo Tedesco, 
(see Tedesco), which was finished in 1508. In 
1506 his name appears in the records of S. Se- 
bastiano (Venice), of which church he is sup- 
posed to have been the supervising architect. 
Jan. 10, 1514, many buildings of the Rialto 
quarter in Venice were destroyed by fire. 
March 2 of the same year Alessandro Leopardi 
(see Leopardi), Giovanni Celeste, Fra Giovanni 
Giocondo (see Giocondo), and other architects 
were called before the Doge and Signoria to 
make proposals for reconstruction. May 22 
three models were presented, and July 18 four 
models, of which one was by Giocondo and 
another by Leopardi. A third was presented 
by Abbondi on behalf of the Provedztori del 
Sale. This last was selected Aug. 26, 1514. 
5 


| 


ABUT 


The work of reconstruction was finished about 
1522. The buildings then made are called the 
Fabbriche Antiche in distinction from the Fab- 
briche Nuove, added later by Jacopo Sansovino 
(see Sansovino, Jacopo). This reconstruction in- 
cluded the Church of 8. Giovanni Elemosinario. 
In 1520 with Francesco Lurano he finished the 
Ponte della Pietra at Verona. Oct. 6, 1527, 
Abbondi succeeded Santo Lombardo as proto- 
maestro of the Scuola di San Rocco. He built 
the upper story of the main facade, one of the 
finest in Venice. His name occurs in the ac- 
counts of the Doge’s palace, but not in a promi- 
nent way. His will is dated July 28, 1548. 

Paoletti, Rinascimento in Venezia, Vol. IL, 
p. 282 ; Temanza, Vite det piu celebri Architetti e 
Scultori Veneziani. 


ABEL, JOHN; architect ; b. 1577; d. 1674. 

Abel was a famous builder of timber edifices 
in England. He built the town halls of Here- 
ford (destroyed 1861), and Leominster (destroyed 
1858) which are illustrated in Clayton’s Ancient 
Timber Edifices of England, folio, 1846. 


Price, Historical Account of Leominster ; 
Historical Account of Hereford. 


ABORIGINAL AMERICAN ARCHI- 
TECTURE. (See Umited States, Architecture 
of, Part I. ; also, Adobe; Altar Mound; Assembly 
House ; Aztec Architecture; Barracoa; Cakchi- 
quel Architecture ; Calli; Casa Grande; Casas 
Grandes ; Cavate Lodge ; Cave Dwelling ; Central 
America, Architecture of; Cerro; Chultune ; 
Cliff Dwelling ; Cliff Outlook ; Communal Dwell- 
ing; Communal Lodge; Corbel Arch ; Council 
House ; Dancing Lodge ; Dead House (II.) ; Dirt 
Lodge ; Dobie ; Dugout; Earth Lodge ; Eskimo 
Architecture; Estufa; Ghost Lodge; Grass 
House; Greenland, Architecture of ; Hill Fort; 
Iglu; Iglugeak; Inca Architecture; Indian 
Architecture ; Jacal; Kiva; Latchash; Lodge ; 
Log House; Long House; Maya Arch; Maya 
Architecture ; Medicine Lodge ; Mesa Dwelling; 
Mesa Village; Mexican Architecture; Mexico, 
Architecture of ; Mystery Lodge ; Nahuatl Archi- 
tecture ; Peru, Architecture of ; Pirca; Pueblo ; 
Snow House; Sod House; Step Log; Stinash ; 
Sudatory ; Sun Pole ; Sweat Lodge; Temascale ; 
Teocalli; Tipi; Toltec Architecture; Village, 
American Indian ; Wickyup; Wigwam; Yuca- 
tan, Architecture of ; Zahcab ; Zunian.) 

ABREUVOIR. In French, a tank or trough 
specially for the watering of animals; hardly 
used in English except for elaborate architectural 
compositions. 

ABUT (vy. i.). To touch, or join, by its 
end ; as, in a timber where the end grain is 
planted against another member of a structure, 
but without framing ; or where an arch bears 
upon a pier, course of stone, skew back, or the 
like. (Compare Abutment and Butt (v.) and 


(n.) ). 


Price, 


6 


ABUTMENT 


ABUTMENT. A surface or structure on 
which a body abuts or presses. Specifically, 

A. That which takes the weight and also 
the thrust of an arch, vault, or truss; usually 
that part of the wall or pier which may ‘be 
supposed to be the special support of the con- 
struction above. In the case of a series of 
arches or trusses, the term usually applies to 
the comparatively heavy piers at the ends and 
not to the intermediate supports, unless very 
large. Hence, by extension, but incorrectly, 
the masonry or rock to which the cables of a 
suspension bridge are anchored. 

B. In carpentry, the joining of two pieces 
so that their grain is perpendicular, or nearly 
so. (See Abutting Joint, under Joint.) 

ABUTTAL. A piece of ground which bounds 
on one side the lot or plot under consideration. 
Thus, the owner has to be careful not to encroach 
upon his abuttals by walls or substructures ex- 
cept by party wall agreement, or the like. 

ABYSSINIA, ARCHITECTURE OF. 
This ancient kingdom has not been explored by 
those who could make architecture their study. 
No continued civilization has flourished there. 
Evidences of Greek and,’ perhaps, of Egyptian 
culture have been found, but these seem to be 
only the remains of monuments erected by con- 
quering chiefs. Portuguese influence in the 
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries has left some 
trace, even an important bridge and an aque- 
duct ; a great palace-fortress stands near Gon- 
dar which seems to be medizval European in 
character ; some buildings in modern European 
style have been designed and partly completed 
for recent sovereigns of the country; but it 
appears that no native style of building has 
reached any pitch of excellence in construction 
or in decoration which is needed to constitute 
an architecture. The round towers used as 
dwellings of the richer inhabitants of Gondar, 
the capital, are described as having the ground 
floor given up to cattle and as having one story 
above for the human inhabitants, with a conical 
roof thatched with reeds and grass. Some of 
the churches also are circular in plan, and with 
conical roofs, with an arrangement by which the 
clergy occupy a central compartment; other, 
and more modern, churches are square; and 
these are roofed by means of heavy timbers laid 
diagonally from side to side, enclosing each 
corner, so as to leave an open smaller square 
set diagonally with the square of the walls, or 
an open octagon, upon the curb or frame of 
which open space a square or octagonal cupola, 
lantern, or low tower of wood is set up. Except 
for this tower-like lantern, the square churches 
are flat-roofed: and many have nothing rising 
above the flat surface. All are small and low. 

The houses of wealthy landholders in the 
country are surrounded by a high wall, the 
space within which is occupied by small huts 

7 


ACANTHUS 


for servants or temporary visitors. The house 
proper, Aderasch or “sitting room,” is chiefly 
taken up by two large rooms on the ground 
floor, one used as a stable, the other, the men’s. 
room (compare Megaron), is roofed nearly as. 
described above in the case of the square 
churches. A separate bedchamber (compare 
Bower; Thalamium) is sometimes partitioned 
off from the large room. 

It is evident that curious systems and de- 
vices, both in building and in ornamentation, 
are discoverable in this large, mountainous, and 
diversified country, containing a very ancient, 
though never high, civilization. The subject. 
still awaits the explorer and the student.— R. S. 

ACADEMY OF ARCHITECTURE. 4A. An 
association of men considered as at the head of 
contemporary knowledge, judgment, and good 
taste in the matter of architecture; generally 
assumed to be a governmental institution or one 
recognized by the government and endowed 
with special privileges. It does not appear 
that any such institution is now in existence 
(compare Societies of Architects), but from 
1671 to 1793, as stated by Larousse, there 
existed in France such an academy. It was 
confirmed by royal letters in 1717 and seems 
to have been so far independent and fearless 
that, in 1767, it was dissolved for protesting 
against an appointment. It was reconstituted 
almost immediately, and then consisted of 
twenty-three architects, sixteen honorary mem- 
bers or associates, and twelve foreign or cor- 
responding members. 

BL. A school intended to prepare young men 
for the profession of architecture. (See Archi- 
tect, The, in England, — France, —Italy.) 

The Academy of France, at Rome, founded 
under Louis XIV. and still maintained by the 
government, partakes of the characteristics of 
both A. and B. It occupies the well-known 
Villa Medici. Its chief mission is the training 
of the winners of the Great Prize of Rome in 
painting, sculpture, architecture, engraving, and 
music. — R. 8. 

ACANTHUS. A. A plant growing freely 
in the lands of the Mediterranean, having large 
leaves, deeply 
cleft ; thesharp 
pointed leaves 
of some species 
strongly re- 
sembling those 
of the familiar 
field and road- 
side _ thistles, 
Carduus (or 
Cnicus, Gray) 
Lanceolatus, Virginianus, and others. The two 
species commonly described and figured, Acan- 
thus mollis and A. spinosus, are very different 
in the character of the leaves. 

8 


ACANTHUS. 
As modified in Roman work. 


ACCADIAN ARCHITECTURE 


B. In Greek, Greco-Roman, Byzantine, Ro- 
manesque, and neoclassic architecture, a kind of 
| decorative leaf- 

age, assumed to 
be studied, or to 
have been stud- 
ied _ originally 
from the plant, 
A, A statement 
in Vitruvius 
(IV. Ch. I.) as 
to the origin of 
the Corinthian 
capital gave rise 
" to the common 
belief as to this 
origin. Other 
leaves, as those 
of parsley, cel- 
ery, ranunculus, 
and many root 
leaves of herba- 
ceous plants, 
seem equally 
well fitted to 
have been the 
origin of one or 
another variety 
of this common motive of ornament; but it is 
customary to speak of the leafage of the Co- 
rinthian capital and its variants, of that in S. 


ACANTHUS, NATURAL. 
From drawing by John Ruskin. 


oe 


gion 2 
ee ( Y 


ACANTHUS, NATURAL. 
From drawing by John Ruskin. 


Sophia and the Syrian Greek churches, of the 
similar loafage of twelfth-century work in France, 
and of the modern imitations of these types, as 
acanthus leaves. — R. S. 

ACCADIAN ARCHITECTURE. The ar- 
chitecture of the Accads, a people inhabiting 
the country east of Syria in primitive times. 
(See Mesopotamia, Architecture of.) 

ACCIDENTS, RESPONSIBILITY FOR. 
(See Liability.) 

ACCOLADE. An ornamental treatment of 
the archivolt or hood moulding of an arch or of 
the mouldings of an apparent arch, or of a form 
resembling an arch, as in late Gothic work; 

9 


ACCOUPLEMENT 


consisting of a reverse curve tangent on either 
side to the curves of the arch, or its mouldings, 
and rising to a finial or other ornament above. 
(See Arch ; Gothic Architecture.) 
ACCOUPLEMENT. The placing of two 
columns or pilasters very close together. This. 
device is common in neoclassic church fronts, 
and the like, and is most effective when several 


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ACCOLADE. 


A three-centred arch with reversed curve and finial, 
work, 15th century. 


French 


pairs of columns form together a colonnade, as 
in the celebrated example of the east front of 
the Louvre. It was almost unknown to Greek 
or Greco-Roman builders, so far as modern re- 
search enables us to say. In the revived classic 
styles it is considered essential that the capitals 
should not coalesce ; but in medizval work it 
10 


ACHIEVEMENT 


is common for them to form one block. The 
placing of a column closely in front of an anta 
or a pilaster is not considered accouplement. 


= 


na TITEIT in 


ACOUSTICS 


with its accompanying crest, motto or mottoes, 
and supporters, if any. (See Arms.) Also 
spelled atchievement. 4 
ACOUSTICS. The physical science _ 
of sound, of its production, propagation, 
= and effects, including the mechanics of 
=== audition. The term is often used in 
architectural writing to indicate that 
quality, or combination of qualities, of — 
a hall that determines its value as an 
auditorium. 

Sound is a longitudinal wave motion, 
communicated to the air or other sur- 
rounding media by a vibrating body, 

= resulting in alternate condensations and 
# rarefactions, which are generally pro- 
3 gressive in space, but may be station- - 
ary. The combined condensation and 
rarefaction constitute a sound wave, and 


ALIRY 


their combined thickness is called a 
p wave length. The pitch of the sound 
is determined by the number of vibra- 
tions per second, the pitch rising as the 
frequency of vibration increases. In 
general, however, a sound is not a single 
pure note. When the complex sound 
comes from a single vibrating body the 
pitch of the predominant note is taken 
as that of the sound, and the other notes 
: accompanying it are regarded as giving 
: it a certain character, technically called 

quality. The loudness of the sound at 


any point, due to either progressive or 


stationary waves, depends upon the 


alteration of atmospheric pressure as 


rarefaction and condensation succeed 


each other. The velocity of propaga- 
tion of sound is very nearly independent 
of the pitch, and at the ordinary tem- 


perature is about 1125 feet per second. 


Reflection and Refraction. When 


a sound wave meets a surface separat- i 
ing the medium in which it is being a 
propagated from another in which the q 
velocity is different because the medium 
is different in either its elasticity or its — ; 


density, the wave is divided into two 
parts, one of which is reflected and re- 
turned into the original medium, the | 
other is refracted, entering the second ‘ 
medium with a more or less altered : 
direction. The angles between the nor- “Gg 
mal to the surface and the directions 

of propagation of the incident, the re- 


ACCOUPLEMENT OF ENGAGED CoLuMNS; HOTEL D’ASSEZAT, 
TOULOUSE, FRANCE. 


(See Coupled Columns, under Column ; Gemi- 
nate; Grouped.) (Cut, cols. 13, 14.) —R. 8. 
ACHIEVEMENT. In heraldry, a complete 


display of armorial bearings ; as, the escutcheon 


11 


flected, and the refracted waves are 
called the angles of incidence, reflec- 
tion, and refraction respectively. The 
angle of reflection is equal to the angle 
of incidence. The sine of the angle of incidence 
divided by the sine of the angle of refraction is 
a constant, independent of the angle of incidence, 
and of the pitch of the sound. -All these angles 
12 


~ ACOUSTICS 


coincide in plane. These laws are similar to 
_ those for the reflection and refraction of light, 


and, as in the case of light, are applicable only 
when the reflecting surface is large and the 
minor irregularities of surface small in compari- 
son with the wave length. The proportion of 
sound which is reflected is greater, and that 
which is refracted is therefore less, the greater 
the difference in elasticity or density between 
the two media, and the greater the angle of 
incidence. 

Interference and Stationary Waves. The 
first recorded and studied observation of the 
phenomenon of interference was toward the end 


of the seventeenth century at Batcha in the 


ACOUSTICS 


phenomenon, known as interference, may be 
found in the case of sound reflected normally 
from a wall. At a distance of one quarter of a 
wave length from the wall the reflected sound 
meets the oncoming sound, after having 
traversed a path one half a wave length greater 
than that of the sound that it is meeting. The 
two therefore neutralize each other, and ap- 
proximate silence results. At a distance of 
one half wave length from the wall the path 
difference is a whole wave length, and there is 
mutual reénforcement of the direct and the 
reflected sounds. These phenomena alternately 


repeat themselves at increasing distances from 
the wall. 


Thus at distances from the wall 


Ga. Amo 

SITTER ae OTH? | 

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Nia ies seh WU 


i 


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—ae | 
Eee | 


ie 
nk 
Cory 
1! 

THK 


— =) 
Sr =. i 


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=< 


ACCOUPLEMENT OF PILASTERS; CHURCH OF S. GIORGIO MAGGIORE, VENICE. 


Chinese Sea, where the tidal wave coming round 
the southern end of the Philippine Islands, 
arrives six hours behind the wave that comes 
round the northern end. Thus, high tide by 
one coincides with low tide by the other, and the 
two waves continually neutralize each other. 
Had the one portion been delayed twelve hours 
instead of six, the tides at Batcha would have 
been twice as high as if coming from either 
channel alone. Similarly in acoustics, if a sound 
arrives at a point by two paths, one a half wave 
length longer than the other, the two portions 
tend to neutralize each other ; if on the other hand 
one path is a whole wave length longer than the 
other, the two parts strengthen each other. An 


architecturally important illustration of this 


13 


equal to even multiples of one quarter wave 
length, there are surfaces parallel to the wall 
over which the sound of that particular note is 
intense. At intermediate distances, odd mul- 
tiples of one quarter wave length from the wall, 
there are parallel surfaces over which there is 
approximate silence. At the first system of 
surfaces the air remains at rest, but changes in 
density. At the second system of surfaces the 
air moves rapidly to and fro but without 
changing in density. Such vibrations are known 
as stationary waves. 

Diffraction. When sound passes an obstacle 
the waves spread into the region that would 
otherwise be in shadow; and when for any 
reason the intensity of the sound on any portion 

14 


ACOUSTICS 


of the wave front is diminished, there is a read- 
justment tending ultimately to approximate 
equalization. This process, called diffraction, is 
greater for low than for high notes. . 

Resonance. The term “resonance” has been 
much misused in architectural acoustics, and 
applied to a phenomenon that might better be 
called echo, or reverberation, or, with far more 
precision and significance, residual sound. On 
the other hand there is a very striking 
phenomenon often manifested in auditoriums, for 
which the term “‘ resonance” should be reserved 
in accordance with its strict scientific significance. 
Whenever a body in stable equilibrium is 
displaced slightly, it oscillates to and fro in 
coming to rest, unless the frictional resistance is 
excessive. If the force of restitution is pro- 
portional to the displacement, the time of 
oscillation is the same, whether swinging through 
a large or a small arc. This isochronism was 
seized on by Galileo in his invention of the 
ordinary clock pendulum ; it is also illustrated 
in the balance wheel of a watch. If, toa body 
capable of isochronous vibration, a displacing 
force is applied periodically, the amount of 
motion that it produces is comparatively slight, 
unless the frequency of application of the force 
and the natural rate of vibration of the body 
coincide. As this condition is approached the 
amount of motion becomes very much greater ; 
and the phenomenon, when the periodicity of 
the force coincides with the natural rate of 
vibration of the body, whether it has to do with 
sound or not, is known as resonance. This may 
manifest itself in an auditorium, especially a 
small empty auditorium, either by the air acting 
as the elastic body and the notes in resonance 
with it swelling into excessive loudness, or. in 
the response of some portion of the wall or floor 
or contained furniture. 

Absorption. Sound, being energy, when once 
produced in a confined space will continue until 
either it is transmitted through the boundary 
walls, or is transformed into energy of another 
type, for example, heat. For the purpose of the 
present problem the decay of sound arising from 
either of these causes will be called absorption. 
If the boundary wall is the surface separating the 
confined space from an indefinitely extended 
medium, as when sound is produced in air above 
the surface of waiter, or in a cave in solid rock, 
the transmission is by the ordinary process of 
refraction. Should the walls be thin, however, 
the process of transmission is entirely different, 
and the problem becomes that of determining 
how a more or less elastic, heavy, and extended 
diaphragm follows the vibratory pressure of the 
air and transmits its motion to the medium 
beyond. In the wall itself, due to the frictional 
resistance or viscosity of its motion, there will 
be an absorption of sound by transformation into 
heat. It is further immediately evident that 

15 


ACOUSTICS 


the loss of sound at the wall, both by trans- 
mission and by transformation into heat, is 
greater for those notes with which the wall, 
regarded as an elastic membrane, is in resonance. 
There is also absorption of sound by the objects 
in the room, furniture, and audience, and in this 
case, obviously, by transformation into heat. 
Finally, there is a very slight absorption of the 
sound by the viscosity of the air itself. 

Architectural Acoustics. The open air audi- 
torium will furnish a good introduction to the — 
enclosed hall. 

Open Air Auditorium. For the sake of the 
greatest initial simplicity the sound may be 
considered as produced on a level with the 
ground, in still air, the ground bare, and the 
sound uninterrupted. If the source of sound be 
equally efficient in all directions the sound will 
spread in hemispherical waves, and will have an 
intensity inversely proportional to the area, that 
is to say, inversely proportional to the square of 
the distance from the source. If the ground, 
instead of being bare, be occupied by a closely 
seated audience, the sound will be rapidly 
absorbed by the garments, and the distant part 
of the audience will receive sound only by dif- 
fraction from higher portions of the waves. If 
the audience, instead of being on a plane, be on 
more and more rapidly rising ground, the upper 
portions of the sound wave will be received 
directly, although still diminished in intensity 
by diffraction into the audience below. The 
best that can be hoped for by such construction 
is that the sound shall diminish no more rapidly 
than according to the law of the inverse square 
of the distance. On the other hand, a wall 
behind the speaker or behind the audience, or 
even should the barrier be only trees, and 
especially should it be over-arching trees, would - 
greatly improve the loudness by reflecting the 
sound that would otherwise be lost. The limit- 
ing case is reached when walls and a ceiling 
transform the auditorium into an enclosed hall, 
and almost all the sound may be made by re- 
flection ultimately to reach the audience. It is 
obvious, therefore, that in the absence of reflection 
a greater elevation of the speaker or a more 
curved slope to the seats is desirable in an open 
air auditorium than in an enclosed hall. 

Enclosed Auditorium. It is evident that 
the acoustical advantages of an enclosed audi- 
torium is two-fold-increased loudness, and the 
exclusion of external disturbing noises. The 
increased loudness is obtained through the 
reinforcement of the sound coming directly by 
the sound that has been reflected from the walls 
or ceiling. Obviously, in order to reénforce it 
the reflected sound must arrive before the direct 
sound has ceased. With prolonged notes this 
admits of considerable difference in the length 
of the paths, but with rapidly moving music, or 
in speech where the articulated elements are 

16 


ACOUSTICS 


changing rapidly, the difference in paths must 
be small. For a sound whose duration at the 
source is only one tenth of a second, a dif- 
ference of path of one hundred feet would be 
sufficient to prevent reénforcement. Since the 
audience near the front would receive sufficient 
sound, the walls and ceiling should be so inclined 
as to direct the reflected sound upon the audi- 
ence at the back of the hall. The back walls 
and more distant side walls, being useful only to 
the part of the audience near them and worse 
than useless, with rapidly succeeding sounds, to 
the front part of the audience, may be occupied 
to advantage by galleries, which, when cushioned, 
are good absorbents of sound, and therefore poor 
reflectors. If this style of construction be not 
allowed by the other architectural requirements, 
and the walls must be high and plain, then 
their upper portions may be constructed, ad- 
vantageously, of more or less good absorbents. 
A room having a low ceiling would thus appear 
to be the proper construction, but this would be 
an unjustifiable conclusion if applied generally. 
If the room is designed for the use of a few 
persons, widely scattered, as for example a 
council chamber, a low ceiling is desirable 
acoustically, however much it may be undesirable 
architecturally. On the other hand, if the 
audience is to be very large and closely seated, a 
long, or a long and broad room, with low ceiling, 
will be a distinct disadvantage, for the sound 
confined by the low ceiling will be rapidly 
absorbed by the near part of the audience, and 
will reach but faintly the distant part. The 
advocates of this style of construction have 
likened it to a speaking trumpet and an ear 
trumpet combined. 
but it should be borne in mind, that while a 
_ trumpet with hard metallic walls is an aid to 
hearing and to distant propulsion of the voice, a 
trumpet with walls in great part of highly 
absorbent material would be very much worse 
than useless. When the audience must be large, 
the theatre style of construction, in which by 
means of galleries the audience is brought as 
near as possible to the stage, has its obvious 
advantage. It also has the very considerable 
advantage that the sound that enters a gallery, 
having travelled through the space in front at a 
distance above the audience on the main floor, 
has lost but little in intensity by absorption. 
The front part of these galleries are, therefore, 
very much better acoustically than the main 
floor immediately below them. Beneath a low 
and deep gallery, and in the gallery, if the ceiling 
above it is not high, occurs the same difficulty 
as in a low, crowded room — the sound is rapidly 
absorbed at the front and reaches but faintly 
the rear. 

An arrangement of seats has been proposed 
in which the exposure of the succeeding rows as 
viewed from the stage is the same; and to the 

17 


The analogy is a good one; . 


ACOUSTICS 


resulting floor curve has been given the name 
‘‘isacoustic curve.” As affording equal oppor- 
tunities for viewing the stage this arrangement 
is perhaps justifiable, but as an isacoustic curve, 
that is, a curve for equal hearing, it is based on 
considerations so inadequate as not to take into 
account reflection, diffraction, and that most 
obvious factor, diminution of sound with distance. 
It is safe to say that an even approximately 
isacoustic curve is impossible. 

The superposition of the direct and the re- 
flected sound does not always result in increased 
loudness, but may result in a diminution in in- 
tensity, or indeed in complete silence — the 
phenomenon being known as interference. As 
above explained, where the interference is be- 
tween sound approaching a wall normally and the 
reflected sound, the maxima and the minima of 
intensity in the interference system are over 
surfaces parallel to the wall. One maximum 
is at the surface of the wall, the first minimum 
is at a quarter wave length distance, and the 
maxima and minima succeed each other at 
quarter wave length intervals. In this con- 
nection it is interesting to note the wave length 
of some standard sounds. In air at ordinary 
temperature the wave length of middle C is 
about four feet, of tenor C eight feet ; the wave 
length of the lowest audible note is about forty- 
four feet, that of the highest for the normal ear 
is about two-thirds of an inch; the wave length 
of the highest note employed in orchestral 
music, that by the piccolo, is about three inches. 
Should the wall be a perfect reflector — and an 
ordinary wall is a very good reflector — the near 
minima would give silence, and the maxima 
would be four times as intense as the sound 
without reflection. When the sound is not in- 
cident normally on the wall the distance be- 
tween maxima and minima is greater than a 
quarter wave length; and when there are other 
reflecting surfaces the maxima and minima are 
not over plane surfaces, but are at points, the 
minima no longer being necessarily silence, and 
the whole system is very complicated. The in- 
terference system changes with change in pitch, 
the maxima and minima changing in position. 
The distortion that this is theoretically capable 
of producing in a chord or other complex sound, 
by altering the relative intensity of the com- 
ponents, is evident. The difficulty, under ordi- 
nary circumstances, of detecting it as a factor 
in the acoustics of a hall arises in part from 
the fact that no notes employed in music or in 
speaking are pure notes, also in part from the 
fact that the unaided ear is not an accurate 
judge of relative intensity. With a pure, loud, 
and sustained note, such as can be secured with 
the aid of resonators, an observer can easily 
locate, especially in a small empty room, regions 
in which the sound is loud, and regions in which 
it is faint. This phenomenon as a practical 

18 


Pees as ee | 


ACOUSTICS 
acoustical difficulty is somewhat, although by 


no means entirely, relieved by the fact that any 


obstacle in the room—the body and head of 
the auditor — alters the distribution of maxima 
and minima, with a tendency, in general, to 
bring the maxima against its surface. 
Intimately connected with the phenomenon 
of interference is resonance. If, at the centre 
of a narrow tube with closed ends, a sound be 
produced, whose half wave length is equal to the 
length of the tube, the natural rate of vibration 
of the confined air, regarded as an elastic body, 
agrees with the rate of vibration of the source 
of sound; the resulting motion at the centre 
of the tube is large, and the air at the ends of 
the tube remains at rest but changes greatly 
in density, the sound here being intense. A 
slight alteration of pitch would destroy this 
resonance. But if the pitch of the source of 
sound be raised until it is three times as high, 
that is to say, until, calling the above. note O, 
it is G in the second octave above, the note is 
again in resonance with the confined air column ; 
the latter now breaks into three parts, the air 
remaining at rest and changing in density at 
the ends and at points one third of the length 
of the tube from each end. The sound is loud 


at these four points, and the to and fro motion 


of the air is very great between them. Similarly 
the tube would reénforce a note five, seven, nine 
times as high in pitch as the note first defined. 
The points of rest and motion, called nodes and 
ventral segments, are due to interference. If 
the source of sound be placed in other positions 
the tube reénforces other notes, but all notes re- 
enforced are some even or odd multiple in pitch 
frequency of the fundamental note above de- 
scribed. If the problem be transferred from a 
narrow tube to a room, the fundamental note 
of resonance is much lower, and the higher 
tones are no longer necessarily harmonics of the 
fundamental. The accompanying interference 


system becomes more complicated ; nevertheless 


the phenomenon remains easily perceptible, un- 
less the room is large or contains much absorb- 
ing material. It may be detected by gliding 
the voice slowly through a large range of pitch ; 
as certain notes are reached the resonant reac- 
tion of the air on the vocal chords may be dis- 
tinctly felt, and there is a distinct increase in 
the loudness of these notes. Similarly there 
may be resonance between the source of sound 
and the walls of the room or the contained ob- 
jects, and reaction, possibly minute, of the latter 
on the former. In the case of wall resonance 
there is not, of course, the same connection 


with the interference system as when the air 


itself is in resonance. Nevertheless there is 
some alteration in the character of the inter- 
ference system, arising from the fact that in the 
case of a resonant object or wall the intensity 
of the reflected wave is less. 

19 


ACOUSTICS 


The practical value of this, the true resonance, a7 
whether it be a factor contributing to the good 


or the bad acoustical quality of an auditorium, 
has never been in any degree determined ex- 
perimentally, and it is far from evident, a 
priori, which way the balance stands. 


When in an enclosed auditorium a source of — 


sound is abruptly started, maintained at a con- 
stant pitch and uniform intensity for a while, 
and then abruptly stopped, the intensity of the 


sound at any point in the room varies as follows: — 


It rises abruptly to the value that it would 
have in open space ; as the waves reflected from 
the walls arrive, and as the interference system 
forms, the intensity of the sound at a point 
passes through maxima and minima, approach- 
ing a steady value. This generally is greater, 


but often is less, than the original value, and — 


depends on the place in the room and the wave 
length of the sound. It now remains constant 
as long as the source is constant —the rate of 
absorption of the sound by the walls, the furni- 
ture, and the audience being equal to the supply 
of energy by the source. When the source 
ceases this balance is destroyed, and the sound 
dies away, again passing through maxima and 
minima until no longer audible. The fluctua- 
tion of the sound at the beginning is distinct 
if the sound is a pure note, but is pronounced 
only when the room is comparatively empty. 
Practically, however, the auditor is but rarely 
consciously disturbed thereby. But the residual 
sound, continuing after the source has ceased 
until deadened to an inaudible intensity by the 
absorbing power of the room and its contents, 
fluctuating as it dies away, is not only distinctly 
audible in any auditorium, but is the most fre- 
quent and exasperating cause of bad acoustical 
quality. The effect of this is evident. The 
dragging of one sound into the succeeding, often 
into several succeeding sounds, is destructive 
of all distinctness of hearing. The audible 
duration of the residual sound varies from a 
fraction of a second to several seconds with an 
audience present ; without an audience present 
it rarely falls below two seconds in an audience 
hall of any considerable size, and more often 
amounts to four or five seconds, at times to 
even a greater number. Of course the audible 
duration of the residual sound depends upon 
the strength of the source. The above figures 
are given for a middle C diapason organ pipe, 
winded to the ordinary pressure. 

The extent to which residual sound is an evil 
depends upon the use to which the hall is to be 
applied. In speaking, the component sounds 
follow each other in rapid succession, a single syl- 
lable often comprising two or more consonantal 
alterations of the vowel sound, whose distinct 
audibility is necessary for accurate hearing. 
Under these circumstances residual sound is in 
every way an evil. On the other hand, singing 

20° 


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~ ACOUSTICS 


and piano music are heard to advantage under 
conditions in which the duration of the residual 
sound is considerable, provided also the condi- 
tions are such as not to produce distinct echoes. 
In the case of piano music the residual sound 
has the effect of diminishing its staccato charac- 
ter, and of sustaining its tone; the result is 
the increased fulness or roundness of tone that 
is sought when rugs and heavy hangings are 
removed from the room in preparation for a 
concert. Residual sound is favourable, perhaps, 
to stringed quartet and orchestral music; but it 
is difficult, as yet, to state exactly the require- 
ments of each case. 

The duration of audibility of the residual 
sound can be determined with great accuracy 
when appropriate recording apparatus is em- 
ployed, and when the experiment is carried on 
in the absence of outside disturbing noises. 
Thus there is furnished an accurate quantitative 
measure of at least one factor in the determina- 
tion of the acoustical quality of an auditorium, 
and it is a measure, fortunately, that can be 
calculated in advance of the actual construction. 
The duration of the residual sound is a func- 
tion of the volume of the room and the absorb- 
ing power of the walls and contained furniture 
and audience. If equal amounts of absorbing 
material be added successively to the room, and 
the duration of the residual sound determined 
in each case and plotted as ordinates (y) against 
the amount of absorbing material as abscissz (x) 
the resulting curve will be a rectangular hyper- 
bola with displaced origin. In the equation of 
the hyperbola (a + «)y= K the parameter K 
is a function of the volume of the room, over 
a considerable range very nearly equal to the 
volume multiplied by a constant, the ordinarily 
slight departure from this being due to idiosyn- 
crasies of form. The displacement (a) of the 
origin is proportional to the absorbing power of 
the room. ‘Therefore in order to predetermine 
the audible duration of residual sound from the 
architect’s plans and specifications, the value of 
K must be calculated from the volume of the 
room, and (a+ x) from an estimate of the ab- 
sorbing power of the materials used in construc- 
tion, the amount of surface exposed, and the 
size of the audience the room is designed to 
accommodate ; these two factors, A and (a + «) 
substituted in the above formula (a + «)y= K, 
will give a measure of the audible duration of 
residual sound, this being the most frequent 
and serious defect in the acoustical quality of a 
room. The above formula is equivalent to the 
statement that the duration of the residual 
sound is inversely proportional to the combined 
absorbing power of the walls, the audience, and 
the furniture, the constant of proportionality 
being itself proportional to the volume of the 
room. A table of the relative absorbing power 
of a few materials is appended : — 

21 


ACOUSTICS , 
Hair cushion on seats per sq. yd. 2.03 
Heavy Oriental rugs on floor pel Sar .56 
Chenille draped as a curtain Rea ee Dy ae aA, Be 
Cretonne cloth hanging flat = ‘ ‘ ¢ .O3 
Canvas 73 66 66 6G bk 66 ar 
Hair felting 4 inch thick against 
the wall ya ee 1.0 
Hair felting 1 inch thick against 
the wall SE A 1.6 
Hair felting 2 inches thick 
against the wall is eee 2.4 
Audience per person 1.3 
Individual man sitting clear 1.8 
‘6 woman ee es 2.2 


The above values are expressed in arbitrary 
units. However, the units are such that the 
corresponding value of the parameter K may be 
calculated by multiplying the volume of the 
room, expressed in cubic feet, by .0082. A 
room in actual use having proved at fault on 
account of residual sound, the duration of this 
(y) should be determined with the presence of 
an audience, either by calculation or by direct 
experiment; and the amount of absorbing ma- 
terial to be added (x2) should be calculated from 
the formule ay,=K and (a+a,)%=K, Ye 
being the duration desired. The absorbing 
material should then be placed either on or in 
front of those surfaces least efficient in increas- 
ing the loudness of the sound to the audience. 
It is scarcely necessary to add that the arrange- 
ment of adequate absorbing material can be 
much more satisfactorily made in the original 
design of a hall than as an alteration after con- 
struction. 

The heating and ventilating system of an 
auditorium is occasionally an important factor 
in its acoustics ; not as a possible opportunity 
for gain, but rather as a source from which 
danger may be expected. Whether the air 
in a room moves from the speaker toward 
the audience or from the audience toward 
the speaker makes but the slightest difference, 
perhaps equivalent in effect to moving an 
auditor at the back of the hall a few inches 
nearer or farther off. Having the air hotter at 
the ceiling than near the floor is equivalent to 
a very slight increase in the inclination of the 
floor. Both effects are easily calculated approxi- 
mately, in any particular case, but are in no 
conceivable case worth struggling for. On the 
other hand the possible danger arises in irregu- 
lar heating, from the fact that sound loses by 
reflection at every surface in the air at which 
there is a change of temperature ; and further, 
when a column of hot air rises from a large 
register in the floor it acts like a diverging 
lens, spreading the sound passing through it to 
the right and left, and thus partially screening 
the region immediately behind it. One of the 
earliest recorded cases of the latter effect occurred 
in the House of Parliament and was reported 
by the Committee of the House of Commons. 
Several more recent cases have been reported. 

22 


ACOUSTIC VASE 


An important object sought by the enclosure 
of an auditorium is the exclusion of external 
disturbing noises. This is most effectively 
accomplished by surrounding it with rooms 
or stores not devoted to noisy uses, or closed 
during the hours when the auditorium is likely 
to be in use. A parapet would protect the roof 
to some extent from the city noises —a fact of 
more importance when the ventilating ducts, 
either inlet or outlet, are short and terminate on 
the roof. ‘The acoustical insulation of adjacent 
rooms is secured by the construction of a double 
wall, having an intervening air gap, or the space 
filled with sand. The walls should not be tied 
together, or if that be necessary, the bolts 
should be insulated from the walls by means 
of inelastic washers. The greatest difficulty is 
in the avoidance of communication through the 
floor ; and this is generally the cause of the 
failures in attempts at insulation that are occa- 
sionally reported. 

The often repeated statement that a copy of 
a standard auditorium does not necessarily pos- 
sess its good acoustical qualities is not justified, 
and invests the subject with an unwarranted 
mysticism. The fact is that exact copies have 
rarely been made, and can hardly be expected. 
The improvements in the materials used in con- 
struction, the consequent alterations in form 
and surface, the advance in heating and venti- 
lating, and, in addition, the peculiar demands 
in each case, and the restrictions upon the 
dimensions enforced by the location, have led 
to the taking of liberties in what were regarded 
perhaps as non-essentials. While the problem 
is complex and, for the best results, extremely 
difficult, yet it is perfectly determinate, and the 
solution arrived at is the exact result of the 
architect’s plans and specifications, if these are 
accurately followed in the building. (See Echo ; 
Isacoustic Curve; Reflector; Residual Sound ; 
Resonance; Reverberation; Sound; Sounding 
Board ; Whispering Gallery.) — W. C. SABINE. 

ACOUSTIC VASE. Same as Echea. 

ACROLITH. A. A statue or figure in 
relief of which only the head, hands, and feet 
are of stone, the rest being of wood, or other 
material. 

B. By extension, such a figure of which the 
extremities are of finer material than the rest, 
as of marble applied to inferior stone. 

ACROPODIUM. A pedestal for a statue, 
especially when large and high and adorned 
with unusual richness. A terminal pedestal or 
gaine when resting upon representations of the 
human foot, or even of the feet of animals, is 
sometimes specially called acropodium ; but the 
term in this sense is inaccurate and has no 
classical warrant. 

ACROPOLIS. The fortified stronghold or 
citadel of a Greek city, usually a steep eminence 
near its centre, as at Athens, Corinth, or Tiryns. 

23 


ADAM 


The shrine of the patron divinity of the city or 
state was sometimes situated within or upon it, 
as at Athens. The Athenian Acropolis was, 
indeed, the artistic as well as the military centre 
of the city and state. Besides the magnificent 
propylea by which it was entered, it was 


adorned with temples and shrines of great. 


beauty, including the Parthenon, Erechtheion, 
and temple of Nike Apteros. The Acropolis of 
Corinth was called the Acrocorinthos. (Cut, 
cols. 25, 26.) — A. D. F. H. 

ACROTER. Same as Acroterium. 


ACROTERAL; ACROTERIAL. Pertain- 


ing to, or having the form of, an acroterium. 

ACROTERIUM. A. In classic architec- 
ture, properly, a pedestal for a statue or similar 
decorative feature at the apex, or at each of the 
lower corners of a pediment. None of ancient 
times remains in place; but in neoclassic work 
they are frequent. . 

B. By extension, from the preceding defini- 
tion, but improperly, a statue or other decorative 
feature supported on guch a pedestal. 

ADAM, architect. 

The name is painted on the vault of the 
southern aisle of the Cathedral of Poitiers 
(France), which was begun in 1162. Adam is 
supposed to have been one of the architects of 
that church. 

Bauchal, Dictionnaire ; Robuchon, Paysages et 
Monuments du Poitou. 

ADAM, FRANCOIS GASPARD; sculptor ; 
b. 1710, at Nancy ; d. 1759. 

Francois Gaspard was the youngest son of 
Jacob Sigisbert Adam. He was associated with 
his brothers Lambert Sigisbert and Nicolas 
Sébastien (see Adam, L. 8. and Adam, N. S.). 
In 1747 he was invited by Friedrich II. 
(Frederick the Great) to Prussia, and held the 
office of first sculptor of his court until his death. 

(For bibliography see Adam, L. S.) 

ADAM, JAMES; architect; d. Nov. 20, 
1794. 

James Adam was one of the four sons of 
William Adam (see Adam, William), and 
appears to have ranked next to Robert Adam in 
reputation. It is not possible now to separate 
the work of the brothers. His name appears 
with that of Robert in the title of their Works 
wn Architecture. (See Adam, Robert.) 

(For bibliography see Adam, Robert. ) 


ADAM, JOHN; architect. 


John was the eldest of the four sons of 
William Adam. 


(For bibliography see Adam, William and 


- Robert.) 
ADAM, LAMBERT SIGISBERT; sculp- 


tor; b. 1700, at Nancy; d. April, 1759. 

The oldest of the three sons of Jacob Sigisbert 
Adam, a sculptor of Nancy, France. He went 
to Paris in 1719 and in 1723 won the Grand 

24 


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THE ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS 


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ADAM 
Prix de Rome. In Rome he studied especially 
the work of Lorenzo Bernini (see Bernini). In 
1730 he took part in the competition for the 
fountain of Trevi in Rome (see Salvi, Nicolo). 
In 1733 he returned to Paris, and was joined 
by his two brothers Nicolas Sébastien and 
Francois Gaspard (see Adam, N. 8. and F. G.). 
The most important of their undertakings is the 
great fountain of Neptune in the park of the 
palace at Versailles. 

Thirion, Les Adam et Clodion; Gonse, Sculp- 
ture Frangaise. 

ADAM, NICOLAS SEBASTIEN; sculp- 
tor; b. 1705, at Nancy, France; d. 1778. 

He followed his older brother, Lambert 
Sigisbert Adam, to Paris in 1721, and to Rome 
in 1724, and he helped him in much of his 
work. One of his most characteristic perform- 
ances is the monument to Catherine Opalinska, 
queen of Stanislas I., King of Poland, in the 
Church of the Bon Secours at Nancy. 

(For bibliography see Adam, L. S.) 


ADAM, ROBERT; architect; b. 1727, at 
Kirkcaldy, Scotland ; d. March 3, 1792. 

Robert Adam was the second son of William 
Adam (see Adam, W.), and the most eminent 
of the four brothers Adam: John, Robert, 
James, and William. He was educated at 
Edinburgh University and visited Italy in 1754. 
He visited also Dalmatia, and published the 
Ruins of the Palace of the Emperor Dviocle- 
tian at Spalatro in Dalmatia (London, 1764, 
1 vol. folio with engravings by. Bartolozzi). In 
association with his brothers he began in 1768 
to build the Adelphi (London), a vast terrace 
constructed on arches which contain warehouses 
and support streets and houses. The brothers, 
especially Robert and James, seem to have 
originated the practice of grouping unimportant 
London houses into masses having the appear- 
ance of single imposing edifices. They were 
especially successful in designing the interior 
arrangement, decoration, and furniture of resi- 
dences. They commenced the publication of 
their works in 1773. The second volume was 
completed in 1778. A posthumous third vol- 
ume was added, and the whole published in 
1822 with the title, Works in Architecture of 
the late Robert and James Adam, Esqs., com- 
plete in three vols. with 125 plates engraved 
by Bartoloze, Prranesi, etc. Robert Adam 
was buried in Westminster Abbey. 

Redgrave, Dictionary of Artists; Fergusson, 
History of Modern Architecture ; Wheatley, The 
Adelphi and its Site. 

ADAM, WILLIAM (I.) ; architect ; d. June 
24, 1748. 

William was the father of the brothers, Robert 
and James Adam (see Adam, Robert and James). 
He designed a large number of residences in 
Scotland, the library and University of Glas- 

27 


firmary, the orphan’s hospital, Edinburgh, ete. 
William Adam held the office of King’s Mason 
at Edinburgh. 


ADAM, WILLIAM (II.); architect; d. 


January, 1822. 


One of the four sons of William (I.) Adan 
(see Adam, William, I.). He outlived his broth- 


ers and concluded their various undertakings. 
(For bibliography see Adam, Robert.) : 
ADEODATUS (Deodatus) (see Cosmati). 
ADMIRALTY, THE. 


administration: the building was completed 
about 1726, by Thomas Ripley (see Ripley). 
The screen on the Whitehall front is by Robert 


Adam (see Adam), about 1760; graceful, but — 


very small and slight. ; 

ADOBE. (Mexican-Spanish: adobe, from 
adobar, to plaster ; originally from the Arabic. 
In Spanish America this word meant an 
earthen building block not hardened by fire. 
In English it has grown to be a generic term 
covering a whole class of materials and struc- 
tures made from earths, more or less aluminous, 
without artificial heat.) 

(1) An aluminous earth; (2) unfired brick 
made from that earth without fire; (3) with 


the article, a single brick of this kind; (4) a — 


house built of these materials. 

ADOBE BRICK... Commonly “an adobe” ; 
one made of adobe earth and water, hardened 
without artificial heat. This kind of brick, 
made without straw, was used in America, 
especially in Mexico, long before the European 
advent, or even before the brilliant development 
of the Aztecs. The great Mound of Cholula is 
composed largely of adobe brick, and it is be- 
lieved to antedate the Aztecs. In New Mexico, 
a variety was found in use when the Spaniards 
first went there in 1540. It was in the shape 
of round balls, moulded in the hands, from a 
mixture of earth, charcoal, ashes, and water, 
and sun dried. This was probably the most 
primitive form of adobe brick. Adobe bricks 
were found of different dimensions in the same 
work ; twenty inches by ten by five was a 
common size in the Cholula Mound. They 
were laid in adobe mortar, and the joints were 
broken. Since the Conquest, straw has been 
mixed with the adobe. (See Cajon; Communal 
Dwelling; Adobe Masonry, under Masonry ; 
Pisé ; Pueblo House. — F. 8. D. 


ADOBE CLAY. Clay containing sufficient 


aluminous matter to form a bond in adobe con- 
struction or pottery. 


ADOBE CONCRETE. A mingled mass of — 


stone and adobe mortar. 
ADOBE EARTH. Same as Adobe Clay. 
ADOBE MORTAR. A soft mixture of 
adobe clay and water used as a mortar in the 
Southwestern United States and in Spanish 
28 


gow, the town hall of Dundee, the royal in ie 


At Whitehall in 
London ; the central office of the British naval  -—> 


| 


oe © 1 es ee ale gh +t oie 


ADOBE MUD 


America, especially in laying adobe brick. It 
was the only kind of mortar used in American- 
Indian architecture, north of Mexico. 

ADOBE MUD. Adobe and water mixture 
either in a general sense, or as meaning plaster 
or mortar so made. 

ADOBE PLASTER. 
adobe and water. - 

ADOBE SOIL. Same as Adobe Clay. 

ADRIAN, LAURENTIUS ; sculptor. 

In 1531 Laurentius Adrian carved the wooden 
Reinhold statue in the Artushof at Danzig 
(Prussia). The Artushof, called also Junker- 
hof, has one of the finest Gothic interiors in 
Germany. 

Liibke, Geschichte der Renaissance in Deutsch- 
land ; Schultz, Danzig und seine Bauwerke. 

ADYTON; ADYTUM. In Greek archi- 
tecture the most sacred part of a temple or 
sacred enclosure. 

Z2DES. In Roman architecture, any build- 
ing. A distinction was maintained between 
templum, a regularly consecrated structure, or 
enclosure, and @des sacra, which was a build- 
ing set apart for pious purposes but not regularly 
consecrated. In modern inscriptions the term 
is applied to any public building and is accepted 


Plaster made of 


as the equivalent of the English word. 


_ZEDICULA. In Roman architecture, a 
small building; by extension, a shrine set up 
within a large edifice. Such a shrine may be 
a mere box or enclosure of wood, or, perhaps, 
only a screen with pedestal and statue in front 
of it. 

JEDILE (Latin #dilis). A Roman city 
officer, having special charge of public build- 
ings and streets, and of municipal affairs gen- 
erally. 

AMDILITY. The government or the care 
of a city considered with reference to the 
public buildings, streets, squares, water supply, 
and other similar functions and duties. 

ZaRUGO. The composition formed upon 
ancient bronzes by exposure; usually being 
carbonate of copper, but differing in composition 
according to the nature of the metal or the soil 
in which it may have been buried. (See 
Patina. ) 

ZBSYMNIUM. A building erected by or 
in honour of a person named Aisymnios ; espe- 
cially a tomb in Megara named by Pausanias, I., 
43, 3. 

AGELAIDAS; sculptor. 
465 B.C. 

Agelaidas was the chief of the school of Greek 
sculptors associated with the city of Argos. 
He was the teacher of the three greatest sculptors 
of the succeeding generation, Myron, Phidias, 
and Polyclitos. (See Myron; Phidias; Polycli- 
tos.) 

Collignon, Sculpture Grecque; Lowy, In- 
schriften Griechischer Bildhauer. x 

29 


Flourished 520— 


AGRAFE 


AGGER. In Roman building, a large mound 
or rampart, as of earth. It is applied to the 
great mound which backs the early wall of 
Rome, the agger of Servius Tullius, and some- 
times to that wall itself, because consisting 
mainly of an embankment merely faced with 
dressed stone. 

AGGREGATE. Any hard material used in 
small fragments to mix with mortar for forming 
concrete. 

AGIASTERIUM. In the early church, a 
sanctuary ; especially, that part of a basilica in 
which the altar was set up. | 

A GIORNO. Sameas A Jour; the Italian 
form of the phrase. 

AGNELLI, FRA GUGLIELINO; sculptor 
and architect. 

The oldest of the pupils of Niccold da Pisa. 
(See Niccolo da Pisa.) He was employed on 
the *‘ Arca di San Domenico” in Bologna begun 
by Niccold da Pisa. His pulpit in the Church 
of 8. Giovanni fuorcivitas at Pistoia dates 
from about 1270. According to Fumi (op. cit. 
p. 170) Agnelli was one of the architects em- 
ployed on the Cathedral of Orvieto at its com- 
mencement in 1293. 

Reymond, Sculpture Florentine ; Fumi, Duomo 
d@ Orvieto ; Marchese, Memorie. 

AGNOLO GADDI. (See Gaddi, Agnolo.) 

AGNUS DEI. A representation in painting 
or sculpture of the lamb as typical of Christ. 

AGORA. In Grecian archeology, the 
market place or open square in a town, nearly 
corresponding to the Italian Forum. Covered 
porticoes (see Stoa) were built along the sides 
of the square, in some cases. But little that is 
certain has been ascertained concerning the 
arrangement of any agora of classical Greece. 

AGOSTINO D’ANTONIO DI DUCCIO; 
sculptor and architect ; b. about 1418; d. after 
1490. 

His earliest known works are four reliefs on 
the facade of the Cathedral of Modena signed 
Aevstinvs. De. Frorentia. F 144. ; 
He is supposed (Yriarte, op. cit.) to have spent 
the period between 1446 and 1457 at Rimini, em- 
ployed upon the sculpture of the Church of S. 
Francesco under the direction of Matteo de’ Pasti. 
(See Pasti, Matteo de’.) About 1457 he began 
his most important work, the facade of the ora- 
tory of San Bernardino at Perugia, signed Opvs. 
AV@VSTINI. FLORENTIZ. LAPICID#. MCCCCLXI. 

Yriarte, Agostino di Duccio; Yriarte, Rimini; 
Miintz, Renaissance. 

AGRAFE. A. A cramp or hook used in build- 
ing ; a term used in different senses, but rare. 

B. The sculpture in relief put upon the key- 
stone of an arch in ancient Roman and in neo- 
classic work. Thus, the archivolt of the Arch 
of Titus (which see) is enriched by an elaborate 
scroll ornament, upon which is placed a figure 
almost completely detached from the background. 

30 


AGUGLIA 


AGUGLIA. Same as Guglia. 

AGUSTI, MAESE JUAN; architect. 

Agusti directed the construction of the 
Cathedral of Gerona, Spain, from June 6, 1471, 
to July 21, 1479. 

Vifianza, Adiciones al Diccionario Historico. 

AILERON. A half gable, such as closes the 
end of a pent house roof, or of the aisle of a 
church. ‘The term signifies, of course, one of 
two wings. In _ neoclassic architecture an 
attempt is frequently made to disguise the 
actual structure, the sloping roof of the aisle ; 
and the aileron takes a nearly independent place 
as a wing wall shaped like a scroll, as in SB. 
Maria Novella, at Florence ; or commonly, like 
a quarter circle cr similar curve, as in S. 
Zacharia, Venice. 

AIR CHAMBER. A chamber formed by 
enlargement or vertical extension of pipes, in- 
tended to contain air to form a cushion, as on 
the supply pipes to plumbing fixtures, at suction 
and discharge ends of pumps, etc. (See Plumb- 
ing; Ventilation; Warming.) — W. P. G. 

AIR DRAIN. A. A flue arranged to pro- 
vide a supply of air to a fireplace, or the like. 
(See Air Duct.) 

B. Same as Dry Area (which see under 
Area). 

AIR DUCT. A pipe or boxlike construction, 
generally of sheet metal or wood, to convey 
fresh air to a room, air to the air chamber of a 
furnace, hot air from a furnace, or the like. 
This term is more often used for the temporary 
or slight construction, as distinguished from 
air drain, which is of masonry: but the dis- 
tinction cannot be maintained in all cases. 

AIR LOCK. A chamber of access to a 
pneumatic caisson, tunnel heading, or other en- 
closure containing compressed air, serving a 
purpose like that of a lock on a canal. It is 
usually a cylinder built into the roof or wall of 
the air chamber. It has an air-tight door at 
each end, opening toward the compressed air, 
and is supplied with air cocks. In operation, 
the outer door being open to the atmosphere, 
the man enters the lock ; the door is closed ; he 
opens the air cock connected with the com- 
pressed air, which flows in until the pressure in 
the air lock becomes the same as that in the 
caisson or the other chamber; he then opens 
the inner door and passes out of the lock into 
the chamber. He leaves the chamber by enter- 
ing the lock and closing the door between; he 
then opens the air cocks communicating with 
the outer air. The compressed air escapes, and 
the pressure is reduced to that of the outer air 
so that he can open the outer door. Materials 
of construction and excavated material are simi- 
larly introduced and removed through similar 
air locks.—W. R. Hurron. 

AIR PIPE. In plumbing, a pipe by which 
a waste pipe or trap is extended to the outer 

31 


AISLE 


air, generally above the roof. (See Back Vent- 
ing ; Vent Pipe.) — W. P. G. 

AIR SHAFT. A space reserved for the 
free passage of air, vertically or nearly so; 
whether small, like an air drain, air duct, or air 


flue, or forming a small courtyard among high | 


buildings. 
AIR SPACE. A. Thespace available for 
the air needed for respiration, as in a sick room 


or hospital. Thus it is alleged that the air- — | 


space of a room is of no avail above 12 feet 


from the floor ; it is said that the air space per 


man in a barrack room is so many cubic feet. 


B. A clear space left between parts of a 


wall or roof, and intended to exclude dampness ; 
especially between two walls tied together and 
forming the external wall of a building. Where 
this precaution is used furring is not needed. 
It is good to put the heavier part of the wall 
within, so as to carry the beams the more easily ; 


thus, in a dwelling house, an 8-inch wall of 


brick on the inner face, a 2-inch air space, and a 
4-inch wall without, the two walls being well 
tied together, will give sufficient strength. In 
a fireproof bank building, a 20-inch wall has 
been used to carry the beams, there is a 2-inch 
air space and an outer 8-inch wall made up 
partly of brick and partly of stone carefully 
dressed at the back, so as not to invade the air 
space. — R. 8. 

AIR TRAP. Same as Stench Trap. 

AIR TRUNK. A pipe for ventilation or 
for the admission of air to a furnace ; commonly 
of rectangular section ; of wood or sheet metal, 
and not built into a wall or floor but secured in 
its place by hangers or brackets: the same as 
air duct, but always of considerable size. 

AIR WOOD. Wood seasoned by long ex- 
posure to the open air, as distinguished from 
wood that has been dried by artificial heat. 

AISLE. A. In a building whose interior is 
divided into parts by rows of columns or piers, 
one of the side divisions, usually lower and 
smaller than the middle division. In ancient 
Roman basilicas, Christian basilicas, and the 
greater number of churches of all epochs, the 
aisles are straight and parallel, adjoining the 
nave, the choir, and the higher and chief part 
of the transept, or such of these divisions as 
may exist ; where, however, the termination of 
east end, west end, or transept is finished in 
a rounded apse, the aisle may be continued 
around the curve (see Deambulatory). In 
round churches the aisle is concentric with the 
nave, and surrounds it. 

In a few large churches there are two aisles 
on each side of the nave; in a very few, as in 


the Cathedral of Antwerp, there are three on 


each side. In many cruciform churches the 

aisle stops at the transept ; in others it returns 

along one side only, usually the east side, of the 

transept: in very large churches it sometimes 
32 


AISLE 


returns on each side, so that a cross section 
through the transept resembles a similar section 
across the nave. 

In most churches, from the fifth century 
A.D. to the present time, the roofs of the aisles 
are lower than the nave roof, etc., so as to 
allow the direct admission of light through 
windows pierced in the higher walls above (see 
Clerestory); but in Romanesque churches of 
central France and on the Rhine the aisles 
are but little lower than the vaulted nave, 
etc., from lack of skill on the part of the 
builders, who needed the resistance of the 
aisle roofs to the higher vaults; and there 
is a small class of later churches in which 
nave and aisles are nearly of the same height. 
Churches of this 
class are called 
Hallenkirchen 
in Germany, 
that is, churches 
resembling 
halls. Such are 
the Cathedral 
(S. Stephen) at 
Vienna in Aus- 
tria, that of 
Carcassonne in 
- southern France, - 
that of Erfurt 
on the Rhine, 
and the Church 
of 8S. Sebaldus 
in Nuremberg, 
Bavaria. The 
nave vault may 
be crowned up 
a little higher 
than the aisle 
vault ; but there 
is no clerestory 
wall with win- 
dows. 

The aisle is 
usually only one 


Tea 


. . > s 1 Sais cy 
= = i a Wack ta ine hese 
ae Pa AD y a 6 
Se ————— 


AISLE 


aisles on each side is said to be five-aisled. 
This use of the term is to be contrasted with 
the French use of nef for any longitudinal divi- 
sion. 

C. By extension, and, perhaps, by confusion 
with Alley (which see), a walk or passage in a 
church, or any hall arranged for an audience, 
giving access to the seats. In this sense wholly 
popular and modern. — R. S. 


‘’ 
ey a 


¥\ Vive 


Das) Urs 
Se Beet 
= 


2 F 
Sms 


7 


FU ED fe ES He } 


2 eS ASE 
J 


nas 


Eda y 
ss 


= 


Phe 


SSS" 
PME ee ONC 
SSE Es S 

U i ? et 


mes) PALA \ ) Ss vy \ ARR yph 


Pe 


i 


= 


————S 
=] = Sada 


A 
J 
2 


=| 


Wwe 
iit 


: 


chit cnc 


< ba 
rer eis 
co 
FAR CRT OSH 
=F |= 
F = i 
: . 
7 


\=E 


SSS 


=| 
at / 


=a 


t 


Ee oe 


—S— 
Ta ei woe tee 


== 


story in height ; 
but in a few 


\a=Se" 


Romanesque 
churches, such 
as the Cathedral 
of Tournai in 
Belgium, and in 
one or two later ones, such as the Cathedral 
Notre Dame of Paris, there is an upper story, 
usually called a gallery, and probably used in the 
Middle Ages as a place of safe keeping for the 
property of persons going on a pilgrimage or a 
crusade. 

B. By extension, any one of the longitudi- 
nal divisions of an oblong basilica or church ; 
thus, the nave or the higher part of the choir is 
called the middle aisle, and a church with two 

33 


AISLE: SOUTH AISLE OF PETERBOROUGH CATHEDRAL. 


Choir Aisle. One of the aisles which flank 
the choir, as distinguished from the nave ; or, 
in the case of a rounded east end, the whole 
aisle next the choir taken together, including 
the deambulatory. 

Nave Aisle. One of the aisles which flank 
the nave of a church, as distinguished from 
choir and transept. 

Transept Aisle. The aisle of a transept, cor- 
responding to that of the main body of the church. 

34 


1/2 * wt ea ee ee ee ee oe ae epee ae <p i eee ees 


oh 


AISLED 


AISLED. Furnished with aisles; most 
common in combination, forming a term dis- 
tinguishing the number of aisles, as the 
Cathedral of Antwerp is seven-aisled. In these 
cases, the nave is considered as one of the aisles, 


NI Wael << IZ 


AISLED: A FIVE-AISLED CHURCH; CHURCH oF S. Mary, 


MULHAUSEN, PRUSSIA, GERMANY. 


and the term expresses the number of separate par- 
allel divisions of the structure. (Cut, col. 38.) 
AIWAN. A reception hall, as in ancient 


Parthian buildings. (See Parthian  Archi- 
tecture. ) 
AJARCARA. In Spanish architecture, 


ornamental relief in brickwork. 

A JOUR. In French, pierced through, so 
that light shines through from side to side ; said 
of carving when the background is pierced at 
intervals, or cut entirely away, so that the scroll 
or other ornament remains detached. In orna- 

35 


ALARM 


when the background is transparent, as when 
enamels or glass are fitted in to form it. 
AKKADIAN. Same as Accadian. 
ALA. In Roman architecture, a small room 
on either side of a larger one, or of a court. 


In many Roman houses it takes rather the — 


form of a recess or alcove. 


(See House.) 


ALABASTER. 4. A variety of gyp- — 


sum; a sulphate of lime more or less 
translucent and of a prevailing white col- 


our, though often clouded and veined with — 


brownish red and other tints. It is soft 
enough to be readily cut with a knife. A 


variety brought from Derbyshire in the 


south of England is used for altar rails in 
churches and similar decorative adjuncts 
to buildings, but its softness prevents its 
being durable. The Italian variety, which, 
as exported, is more nearly white, is used 


like, which are called “Florentine Mar- 
bles.” 

B. A variety of calcite known as the 
calcareous or Oriental alabaster, and sup- 
posed to be the Alabastrites of the ancient 
writers. This material, which is much 
harder than that in sense A, was very 
largely used in the works of the Romans 
of antiquity, and quarries in Egypt have 
been drawn upon in modern times for 
buildings in Cairo, and even in Europe. 
The quarries now known, however, would 
not furnish such large and perfect pieces 
of hard alabaster as have been found in 
the ruins of Rome, or as those which 
stand in the Church of 8. Marco in Venice. 

ALABASTRITES. In Roman arche- 
ology, a semiprecious stone, probably the 
Oriental or calcareous alabaster. 

A LA GRECQUE. Having to do with 
real or supposed Greek taste or Greek de- 
sign ; applied especially to the fret, mean- 
der, or key ornament. (See Meander.) 

ALAMEDA. In Spanish tongues, a 
promenade, or public garden. These are 
usually not very large nor of the nature 
of parks; they are rather alleys or ave- 
nues planted with trees and furnished with 


fountains, seats, etc.; little grass and a 


general covering of gravel, or the like. The 
formal gardens attached to some towns in the 
south of France, as Montpelier, should be com- 
pared with these. 

ALARM. Any appliance by means of which 
the attention of inmates may be called to the 
hour of the day or night, to fire, to the opening 
of doors or windows, or the like. (For fire 
alarms, which are generally electrical in their 
principle, see Thermostat under Electrical Ap- 
pliances. For Burglar Alarm see that term 
under Electrical Appliances. ) 

36 


mental art the term is sometimes employed a 


chiefly for small vases, statuettes, and the — 


_ described by the famous Alcuin, who 


ALASKA 
ALASKA, ARCHITECTURE OF. (See 


United States, Architecture of, Part I.; and 


Eskimo Architecture.) 

ALAVOINE, JEAN ANTOINE ; architect; 
b. 1778, at Paris; d. Nov. 14, 1834. 
_ Alavoine served with Napoleon’s army in 
Italy. In 1804 he returned to France and 
entered the Ecole d’ Architecture. He built the 


_ central spire of the Cathedral of Rouen in place 


of the one which was burned Sept. 15, 1822 
(see Becquet, Robert). Alavoine was charged 
with the construction of the Colonne de Juillet 
in the Place de la Bastille (Paris). After his 
death his design was modified by his 
successor Louis Joseph Duc (see Due, 
L. J.). 


Lance, Dictionnaire; César Daly, 
Monument de Juillet. 


ALBERT. (See Albrecht.) 

ALBERT ; ecclesiastic and archi- 
tect. : 

Albert was archbishop of York after 
767. He completed the construction 
of the earliest Cathedral of York, which 
was begun by his predecessor, Egbert, 
and burned in 1069. This building is 


was associated with Albert in the 
work. 


Britton, Architectural Antiquities ; 
Britton, Cathedral Antiquities. 


ALBERT II.; bishop of Hildesheim. 
{See Bonensack.) : 

ALBERTI (Leone Battista degli) ; 
scholar and architect; b. Feb. 18, 
1404; d. April, 1472. 

Alberti assumed the literary name 
Leo (Leone) in Rome. He was born 
at Venice during the banishment of 
the Alberti, one of the most distin- 
guished Florentine families. Although 
a natural son, his father Lorenzo edu- 
cated him with extreme care. He 
possessed great strength and was de- 
voted to horsemanship and athletic 
sports. He excelled in mathematics 
and mechanics, and is said to have in- 
vented the camera oscura. The AIl- 
berti were restored to Florence in 
1428, and became closely allied to the 
Medici family. Leone Battista was 
appointed to the office of Scrittore ed 
abbreviatore delle lettere apostoliche, 
in which he served six popes (Martin 
V. to Paul II.). His residence was in Rome. 
He conducted his work in other cities by visits, 
correspondence (some of his letters still exist), 
and the assistance of competent persons. (See 
Gambarelli, B.; Fancelli; Pasti.) The docu- 
mentary evidence about his buildings is meagre. 
Vasari gives a list of works in Rome which have 

37 


ALBERTI 


disappeared. He was doubtless associated with 
B. Gambarelli (Rosselino) in the attempted re- 
construction of 8. Peter’s. The reconstruction 
of the Church of 8. Francesco in Rimini (¢/ 
Tempio Malatestiano) was begun on the inside 
at the chapels near the door by Matteo Pasti. 
Alberti appears to have been called in by Sigis- 
mondo Malatesta about 1447 to design the 
marble exterior and especially the facade, sug- 


| gested by the arch of Augustus at Rimini. In 


May, 1459, Alberti followed the court of Pius 
IT. (Pope from 1458 to 1464) to Mantua, where 
he built for Lodovico Gonzaga the little Church 


- 30 Mitres 


+H ee 4+——+——+ reds —+——+— 
0 20 30 4 850 60 TO 80- 90 100FRh. 


AISLED: A SEVEN-AISLED CHURCH; THE CATHEDRAL OF 


ANTWERP, BELGIUM. 


of S. Sebastiano. The more important Church 
of 8. Andrea in Mantua was begun in 1472, the 
year of his death. Its plan, undoubtedly by 
Alberti, shows an interesting treatment of inter- 
secting barrel vaults, which seems to have been 
copied by Bramante (see Bramante) in his design 
for S. Peter’s. He probably continued for Gon- 
38 


ALBERT MEMORIAL 


zaga the choir of the Church of the Nunziata in 
Florence, begun by Michelozzi (see Michelozzi). 
Alberti is supposed to have built in Florence 
for Giovanni Rucellai the Rucellai palace about 
1445-1451. A manuscript in the library at 
Florence, however, ascribes this building to 
B. Gambarelli (Rossellino), who probably acted 
as Alberti’s associate. He built the Chapel of 
S. Pancrazio (before 1467) and the main front of 
the Church of S. Maria Novella (about 1470). 

Alberti’s De Re Mdificatoria Lib. X, the 
first great book of the Renaissance on architec- 
ture, was begun in 1449 and published after his 
death, in 1485. The Della Pittura libri tre, 
dedicated to Brunellesco, 1435; J Conque Ordint 
Architettonnict and Della Statua (after 1464) 
are published by Janitscheck in Alberti’s 
Kleinere Kunsttheoretische Schriften (Vienna, 
1877). A complete edition of his works has 
been published (Opere Volgart di Leon Bat- 
tista Alberti , five vols., Florence, 1845). 

Geymiiller-Stegmann, Die Architektur der 
Renaissance in Toscana; G. Mancini, Vita di 
Alberti ; Passerini, Gli Alberti di Firenze ; Vasari, 
Blashfield-Hopkins ed.; Leroux d’Agincourt, 
History of Art by its Monuments ; Yriarte, Rimini ; 
Tonini, Guida di Rimini; De Reumont, Lorenzo 
de’ Medici; Janitscheck, Alberti’s Kleinere 
Schriften. 

ALBERT MEMORIAL. Properly, the 
‘National Memorial Monument to the Prince 
Consort,” in Hyde Park, London. It is pur- 
posely placed nearly on the site of the Great Ex- 
hibition of 1851. Itis avery large canopied tomb 
in a revived Italian Gothic style, with a colossal 
seated statue of Prince Albert, and a very richly 
sculptured base. It was designed by G. G. 
Scott (see Scott, G. G.), and finished about 1872. 

ALBERTUS ARGENTINUS. (See Al- 
brecht von Strasburg.) 

ALBRECHT ; architect. 

He succeeded Meister Ludwig (see Ludwig) 
as architect of the Cathedral of Regensburg 
(Ratisbon), Bavaria, and appears to have built 
the choir of this church from plans already laid 
down. 

Niedermayer, Kiinstler und Kunstwerke der 
Stadt Regensburg ; Nagler-Mayer, Kiinstler-Lexi- 
con. 

ALBRECHT VON STRASBURG 
bertus Argentinus) ; architect. 

His memory has been preserved in the little 
manuals (Stecnmetzbiichlein) of the medizval 
apprentices, and in the traditions, oral and 
written, of the medieval Masonic lodges 
(Bauhitten). He is not mentioned by any 
chronicler or in any historic document. <Ac- 
cording to tradition Albrecht took up in 1050 
the construction of the Cathedral of Strasburg 
abandoned in 1028. 

Gérard, Les Artistes de l’ Alsace au Moyen-age. 


ALBUM. In Roman archeology, a con- 
trivance for displaying publicly legal and other 
' 389 


(Al- 


te ae, | yok Speer Wales Mh 
’ ‘ hie he = ce oe ict Fe i 
= 6 ri rT heed (Mo aed loupe Gee Oe foe 
; Se : ham 


ALCAZAR 


notices. 
been a panel of whitened wall, as has been 
found in Pompeii. 

ALCAMENESS ; sculptor. 

According to Pliny, Aleamenes was born at 
Athens. Other authorities call him a native of 
the island of Lemnos. He was a pupil, and ac- 
cording to some a rival, of Phidias (see Phidias). 
He flourished from 448 B.c. until the end of the 
fifth century. The sculpture of the western 


pediment of the temple of Zeus (Jupiter) at 


Olympia is attributed to Alcamenes by Pau- 
sanias. The crude character of the work and 


its early date (about 456 B.c.) make this attri- — 


bution doubtful. 
p. 458.) 

Collignon, Histoire de la sculpture Grecque ; 
Furtwingler, Meisterwerke der Griechischen Plas- 
tik; Pausanias, Translation and Commentary by 
I. G. Frazer. 

ALCANTARA. In Spanish building and 
archeology, a bridge. The term is extended to 
constitute the name of at least one important 
town in Spain, and, also, to a valley in Portugal 
near Lisbon, which is crossed by a great aque- 
duct bridge built during the eighteenth century, 
which bridge, perhaps, gives its name to the 
valley. 

ALCAZAR. In Spain, a palace, generally 
royal, which is defensible, though not neces- 


(Collignon, op. cit., Vol. IT., 


J __ 


ALCAZAR OF TOLEDO. 


Plan at level of great Patio, which is a noble court with double _ 


arcade. The exterior is like that of a fortress. 


sarily a strong fortress. The buildings remain 

from the time of Moorish domination, and often 

contain much Moorish decoration. The best- 

known examples are those of Segovia, Seville, 
40 


One form of the album seems to have 


ALCOCK 


and Toledo, together with the Alhambra 
(which see), which is an alcazar as well as the 
others, though not so called in English books. 

ALCOCK, JOHN;; bishop, d. about 1500. 

The eminent ecclesiastic and statesman, John 
Alcock, was bishop successively of Rochester 
(1471), Worcester (1477), and Ely (1486), and 
erected important buildings at each of these 
places. He was twice lord chancellor. Alcock 
was associated with Reginald de Bray (see Bray, 
R. de) as surveyor of the royal works and build- 
ings in the reign of Henry VII. 


Leslie Stephen, Dictionary of National Biog- 
raphy. 


ALCOVE. A. A recess opening out of a bed- 
room and intended to contain the bed ; usually 


ALESSI 


Sir Christopher Wren (see Wren) was also 
interested in it. One of his best works is the 
garden front of Corpus Christi College. All 
the buildings mentioned are in Oxford. The 
manuscript of his Elementa Architecture 
Civilis was acquired by his friend Dr. Clarke, 
also an architect (see Clarke, G.), and was pub- 
lished with a translation by the Rev. Philip 
Smith in 1789. Aldrich composed music which 
is still in use. 


Walpole, Anecdotes of Painting ; Wade, Walks 
in Oxford. 


ALESSI, GALEAZZO ; architect ; b. 1512, 
at Perugia, Italy ; d. Dec. 31, 1572. 


He was probably a pupil of Giambattista 
Caporali, the translator and commentator of 


altogether, so that curtains at the opening of 
the alcove may conceal it entirely. This seems 
to be the primary use of the word, in English 
as in French. 

B. A recess, niche, grotto, space enclosed by 
trees, or any such retired place. (For a special 
use of the word see Library; also Seminar 
Room; for the library alcove is sometimes used 
in this capacity.) 

ALDRICH, HENRY ; clergyman and archi- 
tect ; d. 1710. 

Dr. Aldrich was dean of Christ Church Col- 
lege (Oxford) in 1689. He resided long in 
Italy in association with eminent architects and 
musicians. He planned and built three sides of 
Peckwater court, Christ Church College, and 
the parish Church of All Saints in the High 
Street ; and was a principal adviser in the con- 
struction of the Chapel of Trinity College, which 
he probably designed, although it is known that 

41 


Vitruvius. 


He went to Rome about 1536, 
where he appears to have been associated with 


Michelangelo (see Buonarroti). In 1542 Gale- 
azzo went to Perugia and built there the chapel 
and loggia of the Cittadella Paolina. Other 
buildings in Perugia are ascribed to him. His 
most important works are in Genoa, the ear- 
liest being the Church of 8. Carignano, for 
which the contract was made Sept. 7, 
1549. He enlarged the port and built the 
arsenal, which he adorned with a Doric portico. 
Alessi is best known by the street of palaces 
which he built in Genoa, the Strada Nuova 
(now Garibaldi), in which are his Palazzi Cam- 
biaso, Gambaro, Parodi (begun 1507), Spinola 
(1560), Giorgio Doria, Adorno, Serra, and Rosso. 
(See Lurago, R.) He built the Palazzo Grimaldi 
near the Church of 8. Luca, another Palazzo 
Grimaldi in the Borgo 8. Vincenzo, the two 
Palazzi Lomellini, and many villas near Genoa. 
42 


ALETTE 


The cupola and choir (1567) of the Cathedral of 
Genoa and the Loggia de’ Banchi are by him. 
In Milan Alessi built the Palazzo Marini, now 
the municipal palace, the facade of the Church 
of S. Maria presso S. Celso. (see Bramante), 
the hall of the Auditorio del Cambio and the 

- Church of S. Vittore di Capo. Like the San 
Gallo, Scamozzi, and other architects of the time, 
Alessi enjoyed a large practice in Italy, and 
designed many buildings in France, Portugal, 
and Flanders. The architecture of Flanders, 
which was then in close commercial relation 
with Genoa, was much influenced by him. 


Redtenbacher, Baumeister der Renaissance ; 
Miintz, Renaissance ; Reinhardt, Genua ; Rubens, 
Palazzi di Genova; Gauthier, Edifices de Génes ; 
Gsell Fels, Ober-Italien. 


ALETTE. In Roman architecture, and in 
styles derived from this, those parts of a pier 
which flank the central pilaster or engaged col- 
umn, and which form the abutments of the 
arches. (See Roman Order.) 

ALEXANDRINE. A. Concerning Alex- 
ander the Great and his successors, their domin- 
ions and their cities and buildings. 

B. Concerning the city of Al- 
exandria in Egypt. (For both, 
see Egypt, Architecture of; Gre- 
cian Architecture ; Sarcophagus ; 
Syria, Architecture of.) 

ALEXANDRINUM OPUS. (See 
Mosaic.) 

ALFONSO, JUAN; sculptor. 

Juan Alfonso was employed with others 
on the facade of the Cathederal of Toledo, 
Spain, about 1418. 


Bermudez, Diccionario Historico. 


ALGARDI, ALESSANDRO; sculptor and 
architect ; b. 1602, at Bologna; d. 1654. 

Algardi formed himself principally on the work 
of Bernini (see Bernini). After 1650 he built 
the Villa Belrespiro or Pamfili on the Mons 
Janiculus, Rome, with its gardens and their 
architectural decorations. He built the great 
altar of the Church of 8. Niccolo Tolentino, and 
the facade of the Church of 8. Ignazio, both in 
Rome. He was associated with Borromino 
(see Borromino) in the decoration of 
S. Peter’s. Algardi was one of the . 
best sculptors of his time. He — 
worked in ivory and silver, designed 
gems and medals, and was especially 
successful in modelling children. His 
most characteristic work is the great 
bas-relief representing ‘‘ Attila’s retreat: 
from Rome” at S. Peters. 

Gurlitt, Geschichte des Barockstiles in Italien ; 
Ebe, Spdt-Renaissance ; C. A. Platt, Italian Gar- 


dens ; Percier et Fontaine, Les Plus célébres Mai- 
sons de Rome. 


ALGERIA, ARCHITECTURE OF. 
North Africa, Architecture of.) 


43 


(See 


ALETTE: THE WING OF THE PIER ON EITHER SIDE oF EACH 


Py ; ae) 5 <n we ‘i 


os ~? 


ot ae 
he 


ALH 


AMBRA_ Pe 
ALHACENA. In Spanish architecture, 
recess or niche. The name is applied to de 
orative niches used as cupboards, of which a very 
splendid one, formerly in Toledo and richly dec- | 
orated with stucco reliefs, is in the South Ken- 
sington Museum. a” 
ALHAMBRA. A group of buildings on a 
hill above the city of Granada in southern Spain, 
forming a fortress palace or alcazar of the Moorish _ 


oar. 


A\ OWSS 


Is 


Bf ft/s 
if; 
= =, 


iT 


ey ED Se i) 


Be 


wT 


y)) 


a 


—~ 


rs 
‘ 


t WK Ta 


eas B 


ENGAGED COLUMN. \ 


Restoration by Viollet-le-Duc of the Order of the Theatre of Marcellus at Rome, ; 
The Doric columns of the lower story are now known to have a base. fw 


kings of Andalusia. The unfinished palace of - yy 
Charles V. adjoins the Moorish buildings. The a 
celebrated decorations of the courts and rooms 
are partly in ceramic tiles, partly in moulded and 
painted plaster on a wooden framework. (Cuts, = 
cols. 45, 46 ; 47, 48.) a 
tee ; 


THE ALHAMBRA, GRANADA, SPAIN. 
Construction of the arcading, Court of the Lions. 


45 46 


ALHAMBRA FROM THE SOUTHWEST. 


ALHAMBRESQUE. Of the style followed 
in the decoration of the Alhambra; Moresque 
of this particular type. 

ALIEN HOUSE; —PRIORY. An establish- 
ment dependent upon a foreign monastery or 
convent; sometimes, a branch of the parent 
abbey, with monks, etc.; sometimes a mere 
building for the guardian or steward. 

ALIGNMENT. Same as Alinement. 

ALIGREEK. A meander; probably a cor- 
ruption of the French words a la G'recque. 

ALINEMENT. The disposing or arranging 
of anything so that it shall conform to a fixed 
line or curve; especially a street line. Thus, 
the arranging of stones in a prehistoric monu- 
ment, as Stonehenge near Salisbury, or Carnac 
in Brittany, in determined circles and straight 
lines, or the placing of houses along a street so 
that their fronts shall reach and not overpass a 
fixed limit, are equally instances of alinement. 
In the case of a city street the alinement may 
be fixed by law, as where a certain projection of 
areas and steps upon the sidewalk is allowed, 
while the house fronts must not pass the line of 
the property ; or it may be fixed by agreement, 
as where the house fronts of a whole block may 
be set back a certain number of feet from the 
property line in order to give wider areas or 
courtyards in front of the houses. In architec- 
tural designing the term is used somewhat 
vaguely for the employment of long straight 
lines carefully laid down for the placing of streets 
and avenues. Thus, it is said that in the 


building of Rome under Nero alinement was © 


carefully considered. (In this latter sense com- 
pare Axis and En Axe under Axe, I.) In 
antiquity, a disposition for alinement seems to 
have prevailed in Syria, where the colonnaded 
streets of Antioch, Palmyra, and Gerasa are 
probably prototypes of Western avenues. The 
cities of .the Middle Ages and of modern times 
have commonly grown up on the irregular foot- 
paths and lanes made without care by the early 
settlers, and hence the irregularity of London 
47 


city, the lower parts of New York, and more 
especially of the old cities of the continent of. 
Europe. On the other hand, cities laid out in 
advance and built up rapidly, whether of the 
Middle Ages (see Bastide) or in the Western 
states of America, are usually built up on care- 
fully alined streets, which also are set at right 
angles to each other, or, if at a different angle, 
with some definite purpose in view, as in the 
well-known plan of Washington city (see 
Street). The system of alinement tends towards 
easy policing and good sanitation; it may be 
doubted, however, whether there is not more 
chance for architectural effect in the irregularities 
of the older parts of Hanover, Munich, Bergamo, 
and Paris, than in the straight-drawn avenues 
of the newer quarters. Written also Alignment. 

—R.S. 

ALIPTERION. An anointing room in a 
Roman bath; called also elwothesiwm and 
unctuarvum. 

ALLEE. In French, an alley in the sense 
of the narrow passage between houses, or 
under a house; also, an avenue in the sense 
of a broad walk planted with trees, a prom- 
enade, or the like. 

ALLEGE. In French, a thinning or light- 
ening of a part of a wall, as under a window, 
where the term covers the whole of the wall, 
usually much thinner, from the floor or the top of 
the opening below to the sill of the window above. 
There seems to be no English term for this ; 
the inside of it forming the back or window 
back, and the exterior either remaining unmarked 
or constituting a sunken panel. (Compare 
Appui.) (Cut, col. 49.) 

ALLEGHENY COUNTY COURT 
HOUSE. At Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. Built 


in 1888 from the designs of H. H. Richardson — 
(see Richardson), in Romanesque style, with a 


tower three hundred and twenty feet high. 
ALLEGORY. (See Symbology.) 
ALLEGRI, ANTONIO, DA CORREGGIO. 
(See Correggio. ) 
48 


ALLEY 


ALLEY. A narrow passage-way: (1) be- 
tween two houses, like a very narrow street ; 
(2) in or under a house, as affording passage 
directly to the inner court or yard, without 


ALLEGE. 
From a 5th-century building in Syria. 


entering the rooms of the house ; (3) a walk in 
a garden ; (4) an aisle, as in a church (obsolete) ; 


(5) an aisle in the modern sense, that is to say, a 
passage between the pews, more accu- 
rate in this sense than aisle; (6) a long 
and narrow building (see Bowling Al- 
ley). City houses have been built in 


ALMSHOUSE 


ALMERY. Same as Ambry. 

ALMONRY. A place, sometimes a separate 
house, where the alms of a great abbey or of a 
city or a magnate were distributed. (See Alms- 
house, B.) 

ALMS BOX — CHEST. 
A box or chest affixed to the 
wall, or standing on a pedes- 
tal, in a church, west of the 
pews or sometimes in the 
porch, and used to receive 
the offerings of the people for 
the poor. It is made of wood 
or metal, secured in place by 
screws from the inside, and 
provided with a strong lock ; 
on the top or side there is a 
slit through which the money 
is deposited.— C. C. 

ALMS GATE. In an 
abbey or manor house that 
gate in the bounding wall or 
courtyard wall where alms 
were distributed. 

ALMSHOUSE. 4d. A 
building or group of build- 
ings, for the reception of the poor and help- 
less. In England, the term is almost confined 
to establishments supported by private founda- 


many parts of the world, with alleys 
in sense (2) seriously modifying their 
plan; thus, in Boston, Massachu- 


setts, the houses of about 1810-1840 
had often alleys carried through them 
from street to back yard, and serving 
for the delivery of packages at the 
kitchen door in the rear; avoiding 
the necessity of front areas, which 
are costly to face with cut stone. 


—R. S. 


ALMARIOL; ALMARIOLUM; 
ALMARY. Same as Ambry. 

ALMEMAR. A reading desk in 
a synagogue; that from which the 
law is read to the congregation. The 
term, of Arabic origin, is in use in 
the Jewish worship in many coun- 
tries. In Spain and Portugal the 
same reading desk is called T'ebah. 

ALMENA. The curiously in- 
dented and generally trapezoidal bat- 


tlement used in some buildings of the 


AAA TOTO 


—S 


south and east of Europe ; a Spanish 
term, probably of Arabic derivation. 
The Spanish word signifies also a 
turret or small tower, perhaps also a 
pinnacle, which uses do not seem to 
have been followed in English. 

49 


ALLEY: 


Seee 


CSSSSASSS ES SSS SSSSSSSS SN 


soo aoe 


kagioct 


at 
SS 


FRONT OF A HOUSE OF THE CLOSE OF THE 15TH 
CENTURY ON Rio DI FAvA, VENICE. 


The overhang on the left is above a narrow alley which leads to water steps. 


50 


- ALOISIUS 


tion, and some of these have existed for many 


years, or even centuries. The workhouses kept 
up by different parishes are not considered 
as almshouses. The great Charter House, in 
London, is a favourable instance of an almshouse 
which has existed in its present condition since 
the beginning of the seventeenth century, hav- 
ing been previously a Carthusian convent. It 
is here that Colonel Newcome, of Thackeray’s 
novel, is supposed to have died. In the United 
States, the almshouse is usually an establishment 
supported by the state, county, or town for those 
who are incapable of self-support. (See Poor- 
house. ) 

B. Anciently, in a great abbey, a house 
where poor travellers were received and alms 
distributed.— R. 8. 

ALOISIUS ; architect. 

An Italian architect of the sixth century who 
is mentioned in the letters of Cassiodorus as 
charged by Theodoric the Great with the repar- 
ation of the aqueducts, baths, and other works in 
Rome. He is supposed to have been associated 
with the architect Daniel (see Daniel) in the 
construction of the churches in Ravenna (Italy). 


Quatremére de Quincy, Dictionnaire d’Ar- 
chitecture. 


ALPHAND, JEAN CHARLES 
ADOLPHE; architect; b. Oct. 26, 1817; d. 
1891. 

In 1854 Alphand was called to Paris by Baron 
Haussmann (see Haussmann) as chief engineer 
of the promenades and plantations. He arranged 
the Bois de Boulogne, the Parc Monceau, the 
Bois de Vincennes, the Champs Elysées, the 
Avenue du Bois de Boulogne, the Buttes Chau- 
mont and the Pare de Montsouris. He took a 
leading part in the organization of the Exposition 
of 1889. Alphand published Les Promenades 
de Paris (2 vols., folio, 1868-1873) and Hzx- 
position universelle, 1889, Palais, jardons, 
etc. (2 vols., folio, 1892). 

Construction Moderne, Dec. 12, 1891. 

ALSACE, ARCHITECTURE OF. (See 
Germany, Architecture of, Part. II.; The Rhine 
Country.) 

ALTAR. Any raised structure with flat top 
intended for the offering of sacrifices, as to a 
deity, the manes of the dead, or the memory of 
a national or family hero. In antiquity, altars 
were sometimes composed of the ashes of previ- 
ous burnt offerings piled together, dampened, 
perhaps with a view to more easy compacting 
of the mass, and constantly increasing in size. 
An altar might be composed of earth or rough 
stones, or a single stone could be dedicated for 
a special purpose. As the sacrifice was some- 
times small and easy to handle, such as incense, 
cakes of bread, honey, or the like, altars might 
be very small. When animals were slaughtered 
only small parts of the larger creatures were 
actually consumed ; still, as there always existed 

51 


e ; eis a os ¢ 
) as 
Md ie 

ae 


ALTAR 


a fire of a certain intensity. 
were of all sizes, from a slender column about 
three feet high, with a flat top perhaps slightly 
sunk or dished, to structures several feet long. 
Altars for other sacrifices than that of incense 
were commonly in the open air, and sacrifice was 
offered, not within the temple, but in front of it, 


ALTAR: GRECO-ROMAN WORK. 


as a general rule. It would, however, be within 
the temenos or sacred enclosure. 

The altars of the Jews as recorded in the Old 
Testament did not essentially differ from those 
of pagan antiquity ; as indeed the uses to which 
they were put were altogether similar. 

The Christian altar is a tablelike construction 
upon which the eucharistic sacrifice is offered. 


When fully developed it consists of a number of - 


parts: a Mensa or table, a Predella or platform, 
a Ciborium or canopy, a Retable or steplike 
shelf, a Reredos or screen, and lastly a Tabernacle 
or closet for the Reservation. 

52 


= ae 
the idea of the gods enjoying the savour, and of = 
men sharing in the feast of the gods by eating _ 
parts of the creature sacrificed, it remained es- 
sential to have some altars large enough to carry 
Altars, therefore, 


Mr > 


7? a ee a he Be, = a a na 4 , Te 


ALTAR 


The founders of Protestant Christianity, reject- 
ing the doctrine of the sacrifice of the Mass, 
substituted a table in place of an altar. (See 
Communion Table.) 

In the Primitive Church all altars, outside of 
those in the Catacombs, were made of wood, 
that is, until the time of Pope Evaristus (112 
A.D.), who is said to have con- 
demned their use, which prohibition 
was subsequently strengthened by 
Pope Sylvester (314-335 a.p.), and 
later on formulated by a Council of 
the Church. Throughout Western 
Christendom stone altars have been 
in use for ages, and even when wood 
or metal was employed the part of 
the altar on which the chalice and 
paten are placed was invariably 
made of stone. In some of the 
Oriental churches wooden altars are 
not unknown, although stone is the 
material of which they are usually 
built, except among the Copts, who 
sometimes employ brick. All of 
the first altars, both in the East 
and West, whether made of wood, 
stone, marble, or metal, were very 
simple, and consisted of a slab 
(mensa) resting on one or more legs, 
or on slabs at each end of the 
mensa, or on brackets projecting 
from a wall; but no matter how 
plain or precious they were, when 
in use they were covered with the 
finest linen and beautiful stuffs, 
ornamented with silk embroideries, 
studded with gems, and enriched 
with plates of gold and silver. 

The various kinds of altars are 
distinguished one from another by 
specific names, such as High Altar, 
Side Altar, Shrine Altar (which see 
below) and portable altar. In the 
first days of the faith there was but 
one altar in each church, standing 
in the east end of the building, in 
the centre of the sanctuary between 
the east wall and the outer or west 
edge of the chancel platform. The 
altar always determined the orienta- 
tion®of the church irrespective of 
the true point of the compass. (See 
Basilica; Orientation.) As a rule 
it was built over a crypt containing the body 
of a saint or martyr, and was without retable 
or reredos, but very often it was covered with 
a ciborium, from which were hung curtains of 
silk. This arrangement of a primitive chancel 
and altar can be seen today in many churches 
in Italy, viz., S. Giovanni in Laterano ; 8. Cle- 
mente; 8. Lorenzo at Rome and in the Am- 
brogian basilica at Milan. 

53 


ALTAR 


In the course of time other altars were in- 
troduced beside the high altar, and after the 
sixth century a plurality of altars was the rule 
in the churches of Western Christendom and 
in some of the Eastern churches. These side 
altars were built in honour of some particular 
saint and were often highly decorated. 


ALTAR WITH CANOPY; FRENCH, 14TH CENTURY. 


The modern practice in building a high altar 
is to place it either well out toward the front of 
the sanctuary, or close to the east wall, but never 
attached to it; at least 24 feet away, as this 
space is needed as a passage, not only at the 
time of consecration, but at all times for the 
convenience of the sacristan. The altar itself is 
built on a platform projecting not less than 44 
feet in front of the altar and at least 14 inches 

54 


ALTAR 


at the side; this predella or foot-pace corresponds 
in length with the mensa, plus 14 inches at either 
side, and should not be approached by less than 
two steps, with treads 12 inches to 2 feet wide 
and risers 44 inches high. If there is a reason 
to raise the altar higher, more steps are added, 
but always an uneven number, and never more 
than nine. ‘The table or mensa of the altar is 
rectangular in form, a single, natural stone, sel- 
dom less than 9 feet long and 2 feet wide, square 
at the edge, and supported upon stone piers, 
columns, a solid or hollow stone foundation, 
but never upon brackets, bricks, or artificial 
stone; these supports are covered with wood, 


“Ey 4 


Vee ee ne 
ALTAR BOARD — ‘a 
than the mensa, and is built at its back or ea st 
edge, but never encroaches upon the same. 
A side altar is ruled by the same canons as a 
high altar, except that it is smaller and stands 
on a foot-pace without steps, with one gradine 
on the retable and no tabernacle, unless it is — 
used as an altar for the Blessed Sacrament. If — 
the sacrifice is to be offered on it, the mensa is — 
the same as that of a high altar. A figure of its — 
titular may be placed on the retable or painted — 
on the reredos. When there are a number of — 
side altars, the first in dignity is the one nearest — 
the Gospel side of the high altar, and the next | 


in rank is the one nearest on the Epistle side. 
_ (Cuts, cols. 57, 58, 59.) 


(La Messe: Etudes 
Archéologiques sur Les 
Monuments par Ch. Ro- — 
hault de Fleury, 8 vols., 
Paris, 1883; J. B. Thiers, — 
Dessertation sur les Prin- 
cipaux Autels, etc., Paris, 
1688; Mgr. X. Barbier de 
Montault, Construction de 
Vameublement et de la déco- 
ration des Eglises, Paris, 
1885 ; Caryl Coleman, 
“ Christian Altars and their 
Accessories,’ Architectu- 
ral Record, Vol. IV., New 
York, 1895; The Gothicor- — 
English Altar, Transaction 
of the S. Paul’s Ecclesio-— 
iogtcal Society, Vol. IIL., 
London, 1894.) - 

» — Caryt CoLeMAN. 


Byaltar. Same as Side 
Altar. 
High Altar. That one 
_which serves as the princi- 
pal altar in a church, and 
at which the services on 


ALTAR: WENLOCK PRIORY, SHROPSHIRE, C. 1450. 


stone, marble, mosaics, or metal, and ornamented 
in a manner consistent with an altar and in keep- 
ing with the style of architecture of the church 
(see Altar Front ; Frontal) ; the mensa extends 
beyond its support, both at the front and sides, 
and on its upper surface five crosses are cut: 
one at each horn or corner and one in the centre, 
on the cover of a small square shallow cavity 
called a Sepulchre, a receptacle for relics ; the 
height of the mensa above the foot-pace is 3 
feet 5 inches. When the altar is very long 
the table is made of three slabs, but the centre 
one is alone the mensa, or in case the table is 
made of other material than stone or marble, 
there is inlaid in its body, midway between 
the south end (the Epistle side) and the north 
end (the Gospel side) (see Ambo) and at an equal 
distance from the back and front edge, a Super- 
altar of stone which is the true mensa. Where 
there is a retable it is either as long as or longer 
55 


feast days, fast days, and 
the like, are conducted. In 
fully equipped churches 
this altar stands at the east end (see Orientation), 
and in the sanctuary beyond the choir. 

Shrine Altar. One serving as a shrine or as 
a cover for a shrine ; less often one upon which 
a shrine is erected. 

Side Altar. Inachurch, analtarsubordinate to 
the central altar, often placed in a bay of the nave. 

Superaltar. A portable altar in the form 
of a slab on which the elements may be conse- 
crated elsewhere than on the altar proper. 
Being especially consecrated for this service, it 
was often laid upon a fixed altar which had not 
been so consecrated. It is sometimes incorrectly 
confounded with the Altar Ledge and Retable. 

Votive Altar. An altar erected in fulfil- ~ 
ment of a vow. 

ALTAR OF AUGUSTUS. 
Romana.) 

ALTAR BOARD. In a Coptic church, a, 
wooden panel ornamented witb the cross and 

56 


(See Pax 


ALTAR PIECE 


In the cathedral of Fiesole, Tuscany ; the work he on the right, S. Leonard, a Frenchman, and 
of Mino da Fiesole. The saints who accompany one of the early devotees who left the world to 
the Madonna are generally named, he on the left, | devote himself to works of beneficence. 

S. Remigius (the S. Remi of the French), and 


ALTAR CAVITY 


_ other symbols, and set into a depression in the 


top of the altar. The chalice and paten are 
placed upon it during the mass. 

ALTAR CAVITY. A small chamber or 
recess in the body of an altar or immediately 


below it; used in some forms of Christian 


worship for the deposit, either permanently or 
at certain times, of objects connected with 
liturgical service. (See A. J. Butler’s Coptic 
Churches, Vol. II.) 

ALTAR DESK. A small desk set upon the 


altar to support the service book. 


ALTAR OF EUMENES II. A large build- 


ing of which traces remain among the ruins of 


Pergamon near the modern Pergama, on the 
western coast of Asia Minor. King Eumenes 
is thought to have built it between 180 and 


GOTT 
Mi ; ! 
I 

ny 


ALTARPIHCE 


changed according to the day. Silk of different 
colours strained on a frame and often richly 
embroidered is sometimes used; the colours 
varying, as white for the feast of a virgin saint, 
black on a fast day, and the like. 

ALTAR HERSE. (See Hearse.) 

ALTAR LEDGE. A step at the back of 
an altar forming a ledge or shelf slightly higher 
than the altar, to receive lights, flowers, or 
ornaments. 

ALTAR MOUND. An American mound 
supporting what is supposed to have been an 
altar. Especially those mounds of the United 
States which contain something like an altar of 
burned clay, or stone. (See Mound.) —F. 8. D. 

ALTARPIECE. The decorative screen or 
piece of wall facing, set behind and above an 


ALTAR: S. ANTONIO AT PADUA; ITALIAN Work, LATE 14TH CENTURY. 


160 B.c. A great platform, raised 19 feet above 
the site and nearly 100 feet square, was faced 
by a retaining wall, upon which was sculptured 
the frieze, of which large fragments are now in 
Berlin, representing the battle of the gods of 
Olympus against the giants. On the west a 
flight of steps was carried through this retaining 
wall to the platform; in the middle of which 
was the altar of Zeus, while around it, on three 
sides, was an Ionic portico, whose original plan 
is not perfectly known. —R. S. 

ALTAR FACING. Same as Altar Frontal. 

ALTAR FRONT;—FRONTAL. A hang- 
ing or panel used to form a movable front for an 
altar. The altars in some churches are of such 
splendour that frontals are rarely used, but in 
other cases a frontal is always in use, and there 
are sometimes many different frontals, which are 

57 


altar. This may be wholly detached from the 
wall of the church or chapel, so that both sides 
are exposed; and it is sometimes a separate 
structure raised on the floor of the sanctuary. 
In this case both sides may be richly adorned. 
In other cases, the picture or piece of wrought 
metal work, or the sculptured panel, may be set 
against the wall, as when the altar itself is so 
placed. In the later churches of the continent 
of Europe, the altarpiece is often simply an 
important painting in a richly designed frame, 
and the term is often applied to the picture, 
as when it is said that the finest Titian in Venice 
is an altarpiece. Some of the most magnificent 
compositions, in coloured relief, of the Della 
Robbia family (see Robbia) are altarpieces, and 
even very small churches in the Apennines are 
furnished with these. The Pala d’Oro, in 8. 
58 


ALTAR RAIL 


Mark’s Church at Venice, is an altarpiece. 


(See Reredos; Retable.) — R. 8. 
ALTAR RAIL. The top bar of the railing 


or parapet in front of the altar or communion . 


table separating the officiants from the wor- 
shippers ; the railing or parapet itself. In early 
Christian churches it was usually a solid marble 
parapet ; in modern practice it is of simple and 


— 


a ry oA ok 


pe 
« 


AMADAH 0 ae 


front of the chancel. 

ALTAR SIDE. The part of the altar which 
faces the congregation. 
or decorated by the altar frontal. 

ALTAR SLAB. A flat stone or slab form- 
ing the top of an altar. ' 


ALTAR STAIRS. The steps leading upto — 


an altar. 
ALTARSTEAD. The place and 


lish term not now in use. 
ALTAR STEP. One of the steps 
which lead up from the floor of the 


choir or sanctuary to the platform upon 


Ls 


Aescle 


fi} 


+ I YSN 
pif >| NEE | 


which the altar stands. It is usually 
considered that there should be three 
of these steps, but in large churches 
they are frequently more numerous. 


with the flight leading up to the sanc- 


than the neighbouring floors of the 
church. 
ALTAR TABLE. A table used 
in place of or as representing an altar ; 
especially a movable table substituted 
for reasons of doctrine or practice for 
the fixed and usually stone-built altar. 
ALTDORFER, ALBRECHT ; 
painter, engraver, and architect; b. 
about 1480; d. about 1538. 
Altdorfer, the famous painter and 


PAS 


(LEST (SF ao 


engraver, held the oftice of architect of 


the city of Ratisbon (Regensburg), Ba- 


varia, but no buildings of importance 


can now be ascribed to him. 

W. Schmidt, in Allgemeine deutsche 
Biographie. 

ALTIS. The sacred enclosure at 
Olympia, near the western shores of 
the Peloponnesus. The site was dedi- 
cated to Zeus, who took from it a spe- 


cial name; thus the great Roman 


ALTAR OF THE Most Hoty SACRAMENT; CHURCH OF SS. 


GERVASIO E PROTASIO. 


The whole is sculptured in marble; the effect of perspective in the middle being 


produced by shallow relief and intaglio. 


open design of wood or metal, usually on metallic 
supports. (Cut, col. 62.) —A. D. F. H. 

ALTAR SCREEN. A. A screen higher 
than an ordinary railing or parapet, separating 
the altar from the presbytery, retrochoir, or 
other space behind it. (See Choir Screen and 
references. ) 

B. According to a common but incorrect 

59 


temple at Athens is properly said to 
be that of the Olympian Zeus. 

ALTO RILIEVO. Carv- 
ing or sculpture in high relief, 
standing out prominently from 
the background, as in the 

metope groups of the Parthenon. 

ALURE. A passage, or am- 
bulatory, whether within a build- 
ing or partly out of doors like 
the gallery running along a cloister. (Compare 
Ambulatory.) This old English term is written 
in different ways; as, aloring, and alourde. 


ALVEATED. Having the general concave 


shape of a beehive; said of certain vaults or 
cupolas. 
AMADAH. A small temple of the eigh- 
teenth Egyptian dynasty, near Derri in Nubia, 
60 


i a 
ae _ ‘ 
usage, the Reredos ; or even the choir screen in 


i 
edt 


arrangement of an altar; an old Eng- — 


These steps are not to be confounded ~ 


tuary itself in cases where it is higher 


It is usually concealed — ia 


f\ 7 
ie 
= 
-. 
+. 


AMADEO 


a converted by the Coptic Christians into a 
— church. It is one of the few peripteral tem- 


ples of Egypt, surrounded by square piers 
with a pronaos of four polygonal columns. 
It measures 71 feet 6 inches by 32 feet 2 


inches. Inscriptions of great historical value 
remain. 
AMADEO. (See Omodeo.) 


AMBO; AMBON. An early form of 
Pulpit first used in basilican churches, 
whence the Lections, Epistle and Gos- 
pel, were chanted. There were com- 
monly two in a church, one on the south 
side of the chancel for the Gospel, and 
on the north for the Epistle. They were 
usually provided with two flights of 
steps, one from the east and the other 
from the west. Very often there was 
attached to the Gospel ambo a candle- 
stick, and during the Easter season the 
Paschal candle was placed in a candela- 
brum on its north side. Ambones 2 
were built of marble, enriched a. 


or 


A ‘, 
5 ee u 
Sa OM a ae TP PUM EN UN De KON RE 
g < ATK , > >. ee a > r 
} 


SSS SAOSIN OE SOR IS 


with glass mosaic, cosmati work, K 


and inlays of various - coloured 
stones and marbles. Examples may 


_ be seen in the Roman churches of 


§S. Clement and 8. Mary in Cosmedin, at Ra- 
venna, in the Church of 8. Apollinare Nuovo, 
and in many other Italian basilicas. 

Martigny, Dict. des Antiq. Chrét. ; Bunsen, Die 
Basiliken des Christ. Roms. ; and Revue de L’ Art 
Chrétien, Vol. 1887, p. 372; Vol. 1894, p. 77. 

—CaryL COLEMAN. 

AMBROGIO D’ANTONIO (da Urbino or 
da Milano) ; sculptor and architect. 

Ambrogio da Urbino carved the decorations 
of the portal of the Church of 8. Michele in 
Isola at Venice (see Mauro Coducci). 
Paoletti attributes to him the deco- 
rations of the arch of the Church of 
S. Giobbe (Venice) 
(see Lombardo Pie- 
tro). He was prob- 
ably iden- 
tical with 
the Am- 
brogio 
d’ Antonio 
da Milano 
who, af- 
ter 1470, 
carved the 
superb decorations of the palace of the Monte- 
feltro at Urbino (see Laurana, Luciano da). 

Paoletti, Rinascimento in Venezia ; Sansovino, 
Venetia ; Arnold, Palast von Urbino. 

AMBRY. A storage place, a closet, a press, 
a storeroom, or storehouse ; also a closed com- 
partment in such a place. Specifically — 

A. A place for keeping food, as a pantry or 
compartment in a pantry. 

61 


AMBO: GOSPEL SIDE; CHURCH OF S. 
CLEMENT, ROME. 


ALTAR RAIL FROM §. M. DEI MIRACOLI, VENICE. 


B. In the choir or sanctuary of a church, a 
cupboard in the wall, used for the keeping of 
the vessels of the communion service, or Mass, or 
for service books and the like. (Cut, col. 63.) 

AMBULATORY. A passageway in, or con- 
nected with, a building, usually for persons on 
foot only. One of the covered walks of a cloister 
often receives this name. (Com- 
pare Alure.) (Cut, col. 66.) 

AMELIUS, JOHAN: 
architect. 

Amelius 


lived in the 
early _fif- 
teenth cen- 
tury, and 
was em- 
ployed in 


i 


Uti 


yu 


Ampo: EPISTLE SIDE; CHURCH (Ba- 
SILICA) OF 8. CLEMENT, ROME. 


the con- 
struction of the Cathedral of Antwerp, Belgium, 
which was begun in 1422 and finished in 1518. 

Immerzeel, Hollandsche en Viaamsche Kunst- 
schilders Beeldhouwers, etc. 

AMENOPHEIUM. A group of important 
buildings dedicated to or erected by the Egyp- 
tian king Amenotep III., at Thebes, on the west 
bank of the Nile, (See Egypt, Architecture of.) 

AMERICA, ARCHITECTURE OF. (For 
that of North America see Canada; Mexico ; 
United States. For that of South America, 
see under South. See also Central America ; 
West Indies.) 

AMERIND ARCHITECTURE; AMER- 
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE. That of the 
red races of America; the terms Amerind and 

62 


Peay poten en ee eS Pen ee 


AMMANATI 


Amerindian having been adopted by archzolo- 
gists recently (1900) to replace the obviously 
inaccurate phrase ‘American Indian.” (See 
Aboriginal American Architecture and the ref- 
erences there given.) 

AMMANATI, BARTOLOMMEDO ; sculp- 
tor and architect; b. June 18, 1511, at Set- 
tignano, near Florence ; d. April 14, 1592. 

He began as a pupil of the sculptor Bandinelli, 
but afterward went to Jacopo Sansovino (see 
Sansovino, J.) in Venice, whom he assisted, with 
Cattaneo (see Cattaneo, D.), Alessandro Vittoria 
(see Vittoria, A.), and others, at the Library of 
S. Mark (which see). Returning to Florence, 


hi 


Ie 


= 1 SOE il) | 
BS SISSY [OEE ree 
Sosy ¥ Rigs == au ema : ¢ « —S< 
i= re p CES a WIS vA < - 
SS | a A Zs % Sa = 
TN Sy AS IX SS BO, 
are * f as y es | Sr ME 
== || “eg Sa N's) yi 


pnemesr 


ie 
— 
i 
ow 


we Pace 


== 
= 


= 
== 
= == 
== 
—— = 
=a ————— 
[33 ip - 
—— 


ease k 


SS -ikt 


AMBRY: 14TH CENTURY; CHURCH OF FOULIS, PERTHSHIRE, 


SCOTLAND. 


he formed his style on the Medici tombs by 
Michelangelo (see Buonarroti). Ammanati went 
to Rome during the reign of Paul III. (Pope, 
1534-1549) and assisted Vignola and Vasari at 
the Villa di Papa Giulio (see Vignola and Vasari). 
Returning to Florence in 1557 and the service 
of the Duke Cosmo I. de’ Medici (b. 1519, d. 
1574), Bartolommeo made the fountains of Pra- 
tolino and Castello and the beautiful bridge of S. 
Trinita (Florence, 1567-70). In 1559 he won 
the commission for the fountain of Neptune in 
the Piazza della Signoria, Florence, in compe- 
tition with Benvenuto Cellini (see Cellini), Gian 
Bologne (see Bologne), Vincenzo Danti, and Il 
Moschino. He built the garden facade of the 
Pitti palace, the second cloister of 8. Spirito and 
63 


ey ‘ ba" . na a fi 
at ca i pets ess 
a os ss 24> r = 
“A. * a ae . a ee 

: : a i ee - 


AMPHITHEATRE a 


Florence. 


palace at Lucca, Italy, which was continued by , 
The Palazzo — 
Am 


Pini and Juvara (see Juvara). 
Micheletti in Lucca is also attributed to him. 
Miintz, Renaissance ; Geymiiller-Stegmann, Ar- 


Po 


Lettere Pittoriche ; Raschdorff, Toscana. 


AMMEISTER, HANS. (See Hans von 
Berckheim. ) 


AMMONIOS ; architect. ua 


cay 
~ ~* 


According to an epigram of the anthology, 


Ammonios restored the celebrated Pharos (light- 


house) of Alexandria (Egypt), probably during 
the reign of the Emperor Anastasios (d. 
491 a.D.). : ae: 

Brunn, 

Kiinstler. 


AMORTISSEMENT; AMORTIZE- 


Geschichte der griechischen 


eS ae Gs 
the Palazzi Guigni, and Ramirez di Montalvo, in _ 
Ammanati began the immense ducal _ 


chitektur der Renaissance in Toscana; 'Ticozzi, 


i, —- 


a, 
Aaa 


i: 
fT 


A 
ai, 

we 

Pi 


/? 
o 
ae 


MENT. The sloping top of a buttress __ 


or projecting pier of any sort, usually 
built so that the rain water shall not 
injure the joints. (See Weathering.) 
AMPHIPROSTYLE. Prostyle at 
each end; said especially of a Greek or 
Roman temple. 
AMPHIPROSTYLOS. An amphi- 
prostyle building (Vitruvius). 
AMPHISTYLAR. Having columns 
on both sides or at both ends, (See 
Columnar Architecture.) 3 
AMPHITHALAMUS. A chamber 
opposite the thalamus or chief bed- 
chamber in an ancient Greek house, and 
separated from the thalamus only by a 
service corridor. 


antiquity, a building much like a double 
theatre, which its name suggests. Its 
main characteristic was that the seats 
of the spectators surrounded the place 
of exhibition, the arena. A wooden 
theatre built by Curio, the trusted officer 
of Julius Cesar, was arranged so that 
two separate auditoriums could be swung 
round on pivots or wheels and either 
placed by themselves, each with its own audi- 
ence, or brought together to form an amphi- 
theatre. Wooden amphitheatres seem to have 
been numerous, and during the reigns of the 
earlier emperors several were destroyed by fire, 
or otherwise. The first stone one seems to have 
been built in the reign of Augustus. 

Of the amphitheatres of which considerable 
remains exist, the largest is generally alleged to 
be the Flavian amphitheatre, although not at 
first wholly completed with the size and solidity 
which it reached later, at Rome; called also the 
Coliseum: and although others may have been 
somewhat larger in their outer circuit, apparently 
none contained so many spectators. The rows of 
seats of the Coliseum have generally disappeared, 
64 


AMPHITHEATRE. A. In Roman man! 


_ There is also one at Pergamon, 


AMPHITHEATRE 


but the cross walls which supported them are 
partly in place, and the estimate of 87,000 seat- 
ings is not wholly unreasonable. The amphi- 
theatre at Verona retains the stone seats ; for 
these have been constantly used, the whole 
interior having been occupied by different per- 
formances throughout the Middle Ages and even 
in recent times. That at Pola, on the eastern 
coast of the Adriatic Sea, retains its exterior 
wall in great perfection. That at El Jemm, in 
Tunisia, seems to have been almost as large as 
the Coliseum, and this is thought to have been 
almost perfect down to the close of the sev- 
enteenth century, since which time it has been 
used continually as a fortress, and also as a 
quarry (see Tunisia, under North Africa, Ar- 
chitecture of). The amphitheatre at Capua 
seems to have been nearly as large as the last 
named and that at Tarragona, in 
Spain, still larger. Others in 
good preservation are at Arles 
and Nimes in the south of 
France, the two last being of 
almost exactly the same size. 
The one at Nimes has been care- 
fully restored and retains many 
of its original features intact. 


in Asia Minor, and one at Pom- 


AMPHITHEATRE 


although simple in each part, is complicated 
when considered all together. 

Architecturally speaking, the interior of a 
great amphitheatre could only have been of 
importance as a structure of vast size and as 
decorated with banners, applied sculpture, tro- 
phies, and the like, which formed no part of the 
building proper. The exterior would always 
have been, as was the case with buildings at all 
known to us, severely constructional, the radiat- 
ing walls which supported the seats enclosing 
galleries which were vaulted overhead and which 
formed on the exterior open arches, The upper- 
most story alone seems, in the case of the 
Coliseum, to have been always a solid wall 
decorated with one of the very few systems of 
pilasters which has come down to us from antiq- 
uity. The great open arches below were prob- 


peii about as large as either of 
the two in France named above. 
It is notable that a town as 
small as Pompeii must always 
have been had an amphitheatre 
capable of holding perhaps 20,- 
000 spectators. 


The shows of the amphi- 
theatre seem to have been 


generally combats of gladiators, 


though races to a limited extent 
were given there (see Circus), 
and naumachia, or sea fights, 
also. The combats of gladiators 
were with each other and with wild beasts, and 
the arrangement for the housing of these latter 
were very elaborate. The substructures of the 
Coliseum and of other amphitheatres have been 
explored of late years, and much is known of 
the dens, corridors, and movable cages by which 
the creatures were confined and brought to the 
surface. It is probable that, sometimes, large 
curtains were drawn across from wall to wall 
overhead, shading the seats of the spectators, if 
not also the arena. 

The structural and economical problems 
attending one of these immense buildings were 
very considerable ; thus, the drainage of the huge 
space, estimated at six acres, into which the 
rain fell freely, required an elaborate system of 
gutters and channels; and recent researches 
have revealed the existence of this system carried 
to a high degree of perfection. The vaulting, 

65 


AMBULATORY OF THE CLOISTER; ABBEY OF ROMMERSDORF, NEAR 


NEUWIED, GERMANY. 


ably adorned only by statuary placed beneath 
each arch, and perhaps a low wall or parapet 
raised above the sill of each opening. Exterior 
splendour was not much in the mind of the 
designer of one of these great buildings, as is 
evident from his willing acceptance of the very 
defective system of proportion which seems to 
have resulted from the necessities of the case. 

-B. In modern usage, the place for a large 
audience or a large part of an audience, the term 
being used according to a whim of the managers 
of theatres and the like, as for an upper gallery 
in a large theatre where many persons can be 
accommodated, especially one in which the seats 
rise in steep slope, each row above that in front 
of it; also an out-of-door or half-enclosed place 
for an audience. 

C. In ornamental gardening, a piece of 
ground enclosed with close-growing shrubbery, 

66 


o? > 
ete se | 


Peet. we ee aa 
== Kr 2 ; v\- 
. 4, 


AMPHITHURA 


Topiary). ‘This may or may not have the appear- 
ance of rows of shrubs rising one above another. 


For Amphitheatre A, see the works mentioned 
as authorities for Roman Imperial Architecture. 


Flavian Amphitheatre. Same as Coliseum ; 
so called because built by the Flavian emperors, 
Vespasian and Titus. . 

AMPHITHURA. A curtain divided in the 
centre, closing the entrance through the iconos- 
tasis of a Greek church. 

AMPHORA. An antique earthenware jar 
of considerable size, usually provided with two 
handles. The form varied greatly, from a some- 
what full-bodied jar with wide mouth, to a long 
and slender jar with pointed bottom and large 
neck. Intended usually for wine or oil, they 
were used for a great variety of purposes, the 
largest being as much as 5 feet high. 


ANCHOR WITHOUT ORNAMENTAL HEAD, TO SECURE 
Cross WALL OR PARTITION TO EXTERIOR WALL, 
THREE STEEL RIBBONS WITH FIXED PIN. 


AMYGDALOID. A volcanic rock lava, 
containing almond-shaped cavities filled with 
secondary minerals. Example, the Brighton 
amygdaloid, near Boston. —G. P. M. 

ANAGLYPH. A sculptured representation 
in relief, as distinguished from one in intaglio. 

ANAGLYPHIC. Having the character of 
an anaglyph ; carved in relief. 

ANALOGION; ANALOGIUM. A read- 
ing desk, lectern, or ambo, or, in the modern 
Greek church, the cushion supporting the book 
upon such a desk. 

ANATOMICAL THEATRE. A room 
fitted with seats for the demonstration to medical 
students of dissections, the giving of lectures 
with explanation of models, and the like. The 
need of bringing every student very close to the 
table, ete., has caused the elaboration of a scheme 
of seating, which has been used also in surgical 
theatres, in hospitals, and to a limited extent 
elsewhere. (See Medical College, under College, 
and Seating Capacity.) 

67 


usually clipped and reduced to regular form (see 


: va 7 r e > ay . “— x 
, ANCHOR ) 3a 
ANCHOR (I). A. A piece or connecte 
pieces of metal for securing together more or 
permanently two or more pieces of materia 
members of construction ; used generally in « 


hi 


A : 2 
Sie 


ANCHOR: 14TH CENTURY; WROUGHT-IRON FLEUR- 
DE-LIS FOR HEAD. 


nection with masonry. It may becomparatively _ 
small and simple, as a cramp or bent wire to 
connect two stones in a wall, or a large and 
important member, as a tie-rod passing through 
the opposite walls of a building and secured on 
the outside by means of platesand nuts. These — 
outside plates are sometimes made very decora- 
tive ; and in old houses in the Netherlands, in __ 
Belgium, and more rarely in other countries, the = — 
Arabic figures of the year of completion are 
given in four neighbouring anchor plates. (Cut, 
col. 69.) i 
Ashlar Anchor. An anchor for securing 
parts of an ashlar facing to the backing. Its 
most usual form is that of a Cramp, a simple 
strap having the ends bent to be inserted in a 
joint or a hole cut for the purpose. | 
Beam Anchor. One for securing the end of a 
beam to a masonry wall, commonly a spur anchor. 
Spur Anchor. <A T-shaped anchor formed 
of a strap, one end of which is bent around the 


Four ANCHORS, THE HEADS GIVING THE DATE 
“*1584.”” . 


middle of a rod at right angles to it. Used 
chiefly to secure floor beams and the like to 
masonry. 

68 


- ANCHOR 


An anchor used as a tie-rod, 


Star Anchor. 
having a star-shaped head or plate on the face 
of a wall which is thus secured to other parts of 
the building. 


Wall Anchor. One for tying parts of 


masonry work together ; generally at the juncture 
(Compare Bond.) 


of two walls. 


ANCHOR witH HEAD, GIVING CIPHER, “‘C. R.”’ 


ANCHOR (II.). Same as Dart in a deco- 
_rative moulding. (See Anchor Dart; Egg and 
Dart.) ~ 

ANCHOR AND COLLAR. A form of 
hinge for a heavy gate or door, consisting of a 
ring or collar of metal attached to, or made 
with, an anchor, which is inserted into the 
masonry jamb, the collar serving as a socket 
for the reception of a Pintle, or of the Heel 
Post. 

ANCHOR DART. The dart or pointed 
tongue between the oves of an egg and dart 
moulding. (See Egg and Dart.) 

ANCON. (Pl. Ancones.) A console or 
scroll-shaped bracket, support- 
ing the cornice or entablature 
over the aperture of a door or 
window in classic architecture. 
The most celebrated example 
is that of the doorway on the 
north side of the Erechtheion at 
Athens. Highly ornate ancones 
were used for the principal en- 
trance to the Temple of the 
Sun at Baalbec. Vitruvius gives 
(IV. 6) precise rules for the 
proportions of the ancones, but 
these were not often observed 
in actual practice. 

ANCONA. A. In Italian art, a picture 
with elaborate frame and setting, usually of 
architectural character ; or a group of pictures, 
as when several minor paintings are attached in 
some way to alargerone. Thus, an Altarpiece 
consists often of a large painting with several 
much smaller in the predella, and the whole may 
be called an ancona. 


69 


ANDRON 


B. By extension, a niche; a framed and 
architecturally important recess in which a bas- 
relief, or statue, or group may be placed. 

ANDRE, LOUIS JULES; architect; b. 
1819, at Paris; d. 1890. ) 

André was educated at the Ecole des Beaux 
Arts and won the Grand Prix de Rome in 1847. 
He held various important positions in Paris, 
and in 1884 replaced Lesueur (see Lesueur) as 
professor at the Ecole des Beaux Arts. 


Construction Moderne, Feb. 8, 1890. 


ANDREA DA PISA (Andrea Pisano) ; 
sculptor and architect ; b. 1270; d. 1349. 

He received his training in Pisa, Italy, prob- 
ably from Giovanni da Pisa (see Giovanni 
da Pisa). Before going to Florence Andrea 
worked in Venice, where he is supposed to have 
assisted in the decoration of the Church of S. 
Marco and the Doge’s palace. The only work 
which can with certainty be ascribed to him is 
the first bronze door which was made for the 
Florentine Baptistery between 1330 and 1336. 
At the death of Giotto (see Giotto), in 1337, 
Andrea was appointed architect of the Campanile 
and built the two stories of niches above the 
work of Giotto. From 1347 to 1349 he was chief 
architect of the Cathedral of Orvieto (see 
Maitani, Lorenzo). The beautiful reliefs of the 
“‘Genesis” on the facade of that building are 
supposed to show his influence. 


Marcel Reymond, La Sculpture Florentine ; 
Lasinio, Le Tre Porte del Battistero; Nardini- 


Despotti-Mospignotti, J2 Campanile di Santa 
Maria del Fiore. 
ANDREA DEL SARTO ; painter ;_ b. 


1486; d. 1531. 

A mural painter of great ability and renown. 

H. Janitschek, Andrea del Sarto; and, in the 
General Bibliography, Berenson; Crowe and 
Cavalcaselle ; Vasari; Nagler; Bryan; Scribners’ 
Cyclopedia. 

ANDREA DI CIONE. 

ANDREA, MEISTER. 
drea of Ostenso.) 

ANDREAS VON KEMPTEN ; architect. 

He was one of the architects who drew up 
the statutes of organization of the German 
lodges in the reunion of architects and masons 
at Ratisbon (Regensburg, Bavaria), April 25, 
1459. (See Dotzinger, Jost.) 

Gérard, Les Artistes de l’ Alsace pendant le 
Moyen-Age. 


ANDRON. A. In Greek archeology, that 
part of a dwelling house which was used by the 
men of the household as distinguished from the 
gyneceum or gyneconitis. (Compare Megaron.) 

B. In Roman archeology, a passage in a 
dwelling ; Vitruvius VI., 10, where the author 
says that the passageways between the peristyle 
and the lodging rooms are called andrones, and 
that this seems an improper term. 

70 


(See Orcagna.) 
(See Bregno, An- 


See ee ee ee Lge eee aay ee = 
“s : ‘ : y ( oak ’ 7 aS | 


ANDRONICUS 


ANDRONICUS OF CYRRHUS (either in 
Syria or Macedon). 

According to Varro and Vitruvius, Androni- 
cus built or caused to be built, about 150 B.c., 
the so-called Tower of the Winds at Athens, 
which is still preserved. It is not known 
whether he was actually the architect or simply 
the donor or patron of the building. A similar 
building was erected in Rome by Scipio Nasica, 
probably at about the same time. 

Brunn, Geschichte der griechischen Kinstler; 
Stuart and Revett, Antiquities of Athens: Vitru- 
vius, ed. Marini. 

ANDRONITIS. Same as Andron. 

ANDROSPHINX. An Egyptian sphinx 
of the kind which combines the head of a man 
with a lion’s body. 

ANDROUET (called du Cerceau) BAP- 
TISTE ; architect; b. between 1544 and 1547 ; 
d. before March, 1602. 

Baptiste is supposed to have been the son, 
probably the oldest, of Jacques (I.) Androuet 
du Cerceau (see Androuet du Cerceau, Jacques, 
I.). A document of 1577 mentions him 
as ‘“‘architecte & Charleval,” where it is sup- 
posed that his father was then at work. After 
the death of Pierre Lescot (see Lescot, P.) in 
1578, Baptiste succeeded him in the superintend- 
ence of the royal buildings in Paris, especially 
the Louvre. He probably continued the work 
on the southern side of the great quadrangle. 
In May, 1578, “un jeune du Cerceau architecte 
du Roi,” probably Baptiste, began the construc- 
tion of the Pont Neuf (Paris). In 1582, Bap- 
tiste succeeded Jean Bullant (see Bullant, J.) 
as architect of the chapel of the Valois at Saint- 
Denis, near Paris. For the King of Navarre, 
afterward Henri IV., he fortified the towns of 
Melun and Pontoise (France). 

Von Geymiiller, Les du Cerceau ; 
pographie historique du vieux Paris. 

ANDROUET (Endrouet) (called du Cer- 
ceau) JACQUES (I.); architect and engraver ; 
b. between 1510 and 1515; d. after 1584. 

Founder and chief of an important family of 
French architects. The surname du Cerceau 
came from the cerceaw or circle which served 
as a sign over the door of his atelier. 
came inseparable from his name, and was after- 
ward used as a title, his descendants being 
called Sieurs du Cerceau. Although a leader 
in the propaganda of the Italian Renaissance in 
France, the only evidence that he studied in Italy 
is in the character of his works, and especially 
of certain drawings in the royal library of 
Munich which are ascribed to him. The only 
building which can be attributed to him with 
certainty is the choir of the little Church of 
Montargis, France. He is supposed to have 
built; parts of the chateaux of Montargis, Ver- 
neuil, and Charleval, all destroyed. He is 
known only by his books on architectural sub- 

71 


Berty, To- 


| edifices antiques Romarns, 1584, folio, 63 pl. ; 


-@ Alengon in 1577 as an attaché of that duke. 
In March, 1595, he was charged with the super- — 
intendence of the construction of the Louvre and ~ 


Tt bes 


ANDROUET 
jects and his splendid engravings. The lar 
number of drawings and engravings attribute 


to him have been catalogued by Von Geymiiller, — 
(op. cit. p. 105). His principal books are: 


Recueil de Vingt-cong Arcs de Triomphe, Aurea 
LInber de eo =a 
picture genere quod grottesche vocant Itali, — 
Aurelie, 1550, folio, 25 pl., dedicated to Renée — 
de France; reprinted by Wechel in 1566, with 
LInvre Warchit- 
tecture de Jacques Androuet du Cerceau con- 
tenant les plans et dessaigns de cinquante 
Benoist 
dedicated to the 
king ; ‘Lecons de perspechon positive, Paris, 


liz (Orléans), 1549, folio, 25 pl. ; 


the title Levre de Grotesques ; 


Bastimens tous differens, etc., Paris, 


Prévost, 1559, folio, 50 pl. ; 


Mamert-Pattison, 1576, small folio, 60 pl., 
12 pp. text, dedicated to Catherine de? Medici ; 


Le premeer volume des plus excellens Rodiumene a 
dedicated to | 
Le second volume des 


de France, Paris, 1576, folio ; 
Catherine de’ Medici ; 
plus excellens Bastumens de France, Paris, 


Gilles Beys, 1579, folio ; also dedicated to Cath. aaa 


erine de’ Medici. (These two volumes compose 


the most important of Jacques Androuet’s 
As many of the buildings represented _ 


works. 
in them have been destroyed or mutilated, its 
historical interest is very great); Livre des 


dedicated to the Duke of Nemours. 


Von Geymiiller, Les du Cerceau; Berty, Les” 
Palustre, Renais- 


grands architectes frangais ; 
sance en France. 


ANDROUET (called du Cerceau), JACQUES 


(II.) ; architect ; d. September, 1614. 

A son of Jacques (I.) Androuet du Cerceau 
(see Androuet du Cerceau, Jacques I). 
(II.) first appears in the accounts -of Frangois 


the other royal palaces. It has been assumed 
that he designed and constructed that portion 
of the long gallery of the Louvre which lies 


between the Pavillon Lesdiguitre and the Pavil- _ 


lon de Flore, the Pavillon de Flore itself (re- 
modelled under Napoleon III.), and that portion 
of the Tuileries which stood between the Pavillon 
de Flore and the pavilion built by Jean Bullant 
(see Bullant, Jean). There is no proof of this. 
The work may have been done by Ktienne de 
Pérac (see Pérac, E. de). 


Von Geymiiller, Les du Cerceau ; Berta Topo- 
graphie historique du vieux Pari is; Berty, Les 
Grands architectes francais. 


ANDROUET (called du Cerceau), JEAN; 
architect; b. before 1600; d. after 1649. 


Jean was a son of Baptiste Androuet (see. 


Androuet du Cerceau, B.). In 1639 he under- 

took with Denis Laud and Mathurin du Ry the 

reconstruction of the Pont-au-Change (Paris), 

the accounts of which, to 1642, are still in the 

library of the Arsenal. He built also in Paris 
72 


Jacques 


as 


ANGEL LIGHT 
the Hotels de Sully, de Bretonvilliers, and de 
Bellegarde. He is last mentioned in 1649. 


Von Geymiiller, Les du Cerceau; Berty, Topo- 
graphie historique du vieux Paris; Berty, Les 


grands architectes frangais. 


ANGEL LIGHT. A small triangular light 
between the subordinate arches of the tracery of 


ANGLE SHAFT: CuRIOUS GROUP OF Two SHAFTS; 
FRENCH, 13TH CENTURY. 


a window, especially in the English Perpendicular 
style. 

ANGLE BAR; ANGLE BEAD; etc. (See 
under Bar, Bead, etc.) 

ANGLE BLOCK. A block employed in or 
at the angle of a structure; specifically, in a 
truss, a block or shoe, often of cast iron, at the 
junction of several members, as of a chord and 

73 


ANGLE IRON 


a strut meeting at an oblique angle; in this case 


it forms an abutment for the strut. 

ANGLE BRACKET. A bracket employed 
in or for a corner or angle ; specifically, one which 
is set ina reéntrant or at a salient angle of a wall, 
in the plane which bisects the angle of the corner. 

ANGLE CAPITAL. A capital at the 
corner of a colonnade or other structure. In the 


i PPP PPPLIIPLDIPSLI SID DH: 


Pas 


fos 


arn 


pe 
1 eel 
Pig il A 

hi 


osc 


ANGLE SHAFT: VENICE, 14TH CENTURY. 


The term may be applicd as well to the free, supporting 
column, as to the engaged shaft above. 


Ionic order the dissimilarity between the front 
and side of the ordinary capital occasions diffi- 
culties at the corners, which are overcome in 
various ways. Usually both of the outwardly 
visible faces are treated with volutes, which, at 
the external angle, are splayed outward at 45°. 
(See Ionic Order.) 

ANGLE IRON. A bar of iron or steel, in 
section composed of two “legs” joined by one 
edge of each, forming the shape of the letter L, 

74 


ANGLE LEAF 
a form much used in iron and steel construction, 
either alone, or combined with plates of the 
same metal, to form columns, beams, etc. (See 
Iron Construction.) — W. R. H. 

ANGLE LEAF. Same as Spur, C. 

ANGLE MODILLION. A _ modillion at 
the corner of a cornice. (See Angle Bracket, of 
which this is a variety.) 

ANGLE SHAFT. A decorative member at 
one of the greater angles of a building, usually 
a moulding circular in general section, but often 
twisted or decorated with a spiral band and 
furnished with rings at the different belt courses, 
string courses, etc., and sometimes having capi- 
tals at intervals, so as to divide it into a series 
of columns corresponding to the stories of the 
exterior. A well-known example is that of the 
Ducal Palace at Venice, and other Venetian 
palaces are similarly adorned. (Compare Angle 
Staff under Staff, B, which is the term used for 
small interior members of this kind.) (Cuts, 
cols. 73, 74.) 

ANGLE STAFF. Same as Angle Bar. 
(See Staff, B.) 

ANGLE STONE. Same as Quoin. 

ANGLE TIE. Same as Angle Brace (which 
see under Brace). 

ANGLO-SAXON ARCHITECTURE. (See 
Saxon Architecture, B.) 

ANGO, RICHARD. (See Ango, Roger.) 
ANGO (ANGOT), ROGER ; architect; d. 
1509. : 

In 1475 Roger succeeded his father, Richard, 
as architect of the city of Rouen with the title 
Maitre des ouvrages et reparations du domaine 
de la ville de Rouen. His name, with that of 
Roulland Leroux (see Leroux, R.), appears upon 
the records of the Palais de Justice at Rouen. 

De Stabenrath, Le Palais de justice de Rouen ; 
De Jolimont, Les principaux édifices dela ville de 
Rouen; Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 

ANGOT. (See Ango.) 

ANGUIER, FRANCOIS ; 
architect ; d. Aug. 8, 1669. 

He was made by Louis XIII. custodian of 
the antiques, with apartments in the Louvre. 
His chief work is the monument which he 
erected to Henry II., Duc de Montmorency, in 
the chapel of the Convent of the Visitation at 
Moulins. He was assisted by his brother Michel 
(see Anguier, Michel) and the famous sculptor 
Nicolas Coustou (see Coustou, N.).. He was 
employed to finish the sculpture of the Porte 
S. Denis (Paris) designed by the architect 
Francois Blondel (see Blondel, Fr.). 

L. Duplais, Etude sur les Anguier ; Bauchal, 
Dictionnaire. 

ANGUIER, MICHEL; sculptor ; 
at Ku, France ; d. July 12, 1686. 

A brother of Francois Anguier (see Anguier, 
F.) and pupil of Simon Guillain in Paris and of 
Alessandro Algardi (see Algardi) in Rome. He 

75 


sculptor and 


b. 1614 


ess a See — 
RR ONOTENOET 


remained ten years in Rome, and worked on 

decorations of 8. Peter’s, the Church of 

Giovanni dei Fiorentini, and several palace 
He assisted his brother in many of his under- 
takings. Michel made four of the six twisted 
columns of the high altar of the Church of Val- 
de-Grace (Paris) and the group of the ‘ Nativ- 
ity” in the same church. 

Duplais, Les Anguier. 

ANGULAR CAPITAL. Same as Angle 
Capital, the term being in common use but i 
obviously incorrect. a 

ANNEX. A supplementary building, added 
to, or used in connection with, an already exist- — 
ing structure ; as an annex to a hotel. (For = 
the specifically architectural significance of the 
word, see Pavilion; Wing.) Porches and the — 
like of entirely subsidiary ; 
use are not considered an- 
nexes. 

ANNULAR. Ring- 
shaped ; especially applied 
to a Vault of which two 
forms are called annular. 

ANNULATED. Fitted 
or furnished with a ring or 
rings; thus an Annulated 
Column is one fitted with 
rings or the appearance of 
rings around its shaft. In 
medizeval work such col- 
umns are not unusual, Sometimes the shaft is — 
composed of two cylindrical pieces, and between 
them is set a 
comparatively 
thin and flat 
stoneofwhich 
the edge pro- 
jects and is 
worked into — 
mouldings, or — 
sculptured. 
Sometimes 
the shaft is 


ANNULATED COLUMN FROM held in its 
CHURCH OF 8. PETER, NORTH- 


ANNULATED COL- 
UMN FROM WHIT- 
BY ABBEY, 
YORKSHIRE. 


AMPTON. place by a 
thin ring of ef 
metal, and this, or the stone plate above de- ee 
scribed, may be firmly built into a wall or pier. a 


ANNULET ; ANNULUS. A small mould- 
ing or ridge forming a ring; especially one of 


ANNULET AT NECKING OF GRECIAN Doric CAPITAL. 


the projecting rings at the base of the Grecian 
Doric capital. (See Capital.) The form annu- 


lus is rare. an 
ANNUNCIATOR. An instrument used to a 
indicate which of many bell handles or bell but- a 


76 


ANS | 
tons has been used, as when a bell is heard to 
ring in a hotel. Sometimes, also, including a 
dial, or similar contrivance, to indicate the 
name of the article wanted by the person ring- 
ing. Before the general introduction of electric 
apparatus several simple devices were in use. 
In an electrical annunciator there is, in 
connection with each needle or drop, a small 
electro-magnet. When a signal is sent an elec- 
tric current comes over the circuit and passes 
round one of the small magnets, which then 
attracts a bit of iron that causes the drop or 
needle to change its position and indicate the 
place from which the signal has come. The 
drop or needle continues to indicate when it 
has once changed its position, even though 
the signal is momentary; but it can be set 
in the normal position again by pushing the 
button or moving the lever that is provided for 
this purpose. Annunciators differ in size accord- 
ing to the number of places to be indicated, and 
may contain hundreds of drops, as in a large hotel. 


ANS, MEASE;; architect and sculptor. 

Ans was a German who practised in Zaragoza, 
Spain, in the second half of the fifteenth century. 
In 1477 he completed the splendid retable of 
the Cathedral de la Seo, at Zaragoza. 

Vifiaza, Adiciones al Diccionario Historico. 


ANSE-DE-PANIER. Same as_ Basket 
Handle (adjectival term). (See under Arch.) 

ANSTEE ; architect ; d. 960. 

Anstée, archdeacon of the Cathedral of Metz, 
Lothringen, Germany, is supposed: to have been 
architect of the first cathedral building. He 
became abbé of Gorze in 945. 


Bauchal, Dictionnaire ; Lance, Dictionnaire. 


ANTA. (The plural ante is much more 
common.) A square or rectangular pier formed 
by the thickening of a wall at its extremity. 
In early Greek buildings, the porch was com- 
monly made by carrying the side walls out to a 
certain distance beyond the front wall which 
contained the door of entrance, thickening the 
ends of these two walls, and placing columns 
between the two antz thus formed (see Antis). 
The three sides of the anta may be of the same 


width, or that forming the face may be much 


wider than the two in return which flank it. 
The anta in Greek work has commonly a capital 
and base, and the ornaments of these differ very 
widely from those of the columns forming part 
of the same order. — R. 8. 

ANTE (adj.). Before, in front of, preceding ; 
used generally in compound terms. Of most of 
these the meaning is obvious. 

ANTECABINET. A reception room preced- 
ing the cabinet or private audience room of a prince 
or official, and usually furnished with considera- 
ble elegance. (See Antechamber ; Anteroom.) 

ANTECHAMBER. Originally, the room pre- 
ceding or leading to the bedchamber of a royal 

77 


ANTHEMION 


or highly placed official personage. As the bed- 
room was more commonly used for reception 
and ceremony than now, the antechamber was 
a place of importance, and large enough to hold 
many visitors. In modern usage, any waiting 
room, lobby, or anteroom giving access to another. 

ANTECHOIR. A reserved space more or less 
enclosed, in front of a choir; especially the 
space between the inner and outer gates of th 
choir screen. 

ANTEFIX. In classic architecture, an or- 
nament concealing the foot of the row of con- 
vex tiles which cover the joints of flat tiles (see 
Ridge Tile under Tile). The antefixes are thus a 
sort of widely spaced upright tablets forming a 
cresting along the lateral cornices of a gabled 
structure, taking the place of a cymatium. In 
Greek architecture, they were a feature of the 
Dorie order especially, and were usually of an- 
themion form. In the older and less important 
buildings, both Greek and Etruscan, they were 
painted terra-cotta; in more elaborate struc- 
tures, of marble. 

ANTELAMI, BENEDETTO ; sculptor. 

The most important Italian sculptor before. 
Niccolo da Pisa (see Niccolo da Pisa). In the 
latter part of the twelfth century he made the 
three portals of the Baptistery of Parma in the 
style of the French work of the time and intro- 
duced the motive of the Last Judgment in a 
tympanum for the first time in Italy. The 
sculpture of the Cathedral of Borgo 8. Donnino 
is ascribed to him by Toschi, op. cit. 

G. B. Toschi, ‘‘ Le Sculture di Benedetto Ante- 


lami a Borgo San Donnino”’ in Arch. Storico dell’ 
Arte, 1888, p. 14; Reymond, Sculpture Florentine. 


ANTENAVE. A narthex or porch of any 
description leading into the nave, and preceding 
it on the side farthest from the altar. 

ANTEPENDIUM. A hanging used for the 
front of an altar. (See Altar; Altar Frontal.) 

ANTEPORTICO. A portico preceding the 
main portico, as where an outer portico precedes 
a pronaos. 

ANTEROOM. A. Any room preceding, 
or serving as a lobby or means of access to an- 
other and more important room. 

B. More particularly, in English usage, a 
subordinate room, or one of several such rooms 
intervening between the entrance hall and an 
important room or suite. (See Antecabinet ; 
Antechamber. ) 

ANTHEMION. A. In Greek art, a flat 
decorative group of flower or leaf forms having 
the general character of a radiating cluster of 
blossoms of the same plant, and hence often 
called honeysuckle ornament. There are three 
or four types of the Greek anthemion constantly 
repeated in marble relief sculpture, in bronze, 
engraved upon metal, or painted upon vases; 
two of these types are often used in alternation. 
(See Anthemion Band ; Moulding.) 

78 


Ee se «eget ee ae tee 
’ S ¥ om ee ay 
eee te :; 


ANTHEMION BAND 


B. In other schools of art, a flat cluster, | 


bouquet, or group such as can be inlaid or painted 
or carved in low relief, and varying widely accord- 
ing to the ornamentation common in different 


ANTHEMIONS CARVED UPON THE CYMATIUM OF THE RAKING 
CORNICE ABOVE THE PEDIMENT OF A TEMPLE. 


There are three patterns, combining to form an anthemion moulding of un- 


usual richness. 


styles. In this sense the term is somewhat 
vague; but the characteristics of flatness and of 
radiation combined with floral forms are uni- 
versal. 

ANTHEMION BAND; MOULDING. A 
moulding adorned with anthemions, painted or 
carved. It is characteristic of classic and neo- 
classic architecture. In Greek architecture it 
was either a cyma recta crowning a cornice or 
was chiefly employed as a cymatium in the Ionic 
order, or, in the same order, a band under the 
volutes of a capital. Early examples in terra 
cotta are painted with anthemions imitated from 
pottery decorations, showing the origin of the 
motive. 

ANTHEMIUS OF TRALLES; architect. 

The pre-Justinian Church of Aya Sophia in 
Constantinople was burned Jan. 15, 532 a.p. 
The work of reconstruction was begun Feb. 23 
of the same year, and the new building was 
dedicated Dec. 26, 537, in the eleventh year of 
the reign of the Emperor Justinian (b. 483; d. 
565). In the cited work of Procopius published 
about 558 or 559 it is stated that Anthemius 
of Tralles, the most skilful master of his time, 
prepared the models for this building. Asso- 
ciated with him was the architect Tsidorus of 
Miletus. 

Procopius, De Aidificiis Justiniani ; Procopius, 
Of the Buildings of Justinian; Lethaby and 


Swainson, Sancta Sophia; Salzenberg, Baudenk- 
male von Constantinople. 


ANTHON, GHORGE DAVID ; architect ; 
b. 1714; d. Aug. 30, 1781. 
79 


ANTISTATES | a 
- Anthon studied under Higtved (see Bigtved). 


Sept. 30, 1751, he was appointed royal inspec- 
tor of buildings and in 1748 professor of archi- 
tecture in the academy at Copenhagen. In 

1760 he was appointed royal archi- 


tect. Anthon built the German Fred- 
eriks church at Christianshaven partly 


Anvisning til den civile Bygning- 


1759). 
Weilbach, 
~ Lexikon. 
ANTHON ; 
a Netherlander, 
Otto- Heinrichs Bau in Heidelberg 
(Baden, Germany,) in 1563. 
contract of Alexander Colin (see Colin, 
A.) he is mentioned with five others. 
Koch, Das Heidelberger Schloss. 


ANTICUM. Same as Pronaos. 
ANTIMACHIDES ; architect. — 
Associated with Antistates and 
others in the commencement of the 
temple of Zeus at Athens under Pei- 
sistratos. 
Brunn, Geschichte der griechischen Kinstler. 


ANTIPARABEMA. One of two chapels 


Nyt Dansk Kunstner 


at the west end of a Byzantine church, especially | 


of the Armenian type ; it corresponds to similar 

chapels (see Parabema) at the east end. 
ANTIPHILOS ; architect. 
Antiphilos is mentioned by Pausanias as one 


of the architects of the Treasury of the Car- | 


thaginians at Olympia, the others being Potheeus 
and Megacles. This was probably the fourth 
from the west in the series of treasuries discov- 


ered on the northern side of the Altis at Olympia 


(Greece). It was built by the Syracusans and 


was popularly called Carthaginian on account of — 


the spoils from the Carthaginians which it 
contained. 


Pausanias, Description of Greece, ed. J. A. 
Frazer ; Curtis and Alder, Olympia. 


ANTIS, IN. Between. ante (see Anta), 
said of columns in a portico, and by extension, of 
the portico itself. Thus, a portico of two columns 
between ante is said to be distyle in antis. 

In a few modern buildings, as in the Bowery 
Savings Bank, New York City, the intercolumnia- 
tion in the middle is very wide, the two columns 


being set close to the antz so as to allow of a 


broad and unencumbered entrance. 
81. 

Hee ois, architect. 

According to Vitruvius (VIL., preef. 75) the 
architects Antistates, Kallzeschros, Antimachides, 
and Porinos laid the foundation of the temple 
of Olympian Zeus at Athens during the reign of 
Peisistratos. According to Aristotle (Polit. 

80 


(Cut, col. 


from the designs of Eigtved (begun a. 
1755, finished 1769). He published. 


skunst (Danish and German ; folio, 


a sculptor, probably 
employed on the 


In the — 79 


od) oe 
Se ee 
cae ag 


PEATE Sut 


APARTMENT HOUSE 


A modern one in Paris, in the quarter near the 
S. Lazare Station. The facade is at once more 
florid than:is customary in Paris, with more elab- 
orate carving and wrought iron work, and also 
more stately, probably by reason of the order of 


pilasters, which faces two stories of the building. 
The management of that architectural étage is 
worthy of notice. The solecism of supporting the 
whole elaborate facade on shop windows is inevit 
able in modern street architecture. 


iar a " ad U es ry 4 5 Pel Sa! 


ANTOINE 


V., 11) the work was interrupted by the banish- 
ment of Hippias the son of Peisistratos in 
510 B.c. (For the continuation of this building 
see Cossutius. ) , 

Vitruvius, ed. Marini; Brunn, Geschichte der 
griechischen Kiinstler. 

ANTOINE, JACQUES DENIS; architect; 
b. Aug. 6, 1733, at Paris; d. Aug. 24, 1801. 

Antoine began his career as a working mason. 
In 1768 he was commissioned to build the 
Hotel des Monnaies in Paris (finished 1775). 
The plans and elevations of this building were 
published in a monograph after his death. He 
was attached to the works at the Palais de 
Justice (Paris) after the conflagration of 1776, 
and constructed the great stairway and grille of 
the Cour d@Honneur. (See Couture, G. M.) 
Antoine decorated the audience halls of the Cour 


Royale and built other important parts of the 


Palais de Justice. He introduced the use of 
the Greek Doric order in Paris in the little facade 
which he built for the Hdpital de la Charité. 

_ Lussault, Hloge d’ Antoine; Quatremére de 
Quincy, Histoire des plus célébres architectes ; J. 
D. Antoine, Hétel des Monnaies a Paris. 

ANTONIO DI BANCO. (See Nanni d’ 
Antonio di Banco.) 

_ ANTONIO DI PIETRO PAOLO (Dalle 
Masegne ?) ; architect. 

This Antonio is supposed to have been a son 
of Pietro Paolo dalle Masegne (see Masegne, 
P. P.), the Venetian architect. He built the 
Church of 8. Giacomo at Sebenico (Dalmatia), 
and in 1430 began the cathedral of that city. 
In 1441 he was superseded by Giorgio Orsini 
(see Orsini, G.). 


Jackson, Dalmatia ; Galvani, I7 re d’ Armi, etc. 


APARTMENT HOUSE 


Procolo (Bologna) which was still in existence 
in the sixteenth century. (See Giovanni da 
Siena.) He made the design and model for the 
great basilica of S. Petronio at Bologna appar- 
ently with the assistance of Fra Andrea Man- 
fredi (see Manfredi), and on June 9 laid the 
first stone of this building. 

Angelo Gatti, Maestro Antonio di Vicenzo; 
Guidini, Cose Mirabili, etc. 

APARTMENT. A. A room, or a room 
with antechamber, or with alcove and closets ; 
especially, in English usage, such a room with 
appurtenances when occupied as a bedchamber. 

B. A number of rooms with the necessary 
corridors, passages, and the like, occupied as a 
dwelling by one inhabitant or one family. This 
usage is connected with the French term 
appartement. 

The sense A is uncommon except in writing 
of some pretension; the sense 6 is compar- 
atively rare in England, but has become very 
common in the cities of the United States since 
the introduction of the Apartment House (which 
see) about 1865. It is generally held that an 
apartment, technically so called, contains a com- 
plete establishment with private hall and com- 
plete inner communication between the different 
rooms composing it. There are, however, 
apartments which have no kitchen, the occu- 
pants being expected to use the restaurant of the 
house. (See Apartment Hotel.) — R. 8. 

APARTMENT HOTEL. A _ building di- 
vided into suites for families, but without private 
kitchens and the like, the guests being sup- 
posed to use the restaurant of the house. This 
term is coming into use to mark the distinction 
between this class of building and the ordinary 
Apartment House (which see), in 
which each apartment is a complete 
dwelling. 

APARTMENT HOUSE. A 

building intended to be occupied in 

L separate apartments; especially in 
= American cities since 1870, a home 
for independent housekeeping by gen- 
erally more than two families, the 


a 


In ANTIS: SYRIAN PorTICO; 4TH OR STH CENTURY A.D. 


ANTONIO DI VICENZO ; architect and 
military engineer. 
In a document of July 3, 1386, he is men- 
tioned as constructor of the bastion of S. 
81 


rental for an apartment exceeding 
$300 per annum. Low-priced apart- 
ments are frequently called flats. (For 
the popular distinction made between 
Apartment, Flat, and Tenement, see 
Tenement. ) 

Historical. The high grade apart- 
ment for the richer classes is undoubt- 
edly of very much later origin than 
the tenement. In American law all 
buildings, whether they are called 
apartment house, tenement house, or 
flats, are classed as tenement houses. The 
apartment house, as it is now understood in the 
United States, is architecturally an independent 
and distinct type. There was probably an im- 
82 


APARTMENT HOUSE 


provement of the specially designed tenement 


into a cheap apartment; and then a further 
development, which finally tempted wealthier 
people into living in this way. Many causes com- 
bined to create a demand for high-class apartments 
in spite of the prejudice of the gentry and lesser 
nobility against them. It was natural that the 
demand should first have been felt upon the Con- 
tinent of Europe, and from the early years of 
the eighteenth century on, the élite of Paris have 
not hesitated to occupy apartments, and the 
private dwelling has become more rare with each 
decade. Other cities followed this example, 
until now apartment houses are common every- 
where upon the Continent of Europe. In Great 
Britain they have never been popular, and in 
America have only _be- 
come so within the last 
twenty years. <A_ five- 
story non-fireproof apart- 
ment house, erected on a 
street to the east of Union 
Square, New York City, 
was the first building of 
this kind in the United 
States. 

It was of course neces- 
sary to make the apart- 
ment house attractive from 
the start to secure a high 
class of tenants, and so 
the commercial influences 
operated to make the 
apartment house a new 
type as good sanitarily as 
the dwelling of the same 
class. With the apart- 
ment house once well es- 
tablished, the development 
in this direction has been 
down the scale of prices, 
applying the idea to con- 


<-—v0"— > 


APARTMENT HOUSE: 
Fic. 1. Two APART- 
MENTS TO A FLOOR. 


A house with apartments 
of this character is 
more often called Ten- 
ement House (which 
see). In this and the 
other figures, Z. Liv- 
ing Room (often called 
Parlour), A. Kitchen, 
P. Parlour, D. R&. Din- 


ing Room. stantly less expensive ac- 
commodations. 
Plan. Each apartment must consist of a 


parlour, a dining room, a kitchen, a bathroom, a 
servant’s bedroom, and one or more bedrooms 
of larger size. The kitchen should connect with 
the dining room and private hall through the 
butler’s pantry, where such exists. Each room 
must open to the outer air, and be connected toa 
private hall, which, in turn, connects to the 
public hall, which latter must contain the main 
stairway and the elevator when installed. There 
must be a dumb-waiter or a passenger elevator 
exclusively for service, readily accessible to all 
of the kitchens. The stairways should be with- 
out winders, 2 feet 6 inches wide for five stories 
or less, increasing to 3 feet 2 inches for ten stories. 
The main stair landings should be from 3 feet 6 
inches to 5 feet in width; the private halls 
from 3 feet 10 inches upwards in width, and 
83 


ee Mita 


‘APARTMENT HOUSE 


the entrance hall, which gives access to the din- . i 
ing room and parlour, and is an extension of the __ 


private hall, should be 4 feet 6 inches in width. 
The dumb-waiters should be 2 feet 6 inches by 
2 feet in the clear ; the passenger elevator, where 
there is one, should be at least 25 square feet in 
area ; the service elevator, where there is one, 
should be at least 16 square feet in area. Storage - 
space must be provided for the tenants in the 
cellar, and drying space for the wash either in 
the cellar or on the roof. The main entrance 
hall should be at least 7 feet wide with a separ- 
ate entrance provided for the tradesmen. The 
parlour should be at least 180, the dining room 
150, the kitchen 120, the bathroom 45, and 
the servant’s bedroom 75 square feet in area 
as aminimum. The demands for light and air 
require the development of a practically square 
plan with one or more buildings on a lot, all of 
the rooms of the apartment opening from or near — 
the central hall, two or more such apartments 
being grouped on a lot of size adequate for the 
purpose, the proportion of the lot occupied 
by the building depending on its shape. The 
usual American practice, since nearly all city 
lots in America are rectangles, is nearly as follows. - 
The unit lot in New York City, being four 

times as deep as it is broad, re- : 
quires that the main stair hall give 
access to the parlour, dining room, 
and perhaps the kitchen, with a 
long and narrow hall connecting 
the other rooms, making the plan 
for one apartment nearly rectan- 
gular, with an enlargement at the 
end containing the principal rooms. 
Many ingenious plans have been de- 
vised with small shafts and courts, 
and a wonderful irregularity of out- 
line ; but with a better understand- 
ing of the problem, the plan has 
become simplified to the outline 
given. Provision for light and air, 
while following in its general prin- 
ciples those laid down under Office 


emi Ona = 


Building, is subject to this modi- patos St 
fication, that direct sunlight with- Fre, eo 


out any limit is desirable for those 

rooms most used by the family in the daytime ; 
in consequence those buildings with the long axis 
east and west fronting on the street are usually 
the most remunerative. Where courts must be — 
employed they should be made as large as pos- 
sible, and should always be open at one end 
toward the point from which the prevailing 
summer breezes blow. Each should be arranged 
with the long axis in a northerly and southerly 
direction. All the living or principal rooms 
should have a southern exposure as far as prac- 
ticable. Fig. 1 illustrates a conventional build- 
ing on a narrow lot, intended for two families 
per floor, the light and ventilation being both a 

84 


« Saree 


APARTMENT HOUSE 


‘minimum and inadequate in a closely built up 


neighbourhood. Fig. 2 represents a common 
arrangement on a narrow lot for one family per 
floor. In both cases the height of the building 
is limited to five stories. Fig. 3 illustrates the 
lowest grade of apartment or high grade flat 
house on a larger lot and with better provision 
made for light and ven- 
tilation. Fig. 4 illus- 
trates a higher grade 
apartment in an excep- 
tionally good location. 
Finally, Fig. 5 illustrates 
the latest type of apart- 
ment house. 

The modification of 
the general principle of 
plan required by the 
varying sizes of the units 
is well illustrated in the 
various plans. Munici- 
pal regulations very fre- 
quently fix the height of 
stories, area of lot which 


s 
<—-—. SO’ __. —-—> 


APARTMENT HovusE: 
¢ Fig. 3 


of stairways, and other 
details which of course 
must be taken cognizance of in the planning. 
The great objection to the plan as developed is 
the necessity of either screening the bedroom 
windows by the use of wrinkled glass, ground 
glass, or shades, or else surrendering a very 
necessary privacy due to the inevitable prox- 
imity of windows practically facing one an- 
other across relatively narrow courts. These 
objections can only be met by considering the 
bedroom simply as a sleeping room, and frankly 
screening it from outside observation, shutting 
off also all outside view, in which case the win- 
dows could be made broader and less high, and 
the rooms themselves smaller, utilizing the space 
thus saved by the addition of a sitting room at 
some sunny point. The development of the 
ideal apartment, avoiding all objectionable 
features, is practicable only on a very large site 
where the commercial returns anticipated are 
moderate. This has been attempted but without 
any very striking success thus far. The devel- 
opment of the modification of the apartment 
house as an apartment hotel, which is practically 
an hotel divided into suites for family use, is 
subject to the same general limitation as to light 
and air. It is unnecessary, however, to provide 
kitchens, servants’ rooms, and the other conven- 
iences which go with them, and in consequence 
there is a greater liberty in planning, and the 
problem is more like that of an office building. 
Construction. All apartment houses should 
be constructed fireproof and with unbroken fire- 
proof walls between the apartments as far as 
practicable, securing in this way the maximum 


protection against fire and disease. Modifications 


85 


may be occupied, sizeg 


APARTMENT HOUSE 


may be made as permitted by building regula. 
tions and demanded by commercial considerations, 
but in all cases the first floor, stairways, elevator, 
and dumb-waiter shafts must be made absolutely 
fireproof in themselves, and be shut off from 
the balance of the building by means of fire- 
proof doors. The stairway to the cellar from 
the first floor should in all cases be away from 
the other stairway, and, if inside of the building, 
be fireproof. Commercial considerations will 
determine whether or not the walls should sus- 
tain the floors, sustain only themselves, or be 
sustained by a skeleton construction. 

Fire Escapes. Where the building is not 
completely of fireproof construction, fire escapes 
should be provided for each vertical range of 
apartments, the ladders or steps being at least 
2 feet wide, and the platforms having an area 
of at least 15 square feet. 

Toilets. In connection with the kitchen and 
servants’ quarters there should be a toilet room 
with one water-closet and a basin or one small 
bathtub. As the number of rooms and rental 
of the apartments increase, a more generous 
provision may be made for the servants and even 
provision made for both sexes. In the kitchen 
there should be two laundry tubs, one of 22 inches 
and one of 28 inches in length ; one sink ; either 
a gas or coal range, gas being now preferred ; 
either mechanically cooled boxes for refrigerating 
purposes or a refrigerating waste line with drip 
pans and connections, the waste line discharging 
over a sink in the cellar, and space provided for 
the setting of portable refrigerators over the 
waste. In the _ butler’s 
pantry a sink, and in the 
family bathroom a bathtub, 
water-closet and washbasin. 
All bathrooms or _ toilet 
rooms should have the 
floors and side walls to a 
height of at least 2 feet 
made impervious to moist- 
ure; the present practice 
is to use marble or mosaic 
floors, marble or tile wain- 
scoting at least 4 feet high, 
with large basin slabs, and 
the fixtures and plumbing 
of the most approved sani- 
tary type. The glazing of all 
toilet room windows should 
be in wrinkled, ground, or Apartment House: 
other white obscured glass. ae 

Lighting. Provision 
should be made for light- 
ing both by gas and electricity, using centre 
outlet combination fixtures in the principal 
rooms; in the kitchen and pantries the lights 
should be over the sinks, in the bedrooms ceil- 
ing outlets near the bureau location. The mains 
supplying the lights should run up in a central 

86 


<—- SO ante 


The room B may be a 
library or boudoir. 


APARTMENT HOUSE 


f 


| CHAMBER. 
16-0 K2l0« 


as 
VAS 


CHAMBER. 
\6-6 X 17-9" 


KITCHEN, 


LIBRARY, 
i9-0 x 23-0 


PLANS OF SECOND AND THIRD STORIES. 


DAKOTA. 


Wy 


maa tem ea NE a od A 


LIBRARY. 
166 x16-6" 


Gy CHAMBER, 


cLostt, 


KITCHEN. 


APARTMENT House: ‘‘THE Daxota,” New York: Fic. 5. (Arcuirect, H. J. HARDENBERGH.) 


Plan of an upper story, showing six separate dwellings. 


location with provision made for placing meters 
independently on the branch main to each apart- 
ment. The lighting of the public halls and 
elevators is at the owners’ expense from separate 
mains. Sometimes two mains are installed, one 
for the evening service and the other for the all 
night service, the mains being controlled by 
separate switches. 

Heating. Depending on the class of apart- 
ments either all the building or only the public 
parts are heated by the owner. Where the 
entire building is heated, low pressure steam 
or hot water with direct radiation is used. 
Where only the halls are heated, either a hot 
air furnace with large registers in the first story, 
or hot water radiators, supplied from the hot 
water heating system, may be installed. Hot 
water should be supplied to all of the sinks, 
laundry tubs, and washtubs by the owner of 
the building, the heating being done by a central 
heater. 


87 


Conveniences. In the lower grade apartment 
houses letter boxes with push buttons connected 
to the kitchen of each apartment are installed in 
the vestibule, and an electric door opener is 
placed on the vestibule door, controlled from 
each apartment. In the higher grade apartments, 
where a hall boy is employed to open the front 
door, and sometimes in less elaborate houses, a 
speaking tube telephone system is installed in 
the first floor hall connected with each apart- 
ment, having a switch and extension telephone 


into the janitor’s rooms for use after hours. 


During the hours of service of the hall boy, 
visitors can ascertain whether or not the people 
they wish to see are at home without going up- 
stairs, and the tenants can communicate with the 
janitor at any time. In all cases speaking tubes 
connected with each kitchen are placed beside 
the dumb-waiter for the use of the tradesmen. 

Fire places are usually installed in one or 
more rooms for either gas logs, or coal. 

88 


x 


APODYTERIUM 


Plant. In the higher grade apartments 
having two or more passenger elevators, it is 
customary and economical to install an inde- 
pendent plant for the operation of the building, 
using the exhaust steam for heating, furnishing 
mechanical refrigeration to all apartments, and 
electric current for light to all tenants. Under 
these circumstances the janitor is the chief 
engineer and should be a good mechanic as well, 
attending to all minor repairs throughout the 
building. — GrorcE HILL. 

APODYTERIUM. An undressing room in 
a Roman bath. It was near the entrance, but 
its exact character and disposition are not clear. 
The younger Pliny is the only Roman writer 
who uses the term. (See Thermez.) 

APOLLODOROS OF DAMASCUS; archi- 
tect. 

According to Procopius (op. cit. IV., 6) 
Apollodorus superintended the works undertaken 
by Trajan (emperor 97-117 a. D.). These 
were the Forum of Trajan at Rome, with the 
basilica and the famous sculptured column, and 
a gymnasium and odeon at Rome. He built 
also the bridge which Trajan threw over the 
Danube. Apollodorus was also employed by 
Trajan’s successor, Hadrian (emperor 117-138), 
at whose request he composed his Poliorceticus, 
a work on engines of war. The accepted story 
of Dion Cassius, that-Hadrian was jealous of 
Apollodorus and murdered him on account of 
certain criticisms which he made of the empe- 
ror’s designs for a temple of Venus and Roma at 
Rome, is discredited by Duruy. 

Brunn, Geschichte der griechischen Kistler ; 
Duruy, Histoire des Romains; Procopius, De 
Adificiis Justiniani. 

APOPHYGEH. The outward spread of the 
bottom of a shaft to form the fillet or cincture 
by which it joins the base; also applied some- 
times to the similar but slighter expansion at 
the top under the astragal. (Compare Congée.) 
The term is usually restricted to classic columns. 
(See Base ; Column ; Greco-Roman ; Shaft.) 

APOTHESIS. According to Vitruvius (IV., 
1), an increase of thickness of the Corinthian 
shaft at the top; apparently a copyist’s error 
for Vitruvius’s term Apophyge (which see). 

APPELMANS, PIETER; architect; d. 
May 25, 1434. 

Appelmans flourished at Antwerp (Belgium) 
in the early fifteenth century. He designed the 
Church of S. George in that city and began the 
cathedral. In 1420 he designed the famous tower 
of the cathedral which was finished in 1518. 

Immerzeel, Hollandsche en Viaamsche Kunst- 
schilders, Beeldhouwers, etc. 

APPENTICH. A subordinate or minor 
structure built against an edifice, and having a 
roof with a single slope; same as penthouse, 
but confused with the common terms ‘appendix ” 
and “appendage.” 

89 


APRON MOULDING 


APPLIQUE. An accessory decorative fea- 
ture applied to an object or structure ; the French 
term gradually becoming common in English. 
It may be as small as a bronze ‘handle on the 
front of a drawer or shutter, or as large as a 
marble tabernacle set up against the wall of a 
room. In decorative art the term is applied to 
a piece of one substance set upon a surface of 
other material, for decorative effect. 

APPLIQUE (adj.). Applied to a  sur- 
face ; especially for decorative effect. The term 
is French, and is used in English more especially 
in embroidery, but it is common among dealers 
in decorative objects and their customers. Some- 
times used absolutely, as a noun; but in this 
use the word Applique is better. 

APPRAISAL. A legally binding written 
statement of the value of any land or building, 
or of labor or material entering into a building ; 
a formal and official valuation. In Great Britain 
appraisals can be made only by licensed apprais- 
ers. (For the custom in France, see Architect, 
The, in France.) In the United States gener- 
ally, appraisals may be made by experts selected 
conjointly by the parties to the matter in dispute, 
or by a commission appointed by the court, 
referee, or arbitrator having jurisdiction over the 
question at issue. In cases of claims for ‘extras ” 
on building contracts, of unfulfilled or surrendered 
contracts, and of loss or damage of any kind, a 
correct appraisal is of great importance. 

APPRAISE. To estimate the value of in a 
formal way. (See Appraisal.) 

APPROACH. The avenue leading up to a 
building, especially (in English usage) from the 
park gates to the front of a manor house or 
country-seat. 

APPUI. In French, the sill, as of a window ; 
the appui forming the top part of the Allége 
(which see) and constituting usually a solid and 
separate member, The term signifies in French 
also a hand rail or top rail of a balustrade, or 
the like. 

APRON. In general, a more or less flat 
member placed over or against a construction 
to protect the parts below, as a drip or hood ; 
hence, any similar member whether so used or 
not. Specifically :— 

A. The horizontal portion of a window trim 
placed under the nosing of the inside sill or 
stool ; consisting generally of a somewhat wide 
flat surface with a moulding beneath. 

B. A strip of lead, tin, or other roofing 
material, set into a wall and bent down over 
the flashing; or extending over a gutter to 
direct the water ; or similarly used. 

C. The ornamental work below the cornice 
of a verandah. — A. P. 8. 

APRON LINING. The casing, or applied 
facing, of an Apron Piece. 

APRON MOULDING. A small moulding 
in place of an apron as defined under Apron, A. 

90 


subordinate clergy, probably 


apse is rarely polygonal in the 
Roman styles. In the Gothic 


: = b 
a oS 
i i 


A 
ie oa i 


a 


eS 


term apse is used for the simpler 
projections at or near the east 
om oy end; thus, in a small parish 

i SS I church the five-sided or seven- 
“ ee : aU sided projection with an aisle is 
often called an apse, but 

the term would not be ap- 


ni 
WANT 


| 


: 


ee 


i 


SS 


mh 


| 
| 


i 


APSE: SCOTTISH ROMANESQUE; DALMENY, LINLITHGOWSHIRE, C. 1150. 


a great cathedral with a 


APRON PIECE. In stair building a hori- | deambulatory and chapels. (Cuts, cols. Re 


zontal timber into which the carriage pieces and | 94; 95, 96.) —R. S. 
joistings at a half-space are framed. 

APSE. A nearly semicircular part of a 
building, forming a projection from the exterior 
wall, and the interior forming a large and deep 
niche. In Roman basilicas such a round projec- 
tion seems to have been used as a court room 
(see Basilica). In Christian churches of the 
earlier years in the Byzantine, Latin, and Roman- 
esque styles, the apse was used either singly or 
in threes. In some cases, an apse at either end 
of the church is found, as in the Cathedral of 
Bamberg, this arrangement is thought to have 
arisen from a change in the liturgical rite (see 
Orientation). Where there are three apses, they 
are sometimes side by side at the eastern or 
choir end of the church; and sometimes one 
projects toward the j east and the other two 


— 


oe 


| 


| 
i i i 


i ; i} 


| i 
i | 


i 


APSE: ENGLISH ROMANESQUE; RomsEY, HANTs, 
c. 1180. 


Counter Apse. An apse opposite the 
chief apse of a church. Counter apses are 
chiefly met with in German medieval 
architecture, as in the cathedrals of Bam- 
berg, Mayence, Spires, Treves, and 
Worms, and seem to have originated 
in German monastic arrangements, 
with the object of providing either 
for the joint worship of monks and 
Ht nuns, or for some liturgical 
Ce ne a 4 purpose such as a change in 

My etl the position of the officiat- 
ing priest (see Orientation). 


tH 


of its use outside of Ger- 


APSE: ENGLISH, 13TH CENTURY; TIDMARSH, BERKSHIRE. many. 
91 92 


toward the north and south (see Triapsidal). 
The apse seems originally to have been used 
for the bishop’s throne and the seats of his — 


following a tradition of Roman ~ ; a 
imperial times concerning the 
seating of the magistrates. The — 


mu am styles and in later styles, the — oa 


plied often to the chevet of 


There are very few instances. 


SSS SS 
a —— 
7 = fp 


2P ee 


SS, 
= 


\ 


\ 


te 


I ! 
mi A in 
MARTTI 
ANT RT 
ODEO TO 
i \ 


| 


Ni = 
Hie 


4 mn 


' me Pane { iN}, i 

SA ASNT ROUGE aie a 
Tee 
HS AA te fi 


4) 
Mish wind 


{ TF tt 
i Ne 
say en fists on ies 


APSE: §. GEORGIO AL VELABRO, ROME. 
94 


chit 


i iH : fy ony 
“ ay OF 
f J oie ie ut wit i! Ha 


' 4 
re Cal oe oa 
eee oH ' oe 


oY aT a 2.4 «=> 4, 


Ie 


oe 4 


APSH AISLE =" "7 Paa AQUARIUM am 
APSE AISLE. An aisle extending 


around an apse or chevet. (See Deam- 


bulatory.) 
APSE CHAPEL. A chapel opening 


from an apse. Radial apse chapels are a 


‘ 


propriated to astronomical nomen- _ 
clature. 

APTERAL. Having nowings; _ 
in Greek architecture, said of tem- _ 


ples having lateral colonnades or ? 


ees 


aS 


L Yt pror 

Say mes wren 
eq Hk 

COR Yn] <———se 


CS 
HA 


oY //o} OST 
vices SSS TTA 
aC Z : a (it ge, 
: Bil —/: f 
We a Se 
fou Bll he 
ae EW | 
= J x Be 35 iy } | 
£ La 24.4 f 2 Lap rmsita a : 
ay. 
2 rar ey oom ‘exe el ASA: = as 


APSE: SPANISH ROMANESQUE, 12TH CENTURY. 


conspicuous feature of French Gothic architec- | pteromata; in medizeval architecture, said of 
ture, as in Amiens, Bourges, Chartres, and Paris | churches without aisles, and more especially 
cathedrals, whence they were adopted into the | of the fronts of such churches, as those have 
German Gothic, as at Cologne. They are found | only a single gabled roof above straight and 


even in the French Romanesque, e.g. Notre- | simple side walls. : 
Dame-du-Port at Clermont, 8. Paul at Issoire. APTEROS. Without wings; said of a per- 
The English examples are few, Westminster | sonage to whom wings are generally ascribed, 
Abbey the most perfect. as, Nike Apteros, the wingless Victory of the 
APSID. Same as Apse. Greeks, perhaps to be indentified with the 


APSIDAL. A. Having the form of an | goddess Athene, when appearing as a personifi- 
apse or of rounded projection, as an apsidal | cation of Victory. 
termination of an east end. AQUARIUM. A. A vessel such as a box 
B. Pertaining to an apse; attached to an | or tank with at least one side of glass which, = 
apse, as, apsidal chapel, the same as apse chapel. | when filled with water, may be used for the 


APSIDIOLE. keeping of live 
A small apse; fish, crustacea, ; 
especially an apse 


and other crea- 
tures who live - 
habitually in the 
water. It is cus- 
tomary to furnish 
such vessels with 
water plants and a 
some surface of a 


projecting from a 
larger one, as 
where chapels 
project from the 
larger apse of the 
choir. 

APSIS (pl. 


Apsides). Same rock or pebbles - 4 
as Apse. This form to which such E 
of the “word fol- Lag plants can attach | 


lows the Latin ApsE CHAPEL, CHURCH OF NoTRE-DAME-DU-PoRT, CLERMONT- themselves. The <4 
original, but it has FERRAND. preparation of 


been mainly ap- With four apse chapels and two apses (or apsidioles) at east side of transept. such aquaria is a 
95 96 


~ cost. 


AQUEDUCT 


matter of considerable scientific and practical 
skill. | 

B. An establishment for the safe keeping, 
care, and display of a number of such tanks as 
in sense A. Such establishments have been 
set up for private profit and others at the public 
One of the most extensive and elaborate 
is the one at Naples which is celebrated all over 
Kurope. One of considerable importance has 
been established in New York in the building 
called Castle Garden, on the Battery. — R. 8. 

AQUEDUCT. A structure adapted for the 
transportation of water in large quantities to a 
considerable distance, consisting of a pipe or 
channel of any form, but usually covered and 
protected from injury. It has been usually 
held essential that the water should follow a 
tolerably even slope or descent from the supply 
to the fountain or reservoir where it is delivered. 
If an attempt is made to carry the water down 
one side of a valley and up the other, trusting 
to the natural rise of the water to its own level 
in an air-tight pipe, the difficulty of keeping the 
pipe air-tight is found to be almost insuperable, 
and the pressure of the water upon the joints, 
etc., so great as to make this kind of structure 
uneconomical, For this reason, the ancients 
followed the plan of carrying the water through 
tunnels sunk deep in the ground where it passed 
through hilly country, and carried it on long 
rows of lofty arches whereit crossed a wide and 
deep valley ; and modern practice is nearly the 
same so far as the recognized necessity of keep- 
ing a nearly uniform level. Modern appliances 
have, however, made it practicable to use what 
is called an inverted siphon; thus, in the two 
Croton aqueducts which supply New York 
City, the older one dropped its course a little 
where it is carried on High Bridge across the 
Harlem River; and that of 1885 and subse- 
quent years crosses the Harlem River by such 
a siphon several hundred feet lower than its 
general course and sunk deep below the bed of 
the river. Modern engineering has also at its 
command boring and excavating processes not 
known until the second half of the nineteenth 
century. Thus, in the case of the two aque- 
ducts named above, the first, built before 1841, 
follows a comparatively winding path, keeps as 
near as possible to the surface of the ground, and, 
as stated above, crosses a lofty aqueduct bridge ; 
while the more recent one follows a direct course 
far beneath the surface. This distinction de- 
pends mainly upon the boring machines in use 
and the use of high explosives for blasting. 
For this reason, the modern aqueduct passes 
entirely outside of the domain of architecture. 

The aqueducts of antiquity were extremely 
numerous. Those which have excited the most 
attention, and rightly, are at Rome, which city 
was supplied with water brought from a dis- 
tance as early as 312 B.c. Others were built 

97 


AQUEDUCT 


in rapid succession, and it frequently happened 
that one was placed upon another so that the 
same tunnel enlarged or the same row of arches 
crossing a valley would carry the two or three 
water courses. Thus, in a well-known: case, 
the Aqua Julia, built B.c. 33, the Aqua Tepula, 
and the Aqua Marcia are all carried through 
the walls of Rome at the same point. The 
water course itself was sometimes a boxlike 
tube of quadrilateral section, and built of stone ; 
sometimes of brick laid in mortar and arched. 
It is probable, however, that whatever the 
material of the channel it was lined with 
hydraulic cement, or by a fine concrete made 
of such cement and sand or finely broken stone 
or brick. Where these channels are supported 
upon arcades considerable interest seems to have 
been taken in the decorative effect of the whole 
structure. Those arcades which cross the Cam- 
pagna at Rome are so very long that it was 
natural to seek the most simple means of doing 
the necessary work ; but shorter aqueduct bridges, 
such as that which crosses the river Gard and 
supplies the city of Nimes in southern France 
(see Pont du Gard) and that which supplies 
the city of Tarragona and which has a height 
of nearly one hundred feet with eleven great 
arches below carrying a second row of twenty- 
five arches, are but types of the really noble 
compositions which the Roman engineers pro- 
duced. Modern engineering is too completely a 
matter of economy in the expenditure of force 
and of money to allow of thought on the part 
of the engineer for the resulting effect; but 
Roman work was done for a community which 
had not yet learned to erect anything without 
some pretensions to beauty of effect. These 
aqueducts of antiquity generally terminated in a 
showy reservoir, fountain, or castellum, and 
apparently these were of very considerable 
importance and beauty. None of them remain 
in good condition, but some have been found not 
so completely destroyed among Roman remains 
in North Africa. Medizeval aqueducts, neces- 
sarily inferior in extent to those of the Roman 
Empire in its great time, had still architec- 
tural character. The short one built by Pope 
Damasus in the twelfth century to carry the 
water from the fountain of the great basilica of 
S. Peter’s to the Vatican Palace has its foun- 
tain of exit in the court named from that Pope 
(Cortile di S. Damaso), upon which open the 
private apartments of the Pope and the famous 
loggie of Raphael. This fountain was rebuilt 
in the seventeenth century. At Montpellier 
(Hérault) in southern France is a very interest- 
ing aqueduct built in the reign of Louis XV. 
Where this approaches the city it is carried on 
a very well-designed bridge with two rows of 
arches, fifty-three in the lower row and one 
hundred and eighty-three above. This bridge 
terminates in a chdteau d’eau of the same epoch 
98 


AQUITAINE 


and of considerable merit. In the city of Rome 
modern fountains occupy the sites of many of the 


Mh E 


ie 


liv, 
i ap 


ARABESQUE: SPANISH, 16TH CENTURY. 


ancient castella ; the most famous of these being the 
fountain of Trevi. — R. 8. 

See works mentioned as authorities for Roman Im- 
perial Architecture, especially Middleton’s Remains of 
Ancient Rome, and those by Lanciani. 

AQUITAINE, ARCHITECTURE OF. (See 
France, Architecture of.) 

ARABESQUE. A piece of decorative scroll work 
or other ornament not closely studied from nature. 
Although the term is taken from Arabian, that is 
Eastern, ornament, it is applied generally to work 


ARABESQUES IN CARVED Woop. 
Adorning a 15th century house at Rouen. 


of European design. The paintings in : 
Roman houses discovered in Pompeii or a 
on the Palatine, at Rome, the sculptured 


ARABESQUE, ELIZABETHAN. eee 


reliefs of the same epoch when they = 
cover broad panels instead of narrow 
bands, and the imitations of such Me 
Roman work in the fifteenth and © 
sixteenth centuries are commonly called a 
arabesques. (See Roman Imperial a 
Nees We he y Architecture; Renaissance Architec- a 
Bedale mere fe sit Oo; ii va I aie ay ture ; Classic; Neoclassic; also, Orna- 
a Oe a) ment; Relief; Sculpture.) (Cut, cols. a 
ARABESQUE: SPANISH, 16TH CENTURY. 101, 102.) if 
99 100 | 


‘ nf 


ARABIAN ARCHITECTURE 


ARABIAN ARCHITECTURE. The archi- 
tecture of the Arabs. In their native country 
- there is little architecture of importance. When, 
as conquerors under the first caliphs, they had 


TSM st ae 2s eye 


ARCADE 


(See Accouplement; Columnar Architecture ; 
Coupled Column, under Column.) 

ARBOR; ARBOUR. A light openwork 
structure of wood or metal, covered or intended 


a SS eT en est 


ARABESQUE: EARLY 16TH CENTURY, ITALIAN TERRA COTTA. 


occupied a large part of Syria, Egypt, Persia, 
and other Oriental countries, an architecture 
took shape which is called by the French Ar- 
chitecture Arabe, but this contains very little 
indigenous or native character, and is almost 
wholly the work of Byzantine or Persian artists 
working for their new masters. The most im- 
portant buildings of the style are in Cairo, and 
others exist in Damascus. The architecture of 
the conquerors of North Africa and of Spain is 
generally, and more properly, called Moorish. 
The term “ Arab,” or “‘ Arabian,” as applied to 
architecture, has in it something erroneous, 
and therefore it is not used as the heading of 
any historical article in this Dictionary. (See, 
besides Moslem Architecture, the following: 
Balkan Peninsula; India; Persia: also 
Cairene; Hispano-Moresque; Moorish; Sara- 
cenic; Siculo-Arabian : also Minaret ; Minhar ; 
Mosque.) — R. 8. 

ARABO-BYZANTINE. Saracenic, or early 
Mohammedan, in style. (See Moslem Archi- 
tecture. ) 

ARH OSTYLE. Having columns separated 
by a clear space of four or more diameters ; used 
exclusively of the intercolumniations of classic 
columnar edifices. (See Columnar Architecture ; 
Intercolumniation. ) 

ARZAIOSYSTYLE. Alternately arzostyle 
and systyle; 7.e., having columns alternately 
spaced two diameters and four or more diameters 
apart in the clear. Written also Areosystyle. 

101 


to be covered with vines, as in a park or garden. 
When formed by two or more rows of posts or 
columns so as to provide a covered walk, it is 
sometimes called a Pergola. 

ARC. Any curved construction in plastering, 
wood, or ironwork, as distinguished from arch. 
(A. P. 8.) Not so used in the United States. 

ARCA, NICCOLO DELL’. (See Niccold 
Dell’ Arca.) 


ARCADE (I). A. Two or more arches with 


their imposts, piers, columns, or the like taken 


iN — 


at 


wn era Neg UPD 
ARCADE OF DECORATIVE PURPOSE; CHURCH OF 
COLESHILL, WARWICKSHIRE. 


together and considered as a single architectural 
feature. It is more common to use the term 
102 


— 


ARCADE 


for a considerable number of arches, and espe- 
cially where they are small and where the whole 


S—. 
i 


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\ 
— BY 
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ARCADE: SoutH AISLE oF CHoIR, LINCOLN CATHEDRAL; 14TH CENTURY. 


Thus, 
one of the four sides of a vaulted cloister would 


featuré is as much decorative as useful. 


ARCADE: 15TH CENTURY; LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. 


be more commonly spoken of as an ambula- 
tory, or a gallery, although the word arcade 
103 


might be used for the row of arches as they ar 
seen from the garth within. 7 


6S, te 
; 


ah 


“ARCADE 0am 


The arcade is a favo 
ite decorative feature in — 
nearly all arcuated styles — 
and especially in those of 
the Middle Ages. Thus, 
in the front of a Gothic — 
cathedral there is very 

commonly a large arcade 
raised high above the por- _ 
tals and having each o 
its arches filled with a 
statue. Inthe well-known _ 
front of Notre Dame in 
Paris an arcade of twenty- 
nine arches comes imme- 
diately above the great 
doorways. Hachof these 
arches is filled with a 
statue of a king or agua 
queen, and the whole is 
known as the Royal Gal- | 
lery, a term used in 
connection with other — 
churches as well. High 
up in the front, above the © 
great rose-window, is a 
second arcade of four great © 
double arches to each 
tower and four similar ones between the towers ; — 
these last open and showing the peak of the 
roof beyond, while minor arches adorn the but- _ 
tresses. This second arcade is on a great scale, 
the larger arches having about 8 feet span and 
rising 24 feet above the bases of their columns, 
while yet the arcade is purely ornamental, ex- 


INTERSECTING ARCADE: CHRIST CHURCH, OXFORD ; 
CLOSE OF 12TH CENTURY. 


cept in so far as it covers a narrow gallery for 
the caretakers or workmen. 
Similar arcades are used in the interior of - 
Gothic churches and very commonly in English 
architecture. It is certainly a more dignified 
and worthy system of design when these arcades 
104 


ARCADE ~ 
can be used to stiffen the 


walls which they adorn, and 
to a certain extent this is 


done in the Romanesque and — 


Gothic work ; still, however, 
the arcade is usually a purely 
decorative feature. 7 

B. A single arched open- 
ing, with its abutment, etc. ; 
rare in this usage, which is 
borrowed from the French ; 
but occurring in carefully writ- 
ten matter, as when a Roman 
memorial arch is spoken of 
as having one, two, or three 
“arcades.” (Cuts, cols. 107, 
108.) —R. 8. 

Intersecting Arcade. In 
the Romanesque architecture 
of the North, one whose archi- 
volts cross one another, being 
curved in imitation of inter- 


lacing bands. Many instances 
of this curious decoration ex-_ 


ist in England ; it is naturally 
limited to purely decorative 
arcades not large in scale nor 
deeply recessed. 

Surface Arcade. An ar- 
cade or system of arches 


built against the surface of a 


wall, or partially or wholly 
imbedded in it, generally for 
decoration, as frequently in 
Romanesque and medieval 
architecture ; a blind arcade ; 
called also Wall Arcade. 
ARCADE (II.). In Eng- 
lish, and forming part of a 
proper name, a covered gal- 
lery with shops or booths 
along its side. The Lowther 
Arcade and Burlington Arcade 
are well-known buildings of 
this sort in London. A very 
large building of this sort ex- 
ists in Moscow, having been 
erected in the seventeenth 
century ; in this there is an 
upper balcony connecting with 
several bridges which cross 
the open space ; and a second 
row of shops opens upon this 


baleony. One in Milan is de- | 


scribed under Galleria. There 
is no English name for this 
kind of structure, which is the 
nearest European approach to 
the Oriental Bazaar. 


Passage, IT.) 
105 


Enterprises of the sort are 
not common, and neither in French, Italian, nor 
English is there a special name for them. (See 


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ARCADE ON CouRT, HOTEL pD’ASSEZAT, TOULOUSE; 16TH 
CENTURY. 


ARC DE L’ETOILE. (See Arcde Triomphe.) 

ARC DE TRIOMPHE. In French, a tri- 

umphal arch; a term often applied to certain 

special buildings of the character of the Memorial 
106 


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Nave ARCADE, GREAT MALVERN CHURCH, WORCESTERSHIRE; 12TH CENTURY 
107 


108 


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ARC DOUBLEAU 
Arch. The most famous is the Are de 
VEtoile (“of the star,” or meeting-place of 
many streets) in Paris, begun by Napoleon I. 
and completed under Louis Philippe, except 
that the crowning sculpture was never added. 
Another is the arch standing between the Louvre 


- and the former palace of the Tuileries called Arc 


du Carrousel from the old Place du Carrousel 
(“of the tournament”). 

ARC DOUBLEAU. (PI. Arcs doubleauz.) 
In French, an arch, usually very massive, 
carried across a nave or other wide space, with 
the view of supporting a groined vault, or of 
merely stiffening a wagon vault, and, in some 
cases; of allowing for the more easy building of 
the centring. There seems to be no English 
term for this member; Transverse Arch (which 
see under Arch) has been adopted by some 
writers, but is inadequate. (See Vault ; Roman- 
esque Architecture. ) 

ARC DU CARROUSEL. 
Triomphe.) 

ARC FORMERET. In French, the wall 
arch or wall rib, or the corresponding rib coming 
next to the arcade between nave and aisle, or 
the like, as in Gothic vaulting. -There seems to 
be no English term which adequately describes 
the member in question. 

ARCH. A. A structural member rounded 


(See Are de 


- vertically to span an opening or recess; in this 


sense the term is used either for a decorative or 
memorial building, of which an upward curving 
member forms the principal feature and spans a 
gate or passage below, or for the member itself, 
considered as a firm and resistant curved bar 
capable of bearing weight and pressure. In 
this, the original sense, a wicker device thrown 
across a street or passage and covered with 
foliage and flowers, is as much an arch as a more 
permanent structure. (See Memorial Arch ; 
also Arch of Constantine, etc.; and Arc de 
Triomphe. ) 

B. A mechanical means of spanning an 


opening by heavy wedge-shaped solids which 


mutually keep one another in place, and which 
transform the vertical pressure of the superin- 
cumbent load into two lateral components 
transmitted to the abutments. The shape is 
indifferent, although arches are generally curved. 
The width or thickness, horizontally, is also indif- 
ferent, although an arch which acts as a roof and 
covers much horizontal space is called a vault. 
The constructional arch has been known from 
great antiquity, but it was rarely used by the 
ancients except for drains or similar underground 
and hidden conveniences. It appears, however, 
that the Assyrian builders used it freely as a 
means of roofing their long and narrow palace 
halls. (See Mesopotamia, Architecture of ; and 
Vault.) Assyrian vaults were built of unbaked 
brick put together with mortar, so that the arch 
or vault became a continuous and massive shell. 
109 


ARCH 


On the other hand, the Etruscans from a very 
early time understood the principle of the arch 
so well that they built arches of cut stone in 
large separate voussoirs put together without 
mortar. For us, the Etruscans were the origi- 
nators of the true self-supporting arch. It was 
adopted from them by the Romans; but both 
these nations confined themselves almost exclu- 
sively to the semicircular arch, both in span- 
ning openings in walls and for purposes of 
vaulting. The pointed arch seems to have 
been known as early as the round arch. It 
is, indeed, an obvious way of making an arch 
which shall have greater height in proportion to 
its width, and which shall in this way be 
stronger, because having less outward thrust. 
Its use in pre-Gothic building, as in early 
Mohammedan architecture, and in Romanesque 
buildings, as in 8. Front at Perigueux, is merely 
occasional and because of some preference on 
the part of the individual builder. (For its 
use in Gothic Architecture see that term and 
Vault.) The three-centred arch and the four- 
centred arch are both much used in the transi- 
tional work of the sixteenth century in Northern 
Europe. The segmental arch has hardly been 
used for decorative purposes, except occasionally 
in the Louis Quatorze style, before the present 
half century; it is now rather common in 
French work, and it may be that more could be 
made of it, architecturally speaking, than in the 
past. The flat arch is used commonly to 
produce a similitude of trabeated construction 
when in reality the stones accessible are too 
small for the great spans required. Thus, in 
Roman and neoclassic buildings, the epistyle or 
architrave between two columns is often made of 
separate voussoirs in this way, as in the Pantheon 
of Paris. Mechanically, an arch may be con- 
sidered as any piece or assemblage of pieces so 
arranged over an opening that the vertical 
pressure of the supported load is transformed 
into two lateral 

inclined pressures | 

on the abutments. 
Considered in this 
light, then, the 
stone window 
head shown in 
Fig. 1 is truly an 
arch. The stone 
is wedge-shaped ; 
and it will be 
readily seen that the load on it has a tendency to 
force this wedge down into the window opening 
by pushing the adjoining masonry away to the 
right and left, as shown by the arrows. An 
arch slightly more elaborate is the primitive arch 
shown in Fig. 2. Here two wedge-shaped stones 
lean against each other, and each one transmits 
pressures similar to those just described, the 
pressures at the respective upper ends counter- 

110 


ArcH, Fig. 1. 


The vertical pressure resolved into 
two diagonal sideway pressures. 


ARCH oy 
ure at each of its oblique ends, while the com- = 
bination of all these six pressures results ina 
lateral push on each abutment as shown by the 


ARCH 
This form of arch may be 


“ie = 
mn ale 
s 


acting each other. 


compared to a pair of rafters whose tiebeam 
has been removed and its function fulfilled by 


To go a | arrows. 


a weight at the feet of the rafters. 


xi x 
ACUTE ORLANCET 
TAR EES POINTED ARCH 


THREE-CENTRED be uae 
7 NDLE'ARCH 
BASKET HA acCENTREG 
Se 
were Re ue AT POINT 


This lateral push, in Figs. 2 and 3,is __ 


similar to that in Fig. 1, from which 
it differs in direction, owing to the 


inclination of the end pieces; were _ 


these more steeply inclined they 
would evidently exert a push more 
nearly vertical. Hence, the higher 


the arch in proportion to its span, — is 


the less lateral push will it exert. 
The foregoing considerations will 


be found to apply equally well to = 
all of the arches shown in Fig. 2, 


or to any other similar construction 
of wedge-shaped pieces. It will 
also be observed that, in the case 
of two or more such wedges, each 


one is being acted upon by the ad- 


joining pieces, which tend to force 
it outward ; this tendency is over- 


| 


ARCH, Fie. 3. 


The vertical pressures resolved into diagonal 
sideway pressures at the two abutments, 
and into reciprocal sideway pressures at 
the two joints between the stones. | 


come only by a proper and more 
or less uniform distribution of the 
loads to be carried. 


The lateral pressure on the abut- - 


ment is known as the thrust, and 
resistance to this force was the 
subject of constant experiment in 
the church building of the Middle 
Ages, resulting in the elaborate 
systems of engaged and flying but- 
tresses. (See Vault; Buttress.) 
Arches may be divided accord- 


ing to their form into the following — 


classes : — 
(a) The Flat Arch (which see 


0 ITALIAN below). 

| FICATION (6) The arch with one centre ; 
MOD e PaINTED (1) semicircular or Round Arch ; 
O ARCH (2) Segmental Arch; (3) Horse- 


ArcH, Fia. 2. 


Arches of different kinds shown as if all built in the same wall. 


shoe Arch. 

(c) With two centres ; (1) Equi- 
lateral Pointed Arch; (2) Lancet 
Arch; (3) Drop Arch or Blunt 
Pointed Arch ; (4) Pointed Horse- 


step farther, we have an arch made of three 

stones, as shown in Fig. 3, each one of which is 

acting as an independent wedge tending to force 

its way inward, and so exerting a lateral press- 
111 


shoe Arch; (5) Drop Arch in the second sense. 


(see below). These five varieties are what is 
known as pointed arches ; the first three being 
those in use in many styles. 

112 


ARCH 


(d) With three centres; (1) Basket Handle 
Arch ; (2) the round arch with reversed curve 
at crown. 

(e) With four centres; (1) that form of 
pointed arch in which two of the centres are on 
the springing line and two below; (2) that in 
which a two-centred arch is prolonged at top 
with a reversed curve (see Ogee Arch below). 

It is evident that a six-centred arch might be 
composed by giving to the form (e) (1) a re- 
versed curve as in the other instances ; but such 
subdivisions may be continued indefinitely ; 
thus a five-centred arch might be developed out 
of the basket handle arch ; and so on. 

An arch is divisible into the Haunches, or 
Reins, and the Crown. An arch is made up of 
Voussoirs, of which there may be one in the 
middle occupying the centre of the crown and 
called a Keystone. The inner side of the arch 
ring is called the Intrados. The outer side of 
the arch ring is called the Extrados, or back. 
When an arch is laid down on paper the hori- 
zontal line which passes through the centre in 
the plane of the arch, if there is but one, or 
which connects two centres, and which (except 
in the segmental arches, one- -or_ two-centred) 
marks the place at which the curve of the arch 
joins the vertical line of the abutment, is called 
the Springing Line. 


which in a drawing represents the intrados) is 


the height or Rise; sometimes called the versed | 


sine. The width between the two points of 
juncture above mentioned is the Span. That 
part of an arch which forms a part of the face 


BELL ARCH. 


From a belfry in a Swiss village above Vevay. 


of the wall is called the face of the arch, or very 
commonly, the Archivolt. Parts of the con- 
struction immediately dependent upon or con- 
nected with an arch are the Abutment ; Impost ; 
Skew Back ; Spandrel ; Springer. 

(For the influence of the arch upon building 
and architectural design see Arcuate.)— R. S. 

113 


The height from the | 
springing line to the intrados (or to the line - 


ARCH 


Abutment Arch. That arch of a series 
which comes next to the outer abutment ; as 
the land arch of a bridge. 

Back Arch. An arch carrying the back or 
inner part of a wall, where the exterior face of 
the wall is carried in a different way ; as above 
a window opening, which has a stone lintel for 


CHANCEL ARCH, HEADINGTON, OXFORDSHIRE; 
MIDDLE 12TH CENTURY. 


the outer part of the wall and a concealed arch 
carrying the inner part. 

Basket Handle Arch. A three-centred arch 
of the more usual kind; see the illustration. 
The term might equally well be applied to a 
five-centred or seven-centred arch having the 
same general form. 

Bell Arch. An arch resting upon two corbels 
with curved face or edge, so that the resulting 
compound curve has a distant resemblance to 
the outlines of a bell. 

Built Arch. One composed of material other 
than masonry and put together with rivets, 
spikes, or the like ; therefore not depending upon 
the mutual support of voussoirs, nor yet a solid 
ring of masonry. The simplest form is the 
Laminated Arch (see below). The more elabo- 
rate forms are more usually called by such names 
as arched truss, or arch truss, and instances of 
this latter class are to be seen in such great in- 
teriors as the Grand Central Railway Station at 
New York, and in bridges such as the Washing- 
ton Bridge across the Harlem River, New York 
City. 

Camber Arch. Same as Flat Arch (see 
below) ; so called because it is usual to give to 
the intrados, and sometimes to the extrados as 

114 


ARCH 


well, a very slight camber. It is, of course, 


an arch with a scarcely perceptible segmental 


curve. 

Catenarian Arch. An arch whose intrados 
or central line is a catenary curve; extremely 
rare in architecture, though not uncommon in 
engineering. 

Cloistered Arch. Same as Cloistered Vault 
(which see under Vault). 

Composite Arch. Same as Mixed Arch. 

Compound Arch. A. Same as Built Arch. 

B. Same as Mixed Arch. 

Contrasted Arch. An Ogee Arch, or one 
with a reverse curve. 

Cusped Arch. One which has cusps or ‘folia- 
tions worked on the intrados. 

Cycloidal Arch. One whose intrados or 
centre line is a cycloid ; a form thought to have 
been recognized in the architecture of India. 

Depressed Arch. Same as Drop Arch. 

Diminished Arch. An arch having less rise 
or height than a semicircle ; whether segmental, 
multi-centred, or elliptical. The term is not in 
common use. 


Cu 
Os ae 


Gn) (Stes 


F = | 
a) 


= 


DISCHARGING ARCH OVER A WOODEN LINTEL. 


Discharging Arch. One built over a lintel 
or similar closure or opening in a wall, and 
intended as an appliance for throwing the load 
above an opening to the piers on both sides and 
thus relieving the lintel or flat arch from the 
danger of being fractured or dislocated. In the 
case of an arched doorway, where there is a 
tympanum under the arch or a lintel with a 
glazed light above it, the arch is considered 
as the principal thing, and the lintel, or as it is 
sometimes called, the transom, as an accessory ; 
and here the term ‘discharging arch” would 
hardly be used. 

In some cases the discharging piece, of what- 
ever nature, is concealed. Thus, in Roman 
and neoclassic buildings the architrave may be 
composed of voussoirs, and this flat arch may 
be relieved by a discharging arch, above each 
intercolumniation, and this may occupy the 
whole height of the frieze, which thus masks or 
even wholly conceals the discharging arch. 

115 


Drop Arch. (1) A enna arch in whieh ar 
the two centres are nearer together than the ~ 
width of the arch, so that the radii are less 
than the span. (2) One in which the centres is E- 
or some of the centres are below the springing 
line, as in Basket Handle Arch. Ve 

Dutch Arch. Same as French Arch. : i | 

Blliptical Arch. (1) An arch the curve of 
whose intrados is an ellipse ; this form is very — 
unusual, probably because nearly the same curve _ 
can be reached by combinations of circular curves a 
with three or five centres, and because such a — 
curve is much easier to eorieeeade and to trans-> ea 
fer. (2) A three-centred or five-centred arch, 
of which the Basket Handle arch is the more 
common form; evidently an inaccurate term, — 
and to be avoided. | 

Equilateral Pointed Arch. 
Arch below.) 

Extradosed Arch. One which has the 
extrados clearly marked, as a curve exactly or — 


(See Pointed — 


DISCHARGING ARCH OVER A FLAT ARCH, FORMING 
LINTEL. 


nearly parallel to the intrados, therein differing 
from an arch whose voussoirs are cut with hori- 
zontal returns so as to pass into the masonry 


of the wall. The extradosed arch has then 
a well-marked archivolt. 
Flat Arch. One having a horizontal or 


nearly horizontal intrados, and, in most cases, 
a horizontal extrados as well. ‘A flat arch with 
slightly concave intrados is called a Camber 
Arch. When built of brick the radiation of 
the voussoirs is effected in cheap work by the 
thickening of the joints outward ; in finer work, 
by cutting or rubbing the brick to the required 
taper, or by the use of specially moulded bricks. 
Such arches are for square-headed openings and 
in fireproof flooring between steel or iron beams. 
Their transverse weakness and great thrust - 
make them undesirable for heavy structural 
work, and in walls they are consequently often 
relieved by discharging arches. Fireproof floor 
116 


ARCH 


arches are built of specially designed hollow 
voussoirs burned very hard, and capable of sus- 
taining a heavy load up to seven or eight feet 
span. (See Fireproofing.) 

Flat arches occur in Roman work both in 
brick and stone, relieved as above mentioned by 
discharging arches. A similar construction is 
much more common in Arabic buildings and to 
some extent in Turkish, being made a decorative 
feature, constructed with alternate voussoirs 
of dark and white marble ingeniously toggled 
together by cutting the cheeks into interlocking 
patterns, and pushing the voussoirs in from the 
front. In some cases this is a mere veneering, 
covering brickwork or rubble. Somewhat simi- 
lar flat arches occur in the hoods and openings 
of some medieval fireplaces. In Lincoln Cathe- 
dral is a stone arch, nearly flat, of over thirty 
feet span between the two towers of the front ; 
but such examples are very rare. 

The strongly projecting architraves over en- 
gaged columns, both in Roman and modern 
work, are often of several pieces cut to form a 
flat arch, and this is true even of architraves 
over free columns when these are too widely 
spaced for safety with monolithic architraves ; 
but in modern architecture such joints are com- 
monly cut merely for the appearance of stability, 
a concealed metal beam really sustaining the 
flat arch and its load. — A. D. F. H. 

Foiled Arch. Same as Cusped Arch. 

French Arch. A poor form of construction 
for forming a horizontal top to an opening by lay- 
ing bricks on a slope of about forty-five degrees 
starting from a skew back at each jamb and 
meeting at an angle in the centre. Properly not 
an arch, as the joints of the brick do not radiate. 

Groin Arch. (See under G; see also Groin 
Vault, under Vault.) 

Groined Arch. 
(See Vault.) 

Hand Arch. One turned without centring, 
usually by the aid of a board whose edge is cut 
to the required curve, and serving as a template. 

Hanse Arch; Haunch Arch; Haunched 
Arch. One of which the crown is of different 
curve from the haunches, which are thus strongly 
marked; usually a Basket Handle or three- 
centred or four-centred arch. 

Horseshoe Arch. One in which the curves 
are carried below the springing line so that the 
opening at the bottom of the arch is less than 
its greatest span; see the general article above. 

Imperfect Arch. Same as Diminished Arch 
(see also Scheme Arch). All these terms seem to 
arise in the fancy, natural to academic students 
of neo-Roman style, that all arches not semi- 
circular are in some way incorrect. 

Inflected Arch. Same as Inverted Arch. 

Interlacing Arch. (See Interlace.) 

Inverted Arch. One whose springing line 
is above the intrados and the intrados above 

TT. 


Same as Groined Vault. 


ARCH 


the extrados. Such arches are used in construc- 
tion, as in foundations where very narrow piers 
have to be given a wider bearing upon the soil. 
The conditions are almost precisely similar to 
those of arches resting upon piers and with a 
superincumbent mass. In lofty modern build- 
ings inverted arches are not common, as engineers 
prefer to give to each pier an unyielding and in- 
elastic support. (See Base Course ; Grillage.) 
Jack Arch. Same as Flat Arch; also any 
arch doing rough work, or slightly or roughly built. 
Laminated Arch. One built of thin pieces 
of material, such as boards, which are succes- 
sively bent to the 
curve, each around 
the one _ below, 
and finally bolted 
orspiked together. 
Such pieces are 
laid so as to break 
joints and may be 
used ten or twenty 
thick in a single 
laminated arch. 
Lancet Arch. 
A pointed arch 
whose centres are 
farther apart than 
the width or span 
of the arch; the 


reverse of the ey! 
blunt pointed LANCET ARCH, WESTMINSTER 
ABBEY. 


arch. 

Land Arch. In a bridge or viaduct crossing 
a stream or valley, one of the two arches which 
come next to the bank and which spring from 
the exterior abutment. 


Lobed Arch. Same as Cusped Arch. 
Memorial Arch. (See the article under 
Memorial.) 


Mixed Arch. An arch made up of curves 
struck from different centres and having an un- 
usual form, such as the four-centred arch used 
in English Perpendicular work. The term has 
no technical value. 

Moorish Arch. Same as Horseshoe Arch. 

Oblique Arch. Same as Skew Arch. The 
term is also applied, but improperly, to a Ram- 


pant Arch. 
Ogee Arch. One having a reverse curve at 
the point. The name is most often applied to 


an arch which has only two centres on the 
springing line (in this like an ordinary pointed 
arch) and two centres for the reversed curve ; 
but many ogee arches have four centres for the 
arch proper and two for the reverse curve. 
(See Accolade.) 

Ogival Arch. A pointed arch of the type 
most common in Gothic architecture ; a mistaken 
use of the French term. (See Ogive.) 

Pointed Arch. One in which two curves 
meet at the crown at an angle, more or less 

118 


ARCH 


acute. Ordinary two-centred pointed arches.are 
called lancet or acute, equilateral, and blunt 
(see the subtitles which follow the article). 
Some Italian arches are of unusual form, with 
extrados and intrados not concentric. The 
pointed form is, like the round form, of unknown 
antiquity. Perhaps the earliest use of it as an 
important part of an architectural style is to be 
found in mosques, such as that of Tulun in 
Cairo (though it is asserted that the Coptic 
builders in Egypt used it from an earlier time ; 
see Gayet, L’ Art Arabe ; compare Moslem 
Architecture and Egypt). It was used in 
Romanesque work in the West, though never 
very freely. When, therefore, the system of 
rib vaulting was in the earliest stages of its 
development, the pointed arch was ready at 
hand, a familiar expedient ; and its utility under 
the new conditions became evident (see Gothic 
Architecture; and Rib Vault, under Vault). 
Adopted thus as a necessary part of the construc- 
tion, it became also the characteristic decorative 
' feature of the new style. 

Acute, blunt, and equilateral arches were 
freely used in the same building; but the four- 
centred arches were not used until a very late 
time (see Tudor Arch below ; also Elizabethan 
Architecture ; Tudor Architecture). The two- 
centred segmental arch was a still later piece of 
decadence. 

Raking Arch. Same as Rampant Arch. 

Rampant Arch. One in which the impost on 
one side is higher than that on the other. Thus, 
in a stone balustrade for a staircase, the small 
arches supporting the hand rail spring upward 
from the top of one baluster to the top of an- 
other. The curve may be of any shape which 
allows of imposts being placed continually higher 
from one end to the other of the arcade. 

Relieving Arch. Same as Discharging Arch. 

Rollock or Row-Lock Arch. One in which 
the bricks or other very small pieces of solid 
material are arranged in separate concentric 
rings. Such arches are common in simple brick 
masonry; but engineers generally reject them. 

Round Arch. One of semicircular curve ; 
usually limited to one which is very slightly 
stilted, if at all, so that its appearance is of a 
semicircle and of no more, above the imposts. 
This form is the only one used in Roman Im- 
perial, Byzantine, Romanesque, and cognate 
styles, as well as much the most common form 
in Renaissance and Post-Renaissance architec- 
ture. These are often classed together, roughly, 
as the Round-arched styles. 

Safety Arch. A discharging arch; an arch 
thrown over a lintel to relieve it, or under a bear- 
ing to distribute it over a larger surface of wall. 

Scheme Arch. Same as Diminished Arch. 
The term seems to be derived from the Italian 
scemo, “diminished” or “lowered” (see Im- 
perfect Arch). Spelled also Skeen. 

119 


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“a 


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Segment Arch; Segmental Arch. One hav-— ii a" 
ing for the curve of its intrados and extrados 


concentric segments of circles and whose centre, 
therefore, is a certain distance below the angle 
made by the impost with the inner face of the 
abutment, such as the jamb of a door or window. ~ 

Semiarch. An arch of which only one half 
of its sweep is developed; as in a flying but- 
tress. 

Skew Arch. One in which the archivolt on 
either side is in a plane not at right angles with 
the face of the abutment. Thus, if a doorway 
is carried through a thick wall in a direction 
not at right angles with the face of that wall, 
the arched head of that doorway would be called 
a skew arch, being really a barrel vault whose 
axis is at an oblique angle with the face of the 
wall. 

Splayed Arch. An arch opening which has 
a larger radius at one side than at the other. 
As was said above of the skew arch, this is a 
vault rather than an arch proper. An accurate 
term for it would be conical vault. 

Stilted Arch. One in which the architec- 
tural impost, with its mouldings, abacus, string- 
course, or the like is notably lower than the 
springing line ; so that the intrados passes into 
the vertical jamb of the opening, and this is 
continued downward as if a part of the intrados. 
The whole archivolt follows this form. 

Straight Arch. Same as Flat Arch. 

Straining Arch. An arch used as a strut, 
as in a flying buttress. 

Subarch. One of two or more minor arches 
beneath and enclosed by an outer arch, as in 
Gothic tracery, or in the simpler forms of Italian 
domestic architecture. 

Surbased Arch. A depressed arch ; an arch 
of which the rise is less than half the span. 

Surmounted Arch. A stilted semicircular 
arch ; a semicircular arch of which the centre 
is above the impost. 

Three-lobed Arch. One of which each 
haunch is developed into a cusplike form ; so 
that the archivolt itself, if there is one plainly 
distinguished, or the intrados alone, assumes 
the form of a trefoil. The form with a com- 
plete archivolt is rare, but occurs on a large 
scale in the Cathedral of Tournai. The form 
where the intrados only is three-lobed occurs in 
many arcades, usually small, of the thirteenth 
century. 

Transverse Arch. The arched construction 
built across*a hall, the nave of a church, or the 
like, either as part of the vaulting or to sup- 
port or stiffen the roof in some other way, or 
to furnish a solid substructure for the centring. 
In Romanesque vaulting, the transverse arch 
(see Arc Doubleau) is hardly of use, except ~ 
as an assistant in fixing the centring, but the 
timid builders of the time preserved it as a 
possibly needed aid, especially in the building 

120 


ARCH 


of groined vaults. In Gothic vaulting it is the 
rib which crosses the nave, aisle, or the like, and 
divides the vaulting into compartments. 
Where there is no vaulting, an arch is some- 
times built across the interior, carrying a wall 
which supports the purlins and other longitu- 


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ARCH: TRANSVERSE ARCH. 


South aisle of the abbey church, Vézelay; transverse arch dividing the 


compartments or vaulting squares. 


dinal timbers of the roof. (For this usage, see, 
illustration to Refectory.) 

Triangular Arch. <A. The corbel arch of 
the Maya; so called by Stevens. (See Corbel 
Arch ; Central America ; Mexico, Part I.) 

B. A structure composed of two stones sup- 
porting one another mutually so as to span an 
opening. (See Arch.) 

Trimmer Arch. An arch usually of brick- 
work and of very low rise, built between the 
trimmers where a floor is framed around a 
chimney breast. Its thrust is taken up usually 
by the stiffness of the header on the one side 
and by the brickwork of the chimney breast on 
the other. Its purpose is to support the hearth 
of the fireplace in the story above. 

Triumphal Arch. (See Memorial Arch.) 

Tudor Arch. A four-centred pointed arch 
so called because common in the architecture of 
the Tudor style in England. 

Allan, Professor W., Theory of Arches, New 
York, Van Nostrand, 1890, 12mo; Cain, William 
C. E., Voussoir Arches applied to Stone Bridges, 
Tunnels, Domes, and Groined Arches, New York, 


Van Nostrand, 1879, 1 vol., 12mo; Choisy, L’ Art 
de Batir chez les Romains; Viollet-le-Duc, Dic- 


121 


ARCHITECT 


tionnaire de l’ Architecture, see under Construc- 
tion; votte, arc. See also Vaulting, Bibliog- 
raphy. 

ARCHAIC. Pertaining to or having the 
character of extremely early and primitive work. 
As applied to different branches of art, the term 
refers to different but specific periods ; 
as, for example, in Greek art, to the 
formative period between the Heroic or 
Homeric Age, and the middle or end of 
the sixth century B.c. Archaic is dis- 
tinguished from primitive art by its evi- 
dence of those definite progressive ten- 
dencies which give form to the later and 
more perfect art. 

ARCHAIC SMILE. The peculiar 
expression of mouth and eyes, resem- 
bling a smile, which characterized early 
Greek sculpture of the human face down 
to the close of the sixth century B.c. 

ARCHAISM. A. A lapsing into 
the style of a long-past age or period, 
whether intentional or involuntary. 

J. The product of such a reversion 
to an extinct style or practice. 

ARCH BAND. Any narrow elon- 
gated surface forming part of, or con- 
nected with, an arch ; whether an Archi- 
volt or forming part of an Intrados; a 
term used by masons. 

ARCH BRICK. A brick belonging 
to, or prepared for, an arch ; particularly 
one especially moulded, cut, groined, or 
rubbed to fit its place in a given arch. 

ARCH BUTTANT. Same as Fly- 
ing Buttress; a misuse of the French 
term arc boutant. 

ARCH BUTTRESS. 
Buttress. 

ARCHER, THOMAS ; architect; d. May 
23, 1743. 

He was a pupil of Sir John Vanbrugh and 
executed under his direction the Church of 
S. John the Evangelist, Westminster. He 
built also the Church of 8. Philip at Birming- 
ham (England). Several of his edifices are 
illustrated in Campbell (op. cit.). 

Walpole, Anecdotes of Painting; Campbell, 
Vitruvius Britannicus; Arch. Pub. Soc. Dictionary. 

ARCHING. A. The operation of building 
an arch or of shaping into the form of an arch. 

B. A system or series of arches; arched 
construction. 

ARCHITECT. A man charged with the 
preparation for a building, its plan and design, 
and with the supervision of the work of the 
builders who actually put it up and finish it. 
Obviously, an architect may be charged with 
any part of this work, and may leave it to an- 
other at any stage of the proceedings. The 
man is equally an architect who, having under- 
taken the task of carrying the whole building 

122 


Same as Flying 


ARCHITECT 


to a conclusion, dies after the lot is chosen, the 
drawings made, and the main lines are staked 
out upon the ground. Equally is he an ar- 
chitect who, taking charge of a building nearly 


finished, carries it to completion, including its. 


decorations and final preparation for use. The 
term signifies nothing more than head workman 
or director of the workmen, and the exact duties 
of the architect vary with the epoch, the country, 
the kind of building, and the wishes of the owner. 

In many countries and many ages building 
has been so much a matter of tradition, every 
part of the structure being so fixed by rules or 
by customs which no one dreamed of violating, 
that a priest or a high officer of the court was 
more nearly the architect than any one else, 
because he employed without intermediary the 
masters of gangs of workmen and, perhaps, 
even the workmen themselves directly. Thus, 
it is not probable that any person having charge 
of the whole building stood between an Egyptian 
priest and the builders of the temple with which 
he was especially charged. Exact knowledge 
of these matters is not now procurable ; but it 
is probable that very precise formulas governed 
the planning of pyramids and temples. Even 
in a time and place as well known in comparison 
as Athens under the rule of Pericles, we learn 
that Phidias (see Phidias) managed everything 
and was “overseer in all the work” undertaken 
in Athens, but we have no knowledge of his 
immediate share in this work. We are told 
that Ictinus (see Ictinus) was the architect of 
the Parthenon ; but again we do not know how 
far he was the designer of the building, how far 
it was he who determined the extraordinary re- 
finement of measurement, of curvature, and of 
proportion which the building manifests, and 
whether he did the placing of the sculpture. 
All our information upon these subjects in an- 
tiquity is vague because of the real indifference 
of those classic authors whose writings we still 
possess as to works of art in their detailed 
character. There was little sympathy among 
literary men with the work of the sculptor, 
painter, or builder of decorative buildings, and 
works of art were considered as objects for 
which, indeed, guidebook knowledge might be 
furnished, but concerning which no critical ex- 
amination was undertaken. Even in times of 
the Roman Empire when organization was car- 
ried very far, and the great officers of the gov- 
ernment were men of rank and influence, we 
have only names without other details as to the 
men in charge of the most important works. 
Cossutius (see Cossutius) i is named by at least 
four ancient writers as the architect who began 
to rebuild the temple of Olympian Zeus at 
Athens 168 B.c., and Apollodorus (see Apollo- 
dorus) of Damascus is named by two ancient 
writers as having been employed by Trajan, 
early in the second century A.D., on the works 

123 


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¥ ae A are g Meret “ eae 


~—s Rent eae 
- 


ARCHITECT Be 
of his great forum and basilica in Rome . a A 
the famous stone bridge over the Danube ; a 


but it is wholly uncertain what this artist’s er 
share in the work really was, what his authority 
was, how much responsibility he had, and, there- 
fore, how much credit he deserved for the beauty a 
It is not known 
how he was paid, nor whether his control of __ 
the building extended beyond administration, 
that is to say, whether he was expected to 
furnish designs for sculpture and painted detail, _ 


and utility of the buildings. 


or merely to see that such details were provided 
and paid for. 


we may call them, the architects of the earlier 
Middle Ages. We know that, in the time of 
S. Louis, Pierre de Montreuil (see Pierre de 
Montreuil) was the architect of the Chapel of 
the Virgin at Saint Germain des Prés, where he ~ 


‘and his: wife lie buried, and it is thought that 


he was also the man employed by 8S. Louis 
upon the Sainte Chapelle. It is not until we 
reach the thirteenth century that even such — 
information as this is available, and not until a 
century later that much can be learned concern- 
ing the position and duty of the architect, and 
this because building traditions and skill in 
building were in a sense the property of asso- 
ciations of workmen. Some one, indeed, must 
have been employed to take general charge of a 
proposed new church, must have supervised the 
laying of the foundations and have directed 
the character of the structure ; and this officer 
was undoubtedly paid by salary and by certain 
privileges accorded to him. In the fourteenth 
century we find this to be the case. A salary 
small in our eyes is helped out by the privilege 
to employ a certain number of apprentices upon 
the work, whose services were paid out of the 
fund for the building, thus increasing the mas- 
ter’s gain, and also by exemption from im- 
posts, or by the free use of a house, or the like. 
Lorenzo Maitani (see Maitani) was appointed, 
toward the close of the thirteenth century, chief 
master builder of the works upon the newly 
undertaken cathedral at Orvieto, but he did not 
at once remove from his native place, Siena. 
He must have sent drawings; perhaps, also, 
models, for we know little of the means employed 
by the designer to convey his thought to the 
workmen. Twenty years later Maitani was 
persuaded to settle in Orvieto with a monthly 
salary of twelve florins of gold, and leave to 
bring scholars with him with permission to 
wear such heraldic bearings as he might select, 
and with exemption from taxes. For twenty 
years more he exercised supervision over the 
work of the cathedral, and then died at his post. _ 
(See Travel and Study in Italy, by Charles - 
Eliot Norton.) An architect so employed would 
naturally remain in charge of a large church for 
a number of years, directing first the masonry 
124 


There is, indeed, doubt of this — a 
sort connected with the directing builders, or,as 


ARCHITECT 


walls, then the vaults and roofing, the filling of 
the windows with glass, etc., and all the time 
seeing to the preparation of statues, sculpture 
in relief, and the more architectural details 
which, however generally they may have been 
designed by certain subordinates, according to 
certain well-known principles hardly to be de- 
viated from, were still to be completed to the 
satisfaction of the man in control. 

With the appearance of the neoclassic styles 
of building in Italy in the fifteenth century 
begins also the era of individual fame for the 
architect, comparable to the individual fame 
accorded to the sculptor or the painter of mural 
pictures. Alberti (see Alberti) is looked upon 
as the architect of this or that building which 
is assumed to haye been designed by him, in 
the years between 1430 and his death in 1472 ; 
just as Donatello (see Donatello) is looked upon 
as the sculptor of a bronze statue ascribed to 
him. Alberti was not a builder nor sculptor 
by trade, but a scholar and student of Roman 
literature, one of the promotors of the revival 
of learning, and he turned his attention toward 
the investing of architecture with what he 
thought to be Roman spirit, much in the same 
temper which his contemporaries showed in 
writing what they took for Ciceronian latin. 
A half century later, when the Duchess Mar- 
garet of Austria wished to build the monu- 
mental church in a suburb of Bourg en Bresse 
in the southeast of France, a painter, Jean 
Perréal (see Perréal, J.), called Jean de Paris, 
was chosen for the work; but, as has been 
pointed out by a writer in the Gazette des 
Beaux Arts, there were endless quarrels and 
disagreements as to the duties to be performed 
by the architect, and the reward and the merit 
of the design both for the church itself and for 
the astonishing tombs which it contains is still 
left unappropriated, claimed at once for Jean 
de Paris and for the local master mason. A fter- 
ward, when Jean de Paris had to go to Italy 
with King Louis XII., in whose court he held 
the position of valet de chambre to the king, 
Margaret of Austria appointed a Flemish master 
of the works, Louis Van Boghem. That posi- 
tion of “‘valet” continued to be occupied by 
men of art and letters even as late as the time 
of Moliére, a fact which illustrates the extreme 
difficulty there is in comparing the titles of 
officers and employees in even such not widely 
separated ages of the world as the seventeenth 
and nineteenth centuries. The building we are 
considering is the Church of Brou (which see 
under Church ; and consult Henri Havard, La 
France Artistique et Monumentale ; and R. de 
Maulde la Claviére in the Gazette des Beaux 
Arts, 1895-1896). What is noticeable in all 
this is the absence of any professional position for 
the architect. He is a painter and designer of 
decorations for great festivals, like Jean de 

125 


ARCHITECT 


Paris; or a scholar with a taste for making 
studies of Roman triumphal arches, like Leo 
Battista Alberti; or a practised builder and 
sculptor, like Maitani ; or, like the great Brunel- 
lesco (see Brunellesco), a man hesitating be-- 
tween sculpture and building, but gifted with 
so great a genius for novel construction and 
with so great a courage of his convictions that 
he forces his service upon the trustees of the 
Cathedral of Florence and builds for them that 
astonishing tour de force, the great masonry 
dome bearing the stone lantern which is in it- 
self a very massive building eighty feet high. 
Even in the seventeenth century, Sir Christo- 
pher Wren (see Wren) was not by profession an 
architect, but a mathematician with many of 
the tastes and habits of a retired scholar ; it 
took the great fire of London to bring him for- 
ward as the only man whom the king and the 
citizens would trust implicitly. Perrault (see 
Perrault, Claude), who designed the beautiful 
colonnade of the Louvre, was not by education 
an architect, but a physician, and his design 
carried it even over the immense reputation of 
Bernini (see Bernini), and over the position 
brought to Bernini by the fact that the king 
had invited him especially and at great expense 
from Rome to Paris. 

It is evident, however, that a great step 
toward a peculiar position, a specialized profes- 
sional status, was taken by the architect during 
the classical revival of the fifteenth century in 
Italy and the sixteenth century in France. This 
came of the partial disappearance of the tradi- 
tional ways of building and the demand made 
upon the architect, in the case of each new 
building, for a wholly new set of details, all in 
accordance with one another and with the 
general design ; details which for the first time 
were unknown to, and not to be furnished by, 
the workmen, but had to be drawn or modelled 
by the chief, who alone was cognizant of the 
new laws supposed to be derived from ancient 
Roman practice. From that time to the present 
day every building of importance may be said 
to have had an architect who is considered to 
be the artistic designer fully as much as the 
constructional engineer. 

In very recent times the architect has become 
primarily the fiduciary agent whose business it 
is to administer the funds committed to his 
charge. The modern architect is equally in his 
right place and doing his work as architect 
when the building in hand is wholly without 
artistic character as when it is rich and beauti- 
ful. The New York Chapter of the American 
Institute of Architects supplies the following 
definition: ‘‘ An architect is a professional per- 
son, whose occupation consists in originating 
and supplying artistic and scientific data prelim- 
inary to and in connection with the construction 
of buildings, their appurtenances and decora- 

126 


ARCHITECT 


tions; in supervising the operations of con- 
tractors therefor; and in preparing contracts 
between the proprietors and contractors thereof.” 
It is to be noted, however, that the word 
“artistic” is not always applicable ; for a man of 
business wishing to have a perfectly plain factory, 
mill, or warehouse thoroughly well built will, to- 
day, naturally employ an architect as the interme- 
diary between himself and the builders. Even 
when such a piece of work has to be done as 
the arrangement of what are called vaults under 
the sidewalk of a city building without the 
slightest pretence of architectural arrangement, 
the architect will still have to be employed and 
will still earn his pay. 

It is probably on account of this businesslike 
aspect which the pursuit of the architect has 
put on, that the architect’s position is often 
regulated by law; that examinations have to 
be passed and licenses obtained before one can 
practise ; see, however, the contrary practice in 
France (see Architect, The, in France, below) 
where severe laws as to the failures of an archi- 
tect replace the system of authorization. It is for 
this reason also that payment is now generally 
made by percentage on the cost of the work. 
Practically, in all the countries of Europe and 
in the United States, a payment is made based 
upon the theory that five per cent on the cost 
of the work is proper remuneration for the ar- 
chitect who has had full charge of the work, 
furnishing the drawings and superintendence 
and completing the building. Frequently the 
charge is higher than this when the work is 
elaborate and involves great labour on the part 
of the designer in proportion to its money cost ; 
on the other hand, the charge is often less when 
the work is very costly in proportion to its 
elaboration of design. Very small buildings, 
too, are often charged at a higher rate, chiefly 
on the theory that an architect could hardly 
afford to design and superintend a summerhouse 
or boathouse for $50 even if the cost of the 
building did not exceed $1000. 

It is necessary, however, to explain in detail 
the way in which the architect does his work 
at the present time ; and the practice in other 
countries does not differ so greatly from that of 
the Eastern states of the United States that one 
description may not serve for all. The archi- 
tect, having received notice from the owner 
that he is employed-for the work, makes some 
preliminary studies in consultation with the 
owner, visits the ground, decides upon the exact 
placing of the building, except in the case 
where it has to occupy the whole, or nearly the 
whole, of a city plot, employs a surveyor in the 
latter case to give him the exact points beyond 
which no parts of his building may project, and 
then begins to make drawings. An architect 
in a small way of business may make all the 
drawings himself, having perhaps a draughts- 

127 


ye a 
-ARCHITHCT = am 
man at small pay to make tracings from them 
on transparent paper or cloth. An architect in 
a large way of business, or a large architectural _ 


firm, has many draughtsmen employed, some at 


high pay and in responsible positions. 
Drawing.) 


Beside the drawings, the Specification has to 


be made. The contract is also drawn up by 


the architect who usually has a printed form by © ; 


him to fill up. (See Contract.) The work 
then beginning is carried on successively by 
excavator, mason, contractor for iron work, 
carpenter, roofer, joiner, plumber, gas fitter, and _ 
the like, all of whom work under the architect’s _ 
direct supervision, or under the supervision of 
some one replacing him. (See Superintendence.) 
It is generally understood that no money is to 
be paid by the owner to any of the mechanics 
except on the written certificate of the architect ; 
and, on the other hand, it is generally under- 
stood that the architect is bound to give that 
certificate when it is due, and that the owner 


owes the money and should pay it immediately — Ree | 
This 


upon the presentation of the certificate. 
fact is worthy of notice because it happens not 

infrequently that the owner will say to the — 
architect that he does not want to have any 
certificates presented during the current month, 
or not more than $20,000 in any month, or 
something of that nature. It is clear that 
whether the architect can comply with this 
request or not depends upon the rate at which — 
the work is proceeding, and that the architect 

cannot always yield to what is after all the mere 
asking of a favour. 
employed by the owner to see that the work is 
rightly done before he pays for it, is still in the 


position of a man who must see fair play be- aa 


tween the two contracting parties, and the rea- 
sons why he is employed and paid exclusively 
by the owner of the property are that not he, 
but the builder, is engaged in doing the work, 
and that every one knows by an instant’s glance 
whether the check offered him in payment is 
correct or not, whereas only an expert, and one 
constantly employed in watching the building, 
can know that the work done is a proper 
equivalent for the money payment to be made. 
In fact the terms of the contract generally 
make it plain that the architect has as clear a 
duty to see the contractors paid in full and 
promptly as to see that they do their work. 
according to the terms of the agreement. 

Alterations do not differ from new building 
except as to the necessity of measuring in 
advance and careful examination of the old 
work which is to be altered. An extra charge 
is sometimes made for this preliminary survey. 

Restorations of ancient buildings thought ~ 
important as architectural monuments are 
treated under the term “ Restoration.” 

In some European countries the architect has 

128 


The architect, although : 


ARCHITECT (ENGLAND) 


very special duties as surveyor, appraiser, and 
the like — duties recognized by government and 
regulated by law. Thus, in England, there is 
business for a number of architects in valuing 
glebe lands, houses, and other property held in 
turn by different incumbents of a rectory or 
other position occupied by a clergyman of the 
Church of England. When the last previous 
incumbent entered upon the property, a survey 
and valuation of it was made, and now that he 
leaves it another survey is made because of the 
great necessity there is to estimate the improve- 
ment or the deterioration of the property while 
in the late incumbent’s hands. In France the 
bill sent you by a mechanic who may have made 
alterations or repairs in your house, may be 
submitted to an architect whom you employ for 
the purpose, not having previously employed 
him to plan or direct the alterations in question. 
It is his professional duty, in which he is sup- 
ported and controlled by law, to see that this 
bill is correct before the owner of the house can 
be compelled to pay it. (See the articles which 
follow, Architect, The, in England, etc. ; also, 
Bill of Quantities, Building Surveyor, and the 
terms referred to in the course of the above 
article.) — R. S. 

ARCHITECT, THE, IN ENGLAND. 
- From the point of view of those who employ 
him, the architect is a professional adviser and 
assistant in all matters pertaining to build- 
ings, an executive officer, whom they appoint 
to exercise for them authority, and duties, of 
artistic, practical, and economic nature. (See 
Architect.) On the other hand, some would 
require that an architect should be a student of 
a traditional cult whose mission it is to engraft 
upon the outgrowth of the living world as much 
as he can of a past archzeological flora, even at 
the sacrifice of some of the more modern ten- 
dencies, and to maintain academic dogmas as long 
as possible, although the fact that previous 
similar dogmas have been abandoned indicates 
that such can only be temporary. 

This latter definition is really the extreme of 
the creed toward which much academic training 
tends. One of its products is “ the battle of the 
styles,” in which each side not only claims to 
be right, but absolutely anathematizes the other. 
It is quite naturally so. Schools must be con- 
ducted by men who devote more time to the 
traditional art than to the practical. They 
often build up for themselves standards and 
precedents and methods out of touch with the 
greater world for which they primarily exist. 

Art is a reality, and is greater and higher 
than her devotees have ever said. But she 
should be our familiar friend, visible in every 
work of every day, and therefore must descend 
to everyday matters. It is necessary that art 
in architecture should be ready and able for the 

opportunities which daily occur. 
; 129 


ARCHITECT (ENGLAND) 


The English system of architectural educa- 
tion, while it leaves much to be desired, has 
great advantages in that its fundamental prin- 
ciple is that academic study shall be subordi- 
nated to, and coincident with, actual work under 
a practising architect. The student thus learns 
at one time the purpose and the profit of his 
studies. His wants and the satisfaction of 
them occur to him simultaneously. 

There are possibilities in this system which 
have not yet been fully developed, partly because 
the academic course has even in England main- 
tained too separate an attitude. Let us examine 
it in detail. 

The origin of the system is the apprenticeship, 
which sprang from the customs of Guilds, in 
which all skilled labour was organized in the 
Middle Ages. In Elizabethan time it was still 
unlawful to follow any occupation until after 
apprenticeship. The articles of apprenticeship 
therefore were not only a promise to teach, but 
also an admission to a close corporation, with 
its privileges to practise. But these restric- 
tions, after much curtailing, were finally repealed 
in the reign of George III., so that now the 
privileges are unofficial or private, and largely 
fictitious. Still, the form of apprenticeship 
survives for its other real advantages, and the 
architect in English practice who has _ not 
passed through it is rare. It is usual for a 
pupil to engage with a master for three years, 
paying a premium which he receives back as 
salary in the latter part of his term. But the 
many branches of study which have no place in 
the office routine of an apprentice have to be 
provided for. These at first very appropriately 
fell to the care of those societies which had 
been constituted for the conservation of the 
higher interests of the profession. The Royal 
Institute of British Architects, and the Royal 
Academy of Arts, have long given some facilities 
to students in these departments, and in a more 
general way The National Art Training School 
(at South Kensington and numerous branches) 
has assisted. The universities and colleges 
have also contributed in various courses toward 
the same ends, and more recently the New 
London County Council has included technical 
education in its progressive programmes. But 
with all of these independent and scattered 
opportunities it could be hardly claimed that 
there was a system until the Architectural As- 
sociation, by patient continued effort, established 
a real school of architecture in comprehensive 
form, and secured harmonious action with some 
of the other older societies. 

This Association, constituted in 1847, was, 
and is, one relying upon codperative effort of 
the students themselves. More liberally in- 
spired, more accessible, and more practical than 
the senior bodies, it speedily became useful. 
Its early efforts, chiefly in freely contributed 

130 


ARCHITECT (HNGLAND) 


papers and classes for mutual criticism, reached 
a valuable efficiency twenty years ago, and lately 
have developed into a systematic four years’ 
course intended to supplement the training 
acquired in the offices where members are en- 
gaged as pupils or assistants. The fees are 
moderate, ten guineas each session, and the work 
is almost entirely arranged for evenings. The 
list of lecturers and instructors includes the 
most able men of the time, and the old system 
of honorary “ Visitors” (seniors as critics) is 
retained. 

There are certificates, medals, and prizes, and 
. beyond these the course leads up to that of the 
Royal Academy of Arts with its further lectures, 
medals, and scholarships, and to the examina- 
tions and graduation in the Royal Institute of 
British Architects, which is the legitimate 
climax of any architectural training in England. 
The passing of this examination is now a pre- 
liminary condition to membership in the Insti- 
tute. But apart from this fact the Institute 
examinations are really the natural sequel to 
the Association course, and with the present 
cordial relationship between the two societies 
may be considered as a single system. 

The curriculum at King’s College, London, 
spreads over three years, a course of study also 
intended to lead up to the Institute examina- 
tions, arranged in three terms for the year, and 
- occupying practically all the time of the student. 
It claims, however, that this work is intended 
to prepare students for admission to an office 
or to supplement their work there. But three 
years is a long time for the student in architec- 
ture to double by taking successively what he 
can do simultaneously. It is not surprising, 
therefore, that the Institute itself sustains, by 
quoting in its journal (October, 1892) the opin- 
ion that “the course of education now provided 
by the Association is substantially that most 
suited to the majority of students.” It is 
gratifying, too, to note the following passage in 
the same place. ‘‘The constant aim of all 
Association endeavours is to develop originality 
and individuality in its members, and the fact 
that its government, and to a large extent its 
actual tuition, is in the hands of comparatively 
young men, is a complete safeguard against 
any tendency to rigidity or formality, either 
in its methods or its teaching.” The curricu- 
lum of the A. A., in four divisions, contains 
all the subjects generally set down as essential 
to a full course of study as taught by the 
schools. English architecture claims perhaps 
a large share of the historical course, but this 
is inevitable. Practical matters, construction, 
sanitary science, etc., are fully and intelligently 
handled. 

A student of architecture in England has 
abundant opportunity for systematic work. 
After a good general education he may com- 

131 


‘feet MER: a a i 
- ARCHITECT (ENGLAND) : 


mence with the Institute ‘“ preliminary exam 
ination, ” by which he enters himself as a pr 


bationer, and a trial term in an office. Then, 
probably being articled in deference to time- 
honoured custom, he may enter the Association — 


and take up the curriculum as a four years’ 


course, requiring four evenings a week for eight __ 
months of each year, one evening at lecture, or 
class, one in preparation for same, and two 
He may, of course, 
spread the work over a longer period, or per- 
After two years he 
may pass the intermediate examination. (The — — 
examination is divided in order to avoid the 
strain and ‘cramming ” encouraged by onelong 
continued ordeal.) After four years he may 


evenings in the studio. 


haps shorten it somewhat. 


take the “final” or qualifying examination. 


All this time he has been at regular work as 
either pupil or “improver” in an architect’s 


office. He will then usually make a change to 
some other office in a more responsible position, 
perhaps he will continue his Association work, 


possibly it is not completed, or the examination 


not successfully passed. If he has still the 


energy and pluck for evening work, he may — 


enter the Royal Academy, of which the Archi- 
tectural School is artistic only (omitting science 
as such). The course is valuable, the lectures 
and the practice of more advanced design espe- 
cially, but the greater number of students there 
have in mind the medals and _ scholarships. 


The principal prize is the gold medal and foreign 
travelling studentship, which (together) are 
The course, Pro- > 
bation, Lower School, and Upper School, takes 


awarded every second year. 


five years. It would be very much better if 


this course could be brought into more harmoni- — 
ous working with the Association and Institute 


programmes so as to permit of its being taken 
by the same students without the excessive 
waste of time. At present it does not form a 
necessary part of the unified scheme, which may 
be called the English system of architectural 
education, and which may be summarized as 
the office work, the Association classes, and the 
R. J. B. A. examination. . 


The best results of the above described system — 


are yet to be seen. The architecture of to-day 
is being done by men who enjoyed only the less 
perfect beginnings of the system, when it was 
being evolved from their experiences. 

There are great possibilities in it. It should 
turn out practical architects. It avoids, to 
some extent, that pitfall of youth, the self-satis- 
fied period of collegiate graduation, from which 
the reaction upon entry into the real world is 
so demoralizing. It keeps the actual living 
work and the revered traditions in touch with- 


out allowing either to extinguish the other. It ~ 


is above all others a practical system, having 

grown out of necessities and not out of theories. 

To Americans it promises better results than 
132 


leave still two evenings of work. 


ARCHITECT (ENGLAND) 


any other, because of its cooperative decentral- 
ized methods. The examining power is the 
only one claiming authority ; all the OE 
routine is free for self-organization. 

It might be an advantage to decrease the 
quantity of night work. It is of course desir- 
able that the man who lives by his practical 
office work should have facilities for evening 


study, and these will always be the best students. . 


But it undoubtedly would be better if a pupil, 
who has entered an office for the purpose of 
education, could devote at least two afternoons 
each week to his Academic work. That would 
It is dis- 
couraging to some students, especially those 
whose means permit them free choice, to have 
to do such hard work as the English course re- 
quires; and it can well be argued that the 
standards of the profession could be depreciated 
by making its preliminaries so exacting as to 
divert many from its doors. The student should 
not be required to sink his whole individuality 
in the routine of a course. He will have his 
favourite special subjects, and should be allowed 
some time and opportunity for them, as well as 
for the ordinary social and intellectual pursuits 
of youth. 

The whole course of routine work should not 


_ necessarily exceed four years, with perhaps some 
post graduate work under the stimulus of the 


grand prizes. It should be possible for the 
student to complete his collegiate education 
before entering the strictly technical, and still 
complete the latter before the age at which it 
is necessary for a man to begin his individual 
career. Allowing a year for travel)and for the 
process of establishment, this would reach the 
age of twenty-four or five, none too early for 
the commencement of a professional career. 

While reducing the time demanded, further 
improvement might be made in the character 
and scope of the examinations. The tests 
should be more nearly such as prevail in actual 
practice. In design, for example, it is injudicious 
to require a student to design a complete build- 
ing in a day without any previous notice of the 
subject. Every sensible architect would wish 
(and in practice would be able) to think a week 
or a month before he attempted expression, and 
he would consult many precedents and duthor- 
ities. For an examination in design, therefore, 
the subject should be announced two weeks, 
at least, in advance, and access permitted to 
any works of reference which would be proper 
in an architect’s office. Criticism of, and awards 
for, design should be on broader and more 
enduring grounds. The fashion prevailing is 
not always the highest art, nor the fashionable 
architects the highest judges. 

In constructive science, too, although the 
student should show a knowledge of the prin- 
ciples upon which ordinary formule are con- 

135 


who makes fewest mistakes. 


in this department. 


ARCHITECT (FRANCE) 


structed, it is not necessary that he should 
burden his memory with them. 

The graduates in examination should be 
allowed all the usual books of tables and 
formule in general use. They are few enough. 
Then the questions and problems should be real 
ones, not ingenious tests of a pedantic memory. 
Many men who cannot trust their recollection 
for a single formula or constant, are yet able 
and expert under fair conditions; indeed, ‘the 
man who never trusts his memory is the one 
The architect 
who knows just where to find tabulated results, 
and how to use them, is better equipped than a 
mathematician who befogs his simplicity of view 
in a laborious mass of detail. 

Much more force is added to this argument 
when the examination is one for qualification, 
to which men already in active practice are 
entered. A thoroughly competent man may, 
nay does, look upon a test of the usual kind 
with dislike and distrust simply because of its 
pedantic and unreal demands. This should not 
be. All such examinations should represent as 
nearly as possible the conditions of actual work. 
Conducted in such a way it seems that this 
system of standard examinations, by a central 
body with authority, of students who have been 
following a course of study under independent 
educating institutions in which variety may be 
permitted to great extent, is the most promising 
method of architectural education. It may be 
added that the standard for graduation should 
not be so high as to be discouraging. If it is 
more difficult than the tests of actual work, it 
cannot be enforced. An architect who can with 
the available tables properly proportion his 
beams, girders, and columns, and can also by 
graphic methods make analysis of strains in 
ordinary trusses, arches, piers, etc., can do all 
that the average architectural practice requires 
For graduation no more 
should be required ; an ‘‘ honour ” degree may be 
given for higher attainments, but these highly 
ranked students will not always be better 
architects. — Ropert W. GIsBson. 

ARCHITECT, THE, IN FRANCE. ‘There 
are in France about 5000 persons assuming the 
title Architect; of whom there are 3000 in 
Paris and its banlieue, and 2000 in the depart- 
ments. Of this number 1300 at the outside 
may claim to have been taught at the Hole des 
Beaux Arts. The instruction given in that 
establishment is the subject of a special article 
in this dictionary. (See School of Architecture. ) 
It is therefore necessary in this article to examine 
into the teaching of the 3700 other architects 
in France. 

Many have studied in the workshops. These 
are sons of workmen or of master workmen, 
having followed the occupation of their fathers 
and completed their education in the office of an 

134 


ARCHITECT (FRANCE) 


architect in a neighbouring city. It follows 
that these are not adherents of any special 
school. The remainder have been taught in 
professional schools, or in schools in Paris, of 
which the principal ones will be named. below. 

In the first line must be named L’£cole 
Spéciale d’ Architecture. This is situated in 
Paris on the Boulevard du Mont Parnasse. 
It was founded about 1863 by an association 
in which Mr. Emile Trélat took the most active 
part. The charge for teaching is 800 francs 
per year. The course of study is nearly the 
same as at the Meole des Beaux Arts, but is 
directed in a more practical fashion. Its dura- 
tion is fixed at three years. The attendance of 
the pupils is obligatory, and they do not enjoy 
the same liberty which is found at the cole 
des Beaux Arts, —a liberty which may be 
thought too complete. 

After this special school comes the Hcoles 
Nationales des Beaux Arts of Bourges, Dijon, 
Lyons, and Algiers, whose programmes of study 
are also more or less closely copied from those 
of the Paris National School. The tuition given 
is gratuitous. It includes figure drawing, the 
drawing of ornament, painting, sculpture, archi- 
tecture, construction, mathematics, geometry, 
perspective, anatomy, general history of the arts, 
and also the decorative arts especially useful in 
the country where the school in question is 
established. For instance, at Bourges the ap- 
plication of painting and sculpture to ceramic 
ware ; at Lyons special studies of flowers with 
a view to their application to the designing of 
textile fabrics. In one of these schools a young 
man may go through his architectural studies 
as completely as in Paris, and perhaps even 
more quickly. 

Architecture is also taught, but in a fashion 
less complete, in the schools of decorative art, of 
which there is one in Paris, Rue de l’Ecole de 
Meédicine, and others at Aubusson, Limoges, 
Nice, and Roubaix. In these establishments 
there is found a freer spirit, a more modern and 
less classical feeling, than in the different Hcoles 
des Beaux Arts; so that the tendency in our 
architecture to deviate from the Italian traditions 
and forms in order to become more purely French 
is given by the young architects who come from 
the above-named schools of decorative art. 

In all the provincial schools scholarships, 
whose value is from 200 to 2000 francs, are 
given to the most deserving pupils, in order to 
permit them to complete their education by 
travel, or by a sojourn in the city of their choice. 
It is then easy to become an architect in France. 
In all the schools the theoretical education is 
perfect. The young architect who leaves such 
a school will know how to draw the most com- 
plicated subjects. He will be skilled in per- 
spective, he will know how to calculate the 
strength of materials ; but there will be lacking 

135 


ARCHITECT (FRANCE) 


to him the knowledge of the materials them- 
selves and the practical manner of using them. 
Therefore the designs made by these pupils may 
often be impossible to execute, or too costly to 
undertake. Then it is that such an architect 
feels most unpleasantly the competition of the © 
engineers, especially the competition of the 
pupils of the Hcole Centrale des Arts et Manu- 
factures, an institution where architecture is 
taught, not as an art, but as one of the branches 
of industry. This institute, started by private 
initiative in 1829, and given up to the State in 
1855, teaches mathematics and physical science _ 
regarded from the point of view of their applica- ~ 
tion to industrial art, and gives much time to — 
practical work and to handiwork. It causes 
its pupils to carry out numerous designs based 
upon real requirements ; and in this course “‘ the 
palace of the rich amateur,” dear to the pro- 
fessors of the Hcole des Beaux Arts, does not — 
exist. If the scheme given out is the design of 
a skew bridge, for instance, the instructor is not 
contented with a simple study of stereotomy, 
but will ask from the pupil also a little model 
of this bridge cut in plaster, and also working 
drawings for the stone cutter drawn on the wall, 
and of the full size of execution. 

This school was in the first place installed in 
the Hétel de Juigné in the Marais, where it 
remained until 1884. In this year it was re- 
constructed in the same same quarter in the 
Rue Montgolfier, where it occupies 6300 
square metres of land given by the city of Paris. 
One may be admitted to this school after the 


age of eighteen years, and after an examination — 


on the French language, the elements of all the 
sciences, free-hand and geometrical drawing. 
The number of pupils admitted each year is 
about 250; the duration of the course is three 
years ; the cost of the tuition is 900 francs for 
the first year, and 1000 franes each for the second 
and third years. The first year is principally 
given up to the study of general science ; the 
two others to study of science applied to industry, 
to applied mechanics, the construction of 
machines, analytical chemistry, industrial chem- 
istry, metallurgy, mining engineering, public 
works and railroads, architecture, naval con- 
struction. During the last two years the stu- 
dents are divided as constructors, mechanics, 
metallurgists, and chemists; at the end of 
the third year are examinations in each 
specialty, the result of which is the obtaining of 
diplomas. At the beginning of the month of 
June, when the lectures and the examinations 
are completed, the subject of the general concours 
is given out. Instead of being shut up in a 
separate room to study the scheme proposed, 
they quit the school for a month in order to 
prepare it. They visit the workshops where 
they may gain needed information, and from 
these they bring away notes and sketches. On 
186 


ARCHITECT (FRANCE) 


the Ist of July they return to the school and 
begin their drawings. These drawings are 
accompanied by a specification or description, 
and by mathematical calculations as may be 
needed ; it is discussed critically and contro- 
’ versially with its author at an oral examination. 
From 110 to 150 students obtain the diploma 
| of engineer each year. To others is given a 
) 


certificate of capacity. 
| What becomes of all the young architects and 
| engineers who come each year from the schools 
ia or from the workshops? He who is so happy 
| as to obtain the great prize of Rome has his 
career assured. He goes abroad for four years 
to finish his studies at the Villa Medicis in 
Rome, and on his return the State gives him 
the best places and confides to him the most 
important constructions. Later he will be a 
member of the Institute. The best pupils of 
the schools, and those who have obtained diplo- 
mas, establish themselves easily. Their impor- 
tant clients will be the State, the city of Paris, 
and the Communes. In France the greater part 
of the property of the State is directed by 
the different ministries; thus, the military 
buildings are in charge of the Ministry of War ; 
the prisons belong to the Ministry of the In- 
terior ; the diocesan buildings to the Ministry 
of Public Worship, and those which cannot be 
attached to any special ministry are confided to 
the Ministry of Fine Arts under the name of 
Civic Buildings (bdtiments civils). This min- 
istry directs also the business of the Monwments 
Historiques, and the persons charged with the 
task of restoring and caring for all the interest- 
ing monuments of past centuries. These dif- 
ferent duties offer numerous posts to architects. 
The civic buildings and the national palaces 
occupy 300 architects and accountants. There 
are forty positions of architects of the Historical 
Monuments, and these are obtained after a spe- 
cial examination. The Department of the Seine 
(in which is situated the city of Paris) employs 
27 architects and as many engineers. The city 
of Paris employs 85 architects and accountants. 
The service of diocesan buildings includes 85 
similar places. Moreover, each department has 
an architect especially entitled Architect of the 
Department ; and each city an architect similarly 
designated. Those who cannot succeed in secur- 
ing such an official place as those which have 
been mentioned content themselves with private 
work. Many also never in all their career build 
anything, but devote themselves to keeping in 
good condition those buildings which are intended 
for renting. They occupy themselves with 
accounts and bills, and with the carrying out of 
necessary repairs. There are even some who 
do nothing whatever but the verification of 
accounts, for in France the bills of workmen and 
mechanics undertaking small pieces of work are 
systematically made out, with an overcharge of 
137 


ARCHITECT (FRANCE) 


from 25 per cent to 30 per cent, the numerous 
details of which make it impossible for the pro- 
prietor to assure himself of the overcharge, and 
which make it essential to appeal to a profes- 
sional architectural accountant to bring the 
amount down to the legal price. Whatever 
may be the importance of their situation all have 
to struggle against severe competition, for in 
France the profession of architect is free; any 
one may take.that title. The law requires only 
skilland capacity. Titles and diplomas obtained 
in the schools are only useful as a recommenda- 
tion to the client. 

That which fixes the duty of the architect 
and establishes his responsibility is the task he 
accepts from the proprietor and the contract 
which has passed between them, either tacitly 
or in writing. In the judicial sense of the word, 
the architect is he who is charged with prepar- 
ing the plans and specifications of a building, 
with carrying out the work. His mission stops 
here. . To furnish the materials and the work- 
men is the duty of the master mechanic (entre- 
preneur). But the duties which he has under- 
taken are numerous and varied. He must follow 
the intentions of the proprietor and build ac- 
cording to the best conditions of solidity and 
durability. He must verify the claims of the 
workmen, basing his decisions upon the tariff of 
prices commonly adopted in the neighbourhood ; 
and this he must do while observing police 
regulations relative to party walls, sewers, street. 
lines, etc. It is impracticable and unnecessary 
to cite all these laws and regulations. We 
must mention only those which have an influence 
on the form of buildings. Among these we find 
in the first place the rules concerning the pro- 
jections of buildings on a public way. The 
projections which are authorized vary according 
to the width of the streets ; in the streets below 
7.80 m. in width the projection of the cornice 
must not exceed 25 cm., and in streets of more 
than 7.80 m. in width this projection may go as 
far as 50 cm. _ Balconies are allowed a pro- 
jection of 50 cm. in the narrower streets from 
7.80 m. to 9.75 m. in width; and they are 
allowed 80 cm. of projection in streets of 9.75 m. 
in width and above that. Then come the 
regulations as to the heights of buildings. This 
height is also determined by the width of the 
street. It is measured from the sidewalk to 
the cornice. That is to say, it includes all the 
strictly vertical part of the construction up to 
the beginning of the roof. It is limited to 12 m. 
for streets below 7.80 m. in width, to 15 m. for 
streets of from 7.80 m. to 9.75 m. in width, to 
18 m. for streets of 9.75 m. to 20 m. in width, 
and finally to 20 m. for streets of more than 
20 m. in width. The height of the stories is 
also regulated. It ought to be at least 2.80 m. 
for the ground story, and at least 2.60 m. for the 
other stories. Moreover, it is not allowable to 

138 


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ar Nets Mar) ve ote a eRe i 
ete Wi, A ue ie A Whar, 2a Rae he 
Hi ‘ 4 ‘es yer te ae 5 


ARCHITECT (FRANCE) 


build more than seven stories above the ground 


story. The height of the wall to the springing 
of the roof having been given above, it is now 
necessary to describe the profile of the roof and 
the limits which it may attain. If a quarter 
circle is drawn tangent to the line of the exterior 
of the wall at the top, no part of the roof may 
project beyond that quarter circle; the radius 
of this quarter circle being equal to the width 
of the street up to the limit of 8.50 m., which 
it must never exceed. This provision has an 
immense influence on the appearance of the 
houses of Paris; for the architect, desiring to 
lose nothing of the space which is allowed him, 
follows this quarter circle as closely as possible 
in the outlines of his roof, and, therefore, adopts 
a round form in place of an inward slope. 

These regulations, as of the form of roofs, the 
height of the houses, the projections of mould- 
ings and balconies, are the principal causes of 
the monotonous and uniform aspect with which 
we may reproach the modern constructions of 
Paris and other great cities of France. But if 
these regulations detract from the picturesque 
effect of our cities it must be admitted that it is 
well to limit the rights of proprietors in the use 
of their own building lots; and in this way, 
to allow light, air, and sun to penetrate into 
the streets. From one point of view, in the 


matter of free movement, the width of the street 


ought to be proportioned to the number of in- 
habitants which the houses fronting on that 
street contain; and it is logical to limit the 
number of stories, and consequently, the number 
of inhabitants, especially in houses built on the 
narrower streets. 

Failure in observing any one of these regula- 
tions imposes upon the architect a responsibility 
in the exact proportion of the mischief it does 
to the proprietor. This responsibility is made 
the heavier by the fact that the architect’s 
acceptance of a piece of work relieves the master 
builder from all responsibility, while the archi- 
tect remains responsible during a term of ten 
years for all errors or failure of construction, and 
for all errors in the plans. 

As remuneration for all these cares and 
responsibilities the architect has the right to 
certain fees, and in his quality of a privileged 
creditor he is to be paid before others, even 
before those who hold debts secured by hypoth- 
ecation of the property. In the old legislation 
the fees of the architect were fixed according to 
the difficulties of the work, the talent of the 
artist, or in accordance with local usage, but 
since the beginning of the century decisions are 
reached generally by appeal to a legislation 
entitled wn avis du conseil des batiments civils, 
dated the 12th Pluviose, year eight of the 
Republic. This allows the architect for plans 
and designs 14 per cent; for superintendence, 
1} per cent; for the adjustment and claims of 

139 


of the Heole des Beaux Arts. 


Ni < (ate 


- ARCHITECT (TALY) 


the settlement of the builders, 2 per cae = 
altogether 5 per cent of the total claims allowed. — 

This tariff, which is applicable to public work, ‘= 
cannot, however, be fixed for private work, as pe 
was settled by a decision of the Cour de Cas- a 
sation, dated 27th March, 1875. There is, — 
therefore, no more now, than in the last century, — a 
any law fixing the fees of the architect for | a 
private work. Custom alone, supported by the . 
statement of terms above given, gives the archi- 
tect 5 per cent upon the work done; but this 
rate may be increased or lowered by a special — 
agreement between the architect and the pro- 
prietor according to the importance of the work. 

In order to resist the invasion of the profes- 
sion by numbers of incapable men, there are 
formed in France several societies of architects  _ 
having for their principal common object to | is Re 
unite and to attach to a common centre all the 
architects who have the necessary guarantees of — 
instruction, of experience, of capacity, of mo- 
rality, and the further object of bringing about 
congresses, or conventions, in which may be 
discussed questions of art, construction, juris- — 
prudence, and responsibility. At the head of 
all societies of architects comes the section of 
architecture of the Academy of Fine Arts, con- 
sisting of eight members. This is, of course, a 
branch of the great national body, the Institute 
of France. Of societies in the usual sense of 
the word there are in Paris, La Société centrale 
des Architectes francais, founded in 1840. It 
includes 500 members, nearly all former pupils — 
This is the \ 
classical society, the guardian of the theories of 
art taught at the Ecole des Beaua Arts. 

L’ Union Syndicale des Architectes fran- 
cais; founded in 1890 by Mr. De Baudot. It 
consists of 300 professional members and 300 
auxiliary members, these last belonging to the 
different industries connected with building. 
In this body theories advanced and taught by 
Viollet-le-Duc are influential. 

In the provinces and Algiers are some thirty 
local associations (Associations régionales.) 
The chief and the oldest of these is La Société 
académique ad’ Architecture de Lyon, founded 
1830 and consisting of thirty-eight members. 

Twenty provincial societies are grouped under — 
the general title, Association provinciale des 
Architectes francais, with its centre at Lyons. 
This association includes now about 9500 
members. — ALEXANDRE SANDIER. 

ARCHITECT, THE, IN ITALY. In Italy 
the architect is generally educated in the Scuole 
@ Applicazione for engineers, where the instruc- 
tion does not distinguish between the two classes 
of students. This is in a double manner prej- 
udicial to the former. Not only do the 
engineers consider themselves as architects — — 
and the public share with them the confusion — 
but the architects lack the proper training. 

140 


ARCHITHOT (ITALY) 


Men of the highest position in the profession, 
like Sig. Camillo Boito,’ have in vain protested 
against this abuse, insisting that architects, as 
in France, should be trained in the Institutes of 
the Fine Arts. Milan, alone among Italian 
cities, has a Higher Technical Institute, where 
architects have a separate course of three years’ 
duration, with instruction of the best order. 
There is also a school of Capomaestri, master 
builders, that is frequented by most of the 
pupils of the architectural department. There 
are indeed students of architecture in the Insti- 
tutes of the Fine Arts who do not receive 
diplomas as architects, but merely as professors 
of architectural drawing, or design, the term 
*“disegno” having either meaning. These, how- 
ever, erect a great many buildings, and, when 
once familiarized with the details of construction, 
are said to be in general better architects than 
those furnished with the diplomas of the schools 
of application. Moreover the Italian versatility, 
which in the masters of art of the fifteenth and 
sixteenth centuries has been. the wonder of the 
rest of the world, would seem not to be alto- 
gether a thing of the past, for many architects 
of our time, and among them some of the most 
distinguished, have never received a diploma. 
Several of them were painters, some have learned 
in the offices of other architects, one was a wood 
carver, one a mason, and several began as mere 
dilettanti. Various bills introduced by cabinet 
ministers, as well as other attempts to regularize 
and ameliorate the conditions of the profession, 
have failed ; but still the study of architecture 
advances, the new work is better than that of 
some years ago, and, in general, the Italian 
cities of to-day may compare favourably in 
respect of improved construction with those of 
other countries. 

With many architects a large part of their 
work is that of the conservation or restoration 
of ancient monuments. Within the last half 
century the principles of this branch of the art 
have so changed for the better that it may be 
worth while to give here the substance of the 
resolutions adopted by the Congress of Italian 
architects and engineers about 1884, to which 
the actual practice as a rule conforms. 

When it becomes absolutely necessary to pre- 
vent the destruction of a monument of archi- 
tecture, it should be consolidated rather than 
repaired, and repaired rather than restored, 
all pains being taken to avoid additions and 
renovations. 

Where, however, these last are really indis- 
pensable for the purpose of solidity, or for other 
invincible cause, they should be done so as to 
be readily distinguishable from the original 
construction. 

When, on the other hand, it is proposed to 

1 Questioni pratiche di Belle Arti, Milano, 
1893. 

141 


ARCHITECT (ITALY) 


reproduce exactly the original type in things 
partly destroyed or never completed, or so 
decayed as to menace ruin, the material at least 
should be evidently different from the old, or 
should bear some mark — best of all the date 
of restoration —so that the attentive observer 
need never be deceived. In monuments of 
antiquity, or others where the importance is 
purely archeological, the additions necessary to 
their preservation should be plain, squared 
blocks, even though the continuation of mould- 
ings or ornaments be beyond doubt. 

Where the monuments derive their charm, 
distinction, or poetry from variety of marbles, 
mosaics, or paintings, from the tone acquired by 
age or the picturesqueness of their surroundings, 
or even from their dilapidation, the work of con- 
solidation should be kept within the narrowest 
limits possible, and all pains should be taken 
not to diminish their artistic attractiveness. 

The additions and modifications which have 
been introduced at different times into the edifice 
should be considered as monuments and treated 
as such, unless their artistic and _ historical 
importance be manifestly inferior to that of the 
edifice itself, and unless they should at the same 
time disfigure or hide noteworthy parts of it. 
In case of removal— where possible, and they 
are worth the expense —they should be pre- 
served in whole or in part, preferably together 
with the monument from which they have been 
taken. 

Before laying hands upon a building, also at 
different times during the progress of the restora- 
tion, and again after its completion, photographs 
should be taken, which should be deposited with 
plans, elevations, and details of the building, in 
the Ministry of Public Instruction, and at the 
office charged with the preservation of monu- 
ments, or, in the case of a church, with its records. 

A commemorative stone attached to the 
building should give the dates and _ principal 
parts of the restoration. 

Without pretending that these rules have 
never, in any respect, been violated in recent 
work, it may still be claimed that their action 
has been most salutary, and that they have 
rendered impossible such feats of vandalism as 
that, e.g., performed by the late Sir Gilbert 
Scott in Salisbury Cathedral. 

Both the law and the building regulations of 
the various cities —which have generally the 
force of law —hold the architect or engineer, 
together with the constructor or builder, respon- 
sible for defects resulting from any fault of 
theirs that may become evident in the building 
during the space of ten years after its completion. 

The commission paid to architects varies from 
one part of Italy to another, and is determined 
by the usage of each part. In Lombardy it is 
5 per cent on the cost of the building; in 
Naples it reaches as high as 9 per cent. 

142 


ARCHITECT (ITALY) 


For any public work of importance the gov- 
ernment or the municipality, or even a private 
individual, as the case may be, invites a compe- 
tition among architects, which may be local, or 
national, or international. In the absence of 
any predominant usage the conditions fixed are 
sometimes absurd, sometimes reasonable and 
liberal. For instance, on one occasion the Par- 
liament voted to invite plans for new buildings 
at Montecitorio, and proposed a sum _ for 
premiums that would not have paid the cost of 
the necessary drawings, while, on the other 
hand, the city of Milan offered premiums for 
designs for the proposed new facade to the 
cathedral amounting to 80,000 lire. The archi- 
tects know the advantage that would accrue both 
to themselves and to their employers from a 
settled system of competitions, and have there- 
fore, in more than one reunion of their body, 
urged the general adoption of rules which —as 
the competitions in England and America are 
guided by no universal principles —it may be 
worth while to repeat. 

1. The competition to be divided into two 
grades ; the first to consist of projects in general 
(in Massima), the second of the same in detail. 
(This principle is disputed by many, though it 
is established and works well in France.) 

2. To the second will be admitted with com- 
pensations those distinguished as best in the 
first competition, and others without com- 
pensation. 

3. The programme shall be approved by the 
chief authority of the province or region where 
the competition is announced, at the instance of 
its principal institute of the fine arts. When 
works of great importance are concerned demand- 
ing the direct or indirect intervention of the 
government, the approval shall be required of 
the Minister of Instruction at the instance of 
the permanent Commission of the Fine Arts. 
(This relates only to public buildings, and can- 
not exactly apply either to England or to 
America, where the sanctions demanded would 
be quite other.) 

4. The body inviting the competition shall 
nominate the president of the jury. The other 
members shall be nominated, one third by the 
competitors, one third by the inviting body, and 
one third either by the permanent Commission 
of the Fine Arts, or by the chief institute of 
the fine arts in the region or province where 
the competition takes place. (This is a general 
rule; the composition of the jury is often very 
complicated, as in the competition for the facade 
of the Cathedral of Milan, where the jury was 
composed of fifteen members representing as 
many different elements. ) 

5. No competitor can serve upon the jury. 

6. The judgments of the jury shall be given 
openly and communicated to the public (also a 
point upon which all are not agreed). 

143 


Piven 


ARCHITECTURE | 
7. The body (ente) inviting the competition 


should fix for the premiums a sum total greater Roe 
than would be assigned to an architect as fee 


for the plans for the edifice. 

8. The author of the plan on whieh is con- 
ferred the first prize should direct the execution 
of the work. In case he should not be able to 
direct the constructive part, there should be left 
to him the artistic direction. 


In Italy the architects seek to establish these — a 


rules by law; in the Anglo-Saxon world they 


could probably only be fixed by custom, or — “a 
enforced by the refusal of architects to compete a 


under less favourable conditions. 
I am indebted for the facts exposed in this 


article to Sig. Comm. Camillo Boito, Professor . 


in the Higher Technical Institute of Milan, as 
well as practical architect. They are gathered 
in part from his book already cited, and from 


personal communications most courteously ac- ee 


corded. —JoHN SAFFORD FISKE. 

ARCHITECTONIC; ARCHITECTONI- 
CAL. Pertaining to or having the character of 
Architectonics. 

ARCHITECTONICS. The science of archi- 
tecture ; architecture in its scientific or technical 
aspects as distinguished from the purely artistic 
or historical aspect. 

ARCHITECTURAL. A. Pertaining to 
architecture ; as, an architectural publication or 
drawing. 

B. Having the character of a ae of archi- 
tecture ; as, an architectural composition. 

C. Composed or treated in accordance with 
the principles of architecture ; 
tural decoration. ; 

ARCHITECTURE. A. The art and the 
process of building with some elaboration and 
with skilled labor ; and, by extension, the results 
of such building; thus, skilled shipbuilding, 
whether wholly traditional, as among the 
islanders of the Pacific, or partly scientific, as 
among European peoples, is called naval 
architecture. 

B. The modification of structure, form, S 
colour of houses, churches, and civic buildings, 
by means of which they become interesting as 
works of fine art. It is this sense which is 
commonly given to the term when used without 
qualification ; and it is in this sense that the 
term is employed throughout this dictionary. 


The term sometimes signifies the artistic char- 


acter of a given building, group of buildings, 
epoch, or style; thus, it is said that the build- 


ings of such a town are of a noble or of an | 


unattractive architecture, or that the archi- 
tecture of an epoch shows strong traces of Ori- 
ental influence; in this sense often with the 
article. : 

(See Byzantine ; Grecian ; Gothic; Moslem ; 
Neoclassic ; Romanesque; Roman Imperial ; 
also the geographical terms, such as Asia Minor ; 

144 


as, an architec-. ~ 


ARCHITRAVE 


England; France. 
different styles of architecture see Style.) 


R. Sturgis (Edited by George Iles), Bibliog- 


raphy of Fine Art, Boston, The Library Bureau, 
1897, Part III, in which are named 
about one hundred books. See also 
W. P. P. Longfellow, The Column 
and the Arch, New York, 1899; H. 
H. Statham, Modern Architecture, 
London and New York, 1898 ; recently 
published volumes of the Darmstadt 
Handbuch ; Auguste Choisy, Histoire 
de l’ Architecture, Paris, 1899. 


ARCHITRAVE. A. In classi- 
cal architecture, the lowermost divi- 
sion of an entablature, the Epistyle 
(which see). 

B. In the case of a square open- 
ing, because this lower- 
most division is supposed . 
to be carried along the 
upright sides as well as 
the top, any moulded 
or otherwise ornamented 
band carried around a 


For a comparison of the 


————— 


ARCH OF CTESIPHON 


‘see especially what relates to Italian Architec- 


ture under Gothic Architecture. Also Moslem 


Architecture and the geographical terms.) 
(Cuts, cols. 147 ; 150.) 


square door, window, or 
the like, on the wall face, 
or projecting from it. 
(See Doric; Entablature ; 
Grecian ; Greco-Roman ; 
Roman Imperial.) 
Banded Architrave. 
(See Banded.) 
Jack Architrave. In 
the Entablature (which 
see) of certain orders, 
the lowest fascia of the 
architrave. 
ARCHITRAVE TRIM. A trim or casing 
around the sides and top of an opening, and 
having more or less the form of an architrave. 
ARCHIVOLT. An architrave modified by 
being carried around a curved opening instead 
of a rectangular one. (See Arch; Arch Band. 


ARCHIVOLT OF 12TH CENTURY ; 
8S. GIovANNI, Lucca. 


Adorned with continuous carved and plain mouldings and 
youssoirs carved and of contrasted colours. 


For the adornment of the archivolt by mouldings, 

see Romanesque Architecture and the account of 

Medizyval Architecture under all geographical 

terms. For ornamentation by means of colour, 
145 


ARCHITRAVE. 


A 6th-century building in Syria, with architraves enclosing the square windows, and a bent 
or broken architrave carried around the arch of the great doorway. 


Interlacing Archivolt. (See under Interlace.) 

Returned Archivolt. One in which the 
band formed by the archivolt is returned at an 
angle nearly or exactly ninety degrees and car- 
ried horizontally. 

ARCH OF CHOSROES. A cavernlike 
recess in the rock shaped into the form of a 
great arch of curiously elaborate curve. It was 
so adorned by Chosroes, King of Persia, about 
the close of the sixth century A.D. 

ARCH OF CONSTANTINE. In Rome, near 
the Coliseum ; built by Constantine the Great 
(+ 337) and partly adorned by sculptures taken 
from earlier monuments. (See Memorial Arch.) 

ARCH OF CTESIPHON. The entrance 
portal of the palace of the Sassanian kings of 
Persia at the town named, having a span of 
about 75 feet and a curious elliptical curved 
intrados, which has not been absolutely deter- 
mined by measurement. The building is largely 
renewed, but the arch remains in almost perfect 
condition, and it is curious on account of the 
structure, much in the Byzantine manner, of thin 
bricks or tiles laid in mortar, and probably com- 
pleted without the use of centring. 

146 


oe 10 et > v yp ae ee one 


ae) ae | 


ARCH OF GALLIENU 


ARCH OF GALLIENUS. In Rome, near 
the ancient Esquiline Gate. It is a simple 
structure with a single archway, Corinthian 
columns, and pilasters. 

ARCH OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS. In 
Rome, at the northwest end of the Forum. 
(See Memorial Arch.) 

ARCH OF TITUS. In Rome, at the south- 
east extremity of the Forum. 
by the Senate in the reign of Domitian, Titus’s 
brother and successor. It commemorated the 


Scale ¢ 0 2. 3 en = Pad 


ARCHIVOLT: PALAZZO NICCOLINI, FLORENCE; 15TH CENTURY. 


Each voussoir cut with rustication. 


military exploits of Titus in the East, and espe- 
cially the conquest of Jerusalem. The well- 
known sculptures of the triumphal procession, 
with the seven-branched candlestick carried by 
soldiers, are inserted in the side walls or jambs 
of the archway. The arch, as now standing, is 
mainly modern work of travertine; only the 
archway with the columns and pedestals nearest 
to it being of the original structure in Pentelic 
marble. 

ARCH SOLID. One of the masses or 
pieces of material which, generally more or less 
wedge-shaped, mutually prevent one another 
from falling ; a Voussoir (which see). 

ARCHWAY. A passage through or under 
an arch, especially when long, as under a barrel 
vault. It is not a rigidly technical term, and 

147 


a = 
" » es \ rr, vv 
b a hs) .-9 —s ale - aye. eet od Soa ‘al et Riga 
er | . - 


Appliances. ) 


It was erected | 


It is common to distinguish between trabeated — 


¥ ? Bas cy een + 
as “i A 


_wARHA (0 


is loosely used of almost any passageway having — 
arches at either end, whether vaulted or not. 
ARC LAMP, ELECTRIC. (See Electric 


ARCOSOLIUM. An arched recess or — 
sepulchral cell in a Roman subterranean burial 
place or catacomb ; especially one designed to 
receive a sarcophagus. — 

ARCUATE; ARCUATED. Providedwith ~ 
or characterized by arches or archlike curves. 3 i. 
and arcuated building. Thus an 
Egyptian hypostyle hall ora Greek _ 
Doric temple are wholly trabeated ; — 
but the Roman therme of the Em- 
pire, the palace halls on the Pala- 
tine, and such late buildings as — 
the Basilica of Maxentius (which — 
see) are wholly arcuate. The By- 
zantine builders of the East and 
Romanesque builders of Western _ 
Europe were eager to use arcuate 
building ; the openings for doors 
and windows were arched, and the __ 
large and small interiors were all 
vaulted whenever and wherever 
there were skill and means suffi- 
cient. Out of this tendency grew 
the whole system of Gothie build- 
ing, which is arcuate in the highest 
sense. — R. 8. 

ARCUATION, A. The em- | 
ployment of arches. ‘ 

B. A-series or system of arches. -_ 
(Arch. Pub. Soc. Dict.) 4 

ARCUS CHORALIS; ARCUS © 
ECCLESIZ; ARCUS PRES- | 
BYTERII; ARCUS TRIUM- — 
PHALIS. (See Triumphal Arch, 
B.) 
ARDISH. In India, a kind of in- 
terior decoration made by embedding 
pieces of glass in the walls and ceil- 
ing and covering them with plaster, 
which is subsequently cut away to 
form ornamental tracery. —(C. D.) 7 

AREA. A. A sunken trench or court — 
reserved between a building and the surround- — 
ing ground ; either for dryness or to keep the 
soil from pressing against the foundation walls, 
or to allow of access to doors, or light to win- 
dows which are below the surrounding level. 
Specifically, such a space, generally at the front 
of a city house, commonly used to give access by 
steps to the basement story or cellar ; hence, — 

B. Any open space, whether sunk or not, 
more or less enclosed and forming a small court 
at the entrance to a basement. A front yard 
when of limited extent. 

Blind Area. An area covered and concealed 
and intended merely to keep the foundation 
walls dry and free from the soil. In British 

148 


ARHA DRAIN 


usage, differing from an Area Drain (which see) 
in having solid cross walls, and being commonly 
covered. 

Dry Area. In British usage, a narrow air 
space, smaller than an area in the usual sense, 
to keep the dampness of the soil from founda- 
tion walls. Usually consisting of a series of 
communicating chambers formed by a light 
outer retaining wall braced against the main 
walls by cross buttresses. 

AREA DRAIN. A. In British usage, a 
narrow area (see Area, A) to keep the damp- 
ness of the soil away from the foundation walls. 
Properly, it is uncovered and uninterrupted in 
its length, the cross walls, if used, having large 
openings at the bottom. 

B. (See Drain.) 

AREA WALL. The wall Berar or 
partly surrounding, an area; specifically, the 
retaining wall of an area. (See Area, A.) 

ARENA. In an amphitheatre, the flat, 
open space enclosed by the seats for spectators 
and reserved for the gladiatorial combats or 
other spectacles ; so called because spread with 
sand. (See Amphitheatre.) Hence, any level 
space wholly or partly surrounded by seats for 
athletic contests, combats, or sports. 

ARENES, LES. A Roman amphitheatre 
in Nimes (Gard) in southern France. It is 
large for a provincial Roman monument, nearly 
450 feet long and 335 feet wide. It is one of 
the best preserved of existing monuments of 
this kind. (Compare Amphitheatre; Roman 
Imperial Architecture.) 

AREOSTYLE. Same as Areostyle (which 
see). 

AREOSYSTYLE. 
(which see). 

ARETINO, NICOLO. 
Nicold di Piero. ) 

ARGELIOS ; architect. 

A writer on architecture mentioned by Vi- 
truvius. (See Vitruvius.) He quotes him on 
the Doric order, on the Corinthian order, 
and on an Tonic temple of Bsculapius 
at Tralles, of which he seems to have been 
the architect (Vitruvius, VII., pref. 12). 
He flourished probably about 376 B.c. 

Vitruvius, ed. Marini. 

ARISTOTELE DA BOLOGNA. 
(See Fieravanti, Ridolfo.) 

ARISTOTELE DA SAN GALLO. 
San Gallo, Bastiano.) 

ARMARIOLUM; ARMARIUM. 
as Ambry. 

ARMATURE. A. In French, a stiffening 
piece, especially a brace or strap of iron used to 
strengthen a construction of some other mate- 
rial. The most common application of the term 
is to the iron crossbars to stiffen and support 
the glass of a leaded or stained glass window ; 
and hence to the entire framework. 

149 


Same as Areosystyle 


(See Lamberti, 


(See 


Same 


ARMOURY 


B. In French, the light construction in tiles 
laid in strong cement used in Roman Imperial 
Architecture as a secondary and more permanent 
centring. The term includes also the stouter 
ribs of angles and the like which were built at 
the same time and upon which the mass of 
rubble laid in mortar (see Blocage) was laid. 

(In electricity, see Dynamo Electric 
Machine, and other subtitles under Electrical 
Appliances.) 

ARMORIAL. Having to do with heraldic 
bearings, coats of arms, and the like. 

ARMORIAL ACHIEVEMENT; BEAR- 
ING. (See Arms.) 


ARMOURY. A. A room or building serv- 
ing as a depository for arms and armour. 

B. A building or establishment for the 
manufacture of arms ; especially one maintained 
(See Arsenal, B.) 


by the government. 


= 
= 


manent nner nena 9 mannan nnn 


- 4 
3 
= c 


e 
R 
BAN 


ARCHIVOLT: PALAZZO PAZZI-QUARATESI, FLORENCE; 


15TH CENTURY. 


CO. A building for the use of a body of 
militia, with storage for their arms and equip- 
ments. In modern American practice, the 
newer armouries are strongly built structures of 
considerable size, containing a large and well- 
lighted drill hall, in some cases large enough for 
battalion exercises and practice with light artil- 
lery ; a shooting gallery, a gymnasium, special 
rooms for the higher officers, and in many cases 
separate rooms for each of the companies of a 
regiment. Libraries, messrooms, kitchens and 
storerooms, workshops, locker rooms, and other 

150 


& 


ARM-REST 


accessories are features of many of these build- 
ings in large cities, where they serve the pur- 


ARMS PAINTED IN THE MINSTER, AACHEN 
(Arx LA CHAPELLE). 


poses of a military club as well as of a military 
storehouse and drill shed. They are customarily 
so designed as to 
be capable of with- 
standing any mob 
that might under- 
take to seize the 
arms stored within. Al- 
though intended for the 
state troops, they are in 
many cases erected at the 
expense of the municipali- 
ties in which they are 
located. — A. D. F. H. 
ARM-REST. Thearm 
of a chair, stall, pew, or 
the like ; specifically, such 
an arm or division between seats or stalls de- 
signed to afford considerable support for the 


era = 


Pah 
r it 


nip 
ul 


ARMS, Roya, of SWEDEN, VASA FAMILY, 1562; 
CASTLE OF KALMAR. 


arm or elbow, either when sitting or standing ; 
as in a choir stall. (See Stall.) 


151 


[aoe me et em ee ee eee: 


_ ARMS | rr 
ARMS. Armorial bearings in the general 
sense. The arms borne by any person consis 


or mottoes, if any, and the supporters, if any. — 


The charged escutcheon is all that is really a : 
essential, as the bearings granted by the sov-— wg 


ereign or by a general on the field of battle are 
all included in this. 


borne by any person, this addition is made to ~ 


the escutcheon and not to any other part of the a 


achievement. The crest and the motto are 
assumed at will; although when once assumed 
they are naturally considered as ancestral. 
Supporters are rare ; in England they are never 
used but by persons of the highest rank, and 
generally are the appendage of very high rank, 
if not of royalty. 

The escutcheon borne during the Middle 
Ages by a man was almost always a shield, the 
escutcheon borne by a woman was always a 
lozenge. In later years, when heraldic bearings — 
were still used for splendour and distinction, but 


——— = 


ahs Own ee ne = = ee 


woe 
Sw 9 ee wre sm cshou ce Sms fo ce ss sta oo 
of ef 


YL 9 aan 


ARMS OF THE CITY (THE GIGLIO) AND OTHERS CARVED ON A LINTEL; 


FLORENCE, ITALY. 


were no longer used in any part of the war 
dress, the escutcheon for men assumed other 
shapes, especially that of the oval which was 
very common in the eighteenth century, but 
the lozenge was always retained by women. 
Women, of course, bore no crests. Thus, if an 
estate fell to an heiress, the ancestral crest, if 
any, would remain unused, while the escutcheon 
was still used by her. Mottoes are indifferent, 
being assumed at pleasure, multiplied at pleas- 
ure, and used or not used according to the 
whim of the designer or the person employing 
him. Mottoes were very commonly a part of 
the Device (which see) rather than a part of the 
arms proper. 

The essence of heraldic display being in the 
use of colour, with gold and silver, it was natural 
to employ such decorations largely in stained 
glass and also to apply them to tombs, either 
by painting directly upon the stone, or by the ~ 
richer and more permanent process of applying 
enamel to a metal plate. A few enamelled 
escutcheons of great beauty have been pre- 

152 


primarily of the escutcheon with its bearings, - a 
and, secondarily, of the crest, if any, the motto, 


Even if a sovereign grants 
an addition to the coat of arms as previously __ 


‘lost their colouring. 


ARMS 


served, and a few instances are known of painted 
escutcheons, but by far the greater number have 
In order to guard partly 
against this decay of the colour, which was easy 
to foresee, a custom grew up of carving the 
armorial bearings in slight relief, and medieval 
tombs are very numerous in which such sculp- 
tured shields still remain. It was assumed that 
every bearing was in its essence a thing laid 
upon a field, so that a pale or a fess was imag- 
ined to be a kind of ribbon having a certain 
definite, though slight, thickness, and, there- 


Hos 


SOs 
AS 27 
ml 


SAAN Es Sa 


ee eel he eee ee eee 
Oe >, Sol ai 
= 3° 
Ao ie Ge ? ce S 


i anne ETE a te He e EEE TELE 


ale{a 2 a 


ARNOLD 


legible to-day by means of their shape and their 
relief. — R. S. 


Charles Boutell, Heraldry, Historical and Pop- 
ular, London, 1864 (unfortunately scarce, the 
book which best gives the spirit and purpose of 
heraldic bearings); R. C. Jenkins, Heraldry, 
English and Foreign, London, 1886; Baron von 
Sacken, Katechismus der Heraldik, Leipzig, 1885 
(two very small handbooks of creat utility); H. 
Gourdon de Genouillac, LZ’ Art Héraldique, Paris ; 
Jouffroy d’Eschavannes, Traité complet de la 
Science du Blason, Paris : J. R. Planché, The 
Pursuivant of Arms, London; Hugh Clark, An 
Introduction to Heraldry, London, 1884 ; Charles 


eee VW 


tt 


Arms: HERALDIC BEARINGS ADORNING THE PATIO OF THE CASA POLENTINA, AVILA, SPAIN. 


fore, to be denoted in sculpture by such slight 
relief and to be represented in uncoloured draw- 
ing by a thicker line at the bottom or right- 
hand edge, which thicker line would suggest a 
shadow. Thus, if an escutcheon bore a pale, 
and this pale was charged with three disks, 
the escutcheon would be carved with the pale 
raised a half inch or more above the field, 
and the disks (called bezants) raised as much 
more above the surface of the pale. These 
carved escutcheons were, of course, painted 
when originally put up; but the painting 
having disappeared, their forms are perfectly 
153 


Boutell, English Heraldry, London, 1871; John 
E. Cussans, Handbook of Heraldry, London, 1882 ; 
Woodward and Burnett, Heraldry, British and 
Foreign, 2 vols., Edinburgh and London, 1892. 
(The best large book for general students is Berry’s 
Encyclopedia of Heraldry, now out of print.) 

ARNOLD ; architect. 

Arnold succeeded Gerard von Rile (see Gerard 
von Rile) as the third architect of the Cathedral 
of Cologne. He was employed on that build- 
ing from 1295 to 1301, and was succeeded by 
his son Johann. 


Boisserée, Geschichte des Doms von Koln; 
Mertens-Lohde, Grundung des Kolner Domes. 


154 


ARNOLD 


ARNOLD, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH ; 


architect ; b. Feb. 12, 1823; d. June 13, 1890. 

Arnold was a pupil of Semper. (See Semper. ) 
He won a first prize in architecture with a 
pension which enabled him to spend several 
years in Italy, France, and Belgium. On his 
return he was appointed professor at the acad- 
emy in Dresden. He built the Villa Lonchay on 
the Elbe (1858-1860) and the Sophienkirche 
in Dresden. Arnold published Der Herzogliche 
Palast von Urbino (1 vol., fol., Leipzig, 1856). 

Meyer, Konversations - Lexikon ; Seubert, 
Kiinstler-Lexicon. 

ARNOLFO DI CAMBIO (Di Lapo Va- 
sari); architect and sculptor; b. about 1232; 
d. about 1303. 

Arnolfo was not the son of Lapo, as supposed 
by Vasari. In a document of 1266 they are 
mentioned as associates in the atelier of Niccolé 
da Pisa (see Niccold da Pisa) at Siena (Milanesi ; 
Documenti, Vol. I., p. 146). In the “ prov- 
visione” of 1300 (Florentine cathedral) he is 
mentioned as ‘‘ Magister Arnolfus de Colle, filius 
olim Cambii, Capwd Magister laborarii et operis ” 
(Gaye, op. cit., Vol. L, p. 445). In 1295 he 
began the Church of 8. Croce (Florence). Vasari 
credits him with the marble facing of the Bap- 
tistery (Florence). Villani notes in his Cronica 
that in 1294 the citizens of Florence decided to 
rebuild the Cathedral Church of 8. Reparata 
built in 407. The work was begun by Arnolfo 
in 1296 at the western end. His name appears 
in an inscription on the wall opposite the 
campanile, “IstvD AB ARNOLFO TEMPLVM 
Fvirt Epiricatvm.” He probably had charge 
of the building for six or seven years and built 
a part of the outer wall of the nave. His plan 
was much changed and enlarged by later 
architects (see Talenti, Fr.). The name Santa 
Reparata was afterward changed to the 
present Santa Maria del Fiore. The construc- 
tion of the Palazzo Vecchio (Florence) 
attributed to Arnolfo by Vasari without cor- 
roboration (Frey, op. cit., p. 9). The fine 
monument of the Cardinal de la Braye in the 
Church of §. Domenico at Orvieto with its 
mosaics and sculpture is by Arnolfo. 

Vasari, Milanesi, ed.; Guasti, Santa Maria del 
Fiore ; Perkins, Tuscan Sculptors ; Yriarte, Flor- 
ence; Gaye, Carteggio; Moise, Santa Croce and 
Palazzo Vecchio; Villani, Cronica; Milanesi, 
Documenti ; Reymond, Sculpture Flor entine ; 
Frey, Loggia dei Lanai. 

ARNOULD DE BINCHE. 

Arnould de Binche commenced in 1235 and 
finished in 1239 the Church of Notre Dame de 
Pamele at Audenarde (Belgium). 

Gonse ; L’ Art gothique. 


ARRAS. Tapestry made in Arras, Belgium ; 
hence, owing to the immense reputation of that 
town as a centre of the fabrication, any tapestry 
of the kind used for covering walls. Late in 

155 


4 
a ae 


“ARTIST ar 


at, 


the fifteenth century this rae was , largel pa 
removed to Brussels and other cities of Flanders — 
but the name remained, as ini 
the common Italian term, Arazzi, and as in - 


and Brabant ; 


Shakespeare’s plays, frequently. 


ARRICCIO. The coat of plastering, cite a 
the first or second coat in Italian practice, 
ancient and modern, as preparation for paint- 
ing in fresco, but not the finishing coat or 
Modern practice seems to be about 
five parts of sand to one of lime, and the coat 
of plastering, when applied directly to the brick,  __ 
(See Fresco; In- 


intonaco. 


about half an inch thick. 
tonaco. ) 


ARRIS. A sharp edge made by two sur- 4 


faces meeting so as to form a solid angle; 
especially the edge or angle of a dressed stone 
formed by its face with tae planes of its beds 
or joints. 

ARRIS FILLET. 


a course of slates, tiles, or the like, at the in- 
tersection of the roof with a structure rising 


above its level, as a wall, dormer pune or 


skylight. i 
ARRIS GUTTER. (See under Gutter.) 
ARROWHEAD. The pointed tongue or 

dart between the ova in an egg and dart mould- 

ing or ornament; especially in Roman archi- 
tecture, in which it was commonly carved with 
barbs. (See Egg and Dart.) 

ARSENAL. A. A place, usually a large 


building, arranged for the storage of weapons — 


and implements of war. (See Armoury, A.) 

B. A place where weapons are manufactured ; 
especially such an establishment supported by 
a government for the exclusive use of its own 
armed force. 


C. Anciently, a government dockyard and N 


navy yard. The most celebrated institution of 
this kind was at Venice, which was already 
famous in the twelfth century, and where the 
buildings and the surrounding wall remain 
generally intact. 

ARTAUD (Artaudus), 
architect and engineer. 

With the title ‘‘operarias” he began the 


GUILLAUME ; 


construction of the great bridge called the — 


Pont Saint Esprit over the river Rhdéne 
(France) in 1265. Associated with him were 
Clarius Tharanus, Jacobus Bengarius, and Pons 
de Gainaco. This great bridge, begun in 1265 
and completed in 1309, is 5.40 metres wide 
and 840 metres long, and has 26 arches. 

Bauchal, Dictionnaire ; De Girardot, Des Ponts 
au XITI® Siécle. 

ARTEMISHION. A building or shrine of 
Artemis. (See Temple of Artemis (Diana) at 
Ephesus. ) 

ARTIST. A. A maker of a work of art. 

B. One devoted to the reproduction of works 
of art and to the study of any art with a view 

156 


A thin strip of wood — 
of triangular section used to raise the edges of _ 


ARTORIUS PRIMUS 


to producing such works. In modern usage, 
this term is almost wholly limited to the pro- 
ducer of works of fine art. 

A curious abuse has crept into the parlance 
of artist painters, who, seeing around them in 
the United States but few artists who are not 
painters, knowing but few sculptors, and still 
fewer architects who are artist-like in their 
methods of work, while no engravers, die- 
sinkers, or other workmen in the higher orna- 
mental arts, have succeeded in attaining full 
recognition, have come to limit the term to 
artists of their own kind. Even in a meeting 
of artists, a painter will sometimes speak of 
the sculptors, the architects, and the “ artists,” 
as intending to act together in a certain matter. 
This is one of the rather numerous errors of 
speech which accurate speakers will avoid. 

—R.8. 

ARTORIUS PRIMUS ; architect. 

The inscription found upon the greater 
theatre at Pompeii, M. Arrortvs, M. L. 
PriMvs ARCHITECTVS, undoubtedly refers to 
the architect who restored the theatre after the 
earthquake of 63 a.D. His name is found also 
on the basilica at Pompeii, which he probably 
restored at the same time. 

Overbeck, Pompeii. 


ARUNDEL, THOMAS; archbishop and 
Lord High Chancellor; b. 1353, d. Feb. 19, 
1413. 

This famous ecclesiasti¢ and statesman was 
the third son of Richard Fitzalan, Earl of 
Arundel. He was made archdeacon of Taunton 
in 1373, and Aug. 13 of the same year was 
promoted to the bishopric of Ely (Cambridge- 
shire, England). He was created archbishop 
of York April 3, 1388, and archbishop of 
Canterbury Sept. 25, 1396. He was several 
times chancellor of the kingdom. While 
archbishop of York he built, or caused to 
be built, the episcopal palaces of Holborn 
and York. At Canterbury he gave a chime of 
five bells called ‘‘ Arundell ryng,” and a thou- 
sand marks for the construction of the nave of 
the cathedral. He built a spire on the north- 
west tower of the cathedral. 

Bentham, Cathedral Church of Ely; Arch. 
Pub. Soc. Dictionary; Willis, Canterbury Ca- 
thedral. 

ASAM, AiGID (gid) ; sculptor and archi- 
tect ; d. after 1746. 

Jtigid Asam was associated with his brother 
Cosmas Damian Asam (see Asam, C. D.) in his 
work. He appears to have confined himself to 
sculpture and stucco work, and was a sculptor 
of rare delicacy of feeling. The facade of a 
house adjacent to the Johanneskirche in the 
Sendlinger Strasse, Munich, is covered with 
remarkable sculptured decoration by him. 

ASAM, COSMAS DAMIAN ; painter and 
architect ; b. Sept. 18, 1686; d. 17422 

157 


ASHLAR 


The brothers, Cosmas Damian Asam and 
Aigid Quirin Asam, were sons of the painter 
Hans Georg Asam, who decorated the Church 
of Benediktbeuren, Germany, in 1693. They 
were trained in Rome at the time when the 
reputation of Andrea Pozzo (see Pozzo, A.) was 
at its height, and were cotemporaries of the 
elder Tiepolo (see Tiepolo, G. B.) Cosmas 
decorated (about 1724), the stairway and chapel 
of the Palace of Schleissheim near Munich. 
He does not appear to have been much employed 
at the Residenz in Munich, which was then in 
process of construction under Francois Cuvilliés 
(see Cuvilliés, Fr.). The most important work 
of the brothers Asam is the Johanneskirche in 
Munich (1733-1746), which is undoubtedly the 
finest specimen of the baroque style in Germany. 

Gurlitt, Geschichte des Barockstiles in Deutsch- 
land; Aufleger-Trautmann, Miinchener architek- 
tur des X VIII Jahrhunderts. 

ASAM, HANS GEORG. 
Cosmas Damian.) 

ASAROTUM. In ancient architecture, a 
species of painted pavement used by the Romans 
before the invention of mosaic work. 

ASBESTIC. Consisting of or containing 
asbestos ; perhaps, as a trade name, having the 
fireproof qualities of asbestos without neces- 
sarily the presence of that material. In 1895 
and later this term was applied to various 
devices for protection against fire. 

ASBESTOS. A mineral of so fibrous a 
nature that it can be woven into a textile fabric, 
which is naturally incombustible ; having also 
the quality of slow conduction of heat. Its 
chief use in building has been for the covering 
of steam pipes, etc. ; and a deafening for floors 
has been made from the fibre. 

ASCENDANT. One of the two vertical 
members forming the sides of a Chambranle 
(which see) or framelike decoration of a window 
or door. (Compare Traverse, B.) 

ASHLAR; ASHLER. A. Squared and 
finished building stone; in recent times, es- 
pecially, such stone when used for the face of 
a wall whose substance is made of inferior 
material. The term has usually a general 
signification, and a single piece would be called 
a block of ashlar; rarely, an ashlar. An at- 
tempt has been made to limit the term to stone 
which is set on its edge, that is to say, not on 
the quarry bed, and in this way to serve as a 
translation of the French adjectival phrase en 
délit ; but there seems to be no authority for 
this limitation. (See Masonry.) 

JB. Attributively, and in combination, hav- 
ing the appearance of, or to be used in the 
place of, ashlar, as a veneer. 

C. A vertical stud between the sloping roof 
and flooring in a garret or roof story, by a series 
of which vertical walls are provided for the 
sides of rooms, and the angular space near the 

158 


(See Asam, 


ASIA MINOR 


eaves partitioned off either as waste space or 
as low closets. Such studding is more com- 
monly spoken of collectively as ashlaring. 

Bastard Ashlar. Stone in thin blocks or 
slabs which is used to face walls of brick or 
rubble, and so treated as to resemble solid 
blocks of stone. This material is often set 
edgeways, or with natural bed nearly vertical. 
(See Ashlar, above.) 

Broken Ashlar. That in which the stones 
are of different sizes and shapes, though always 
rectangular on the face. 

Coursed Ashlar. That in which the stones 
are arranged according to height, so as to form 
regular courses in the face of the wall. 


esr 


tbs Wks 


wn 


Asta MINOR: STONE-CARVED TOMB FROM HOiIRAN. 


Random Coursed Ashlar. 
squared stones of various and irregular sizes, 
but laid so as to form high courses, each of 
which is laid as a band of broken ashlar. 

Random Range Ashlar. Same as Broken 
Ashlar. 

Rough Ashlar. Rough stone, little or not 
at all dressed after quarrying. 

ASIA MINOR, ARCHITECTURE OF. 
Although Asia Minor, from its position between 
the Kast and West, must have been peopled 
from the earliest times, and through it must 
have ebbed and flowed the art civilization from 
one to the other, but little remains are found 
earlier than the fifth century B.c. With no 
great river running through it as a navigable 

159 


- 3  /. ee —— a aa anti: 


ASIA MINOR 


highway, and but few approaches to the centre, ES 
the defects in its physical geography would — 


seem to have been fatal to permanence of 
settlement. With the exception of Magnesia 
and Aizaini, all the architectural developments 
are found on the seaboard, and the same facilities 
of approach which led there to the formation of 
colonies equally served for the destruction. of 
such architectural monuments as, in their short 
tenure, the colonists were able to produce. 
The researches, however, of the Dilettanti 
Society, and of various travellers during the 


last century or so, have revealed the existence 


of a large series of monuments which fill up 
gaps in the history of Greek art, and enable us 
to follow its development with greater clearness, 
whilst in the one section relating to tombs is 
to be found a most complete series of examples, 


such as are not to be met with elsewhere; to a 


these we shall refer in detail later on. 
With the exception of the examples at Assos 
and Pergamon, all the Greek temples on the 


west coast of Asia Minor are of the Ionic 


order, the largest being that of Apollo Bran- 
chide, placed on an eminence about eight miles 
from Miletus, and approached by.a sacred way 
bordered on either side by seated figures of 
archaic type, now in the British Mu- 
seum. The temple itself was deca- 
style, dipteral, with 120 columns 
nearly 65 feet high ; and dates from 
about 356 B.c. It was built on the 
site of two earlier temples, burnt or 
destroyed respectively by Darius and 
Xerxes. In the interior of the cella 
are semidetached columns with fairly 
developed Corinthian capitals. Not- 
withstanding the greater size of the 
temple, its fame was entirely eclipsed 
by that of the Temple of Artemis 
(Diana) at Ephesus, one of the seven 
wonders of the ancient world, which 
would seem to have derived its repu- 
tation from the rich sculpture with 
which it was adorned. Although the 
position occupied by this sculpture had 


That formed by ; already been suggested by representations of 


the west front of the temple on coins, its 
nature and extent were unknown till the discoy- 
ery by Mr. J. C. Wood in 1867 of the actual 
site of the temple, and the recovery of three of 
the sculptured drums (colwmnee coelatce) referred 
to by Pliny. The pavement around the temple 
had been buried to a depth of 22 feet by the 
silt from the river, and this had preserved the 
little that remained of this famous structure. 
Mr. Wood discovered the pavements of three 
successive temples at levels of 2 feet, 6 feet, 


and 9 feet 6 inches above the pavement of the - 


portico. The first temple was that built in 

550 B.c. by Croesus, and one of the drums of 

this temple, inscribed with his name and sculp- 
160 


porticus, propyle, and the whole en- 


- approached. by a wide flight of steps 


ASIA MINOR 


tured with archaic figures, and portions of one 
of the capitals were recovered and brought over 
by Mr. Wood. Burnt 400 B.c., a second temple 
on a higher level was built by Ponius, the 
architect of the temple of Apollo Branchide at 
Miletus. This temple suffered a similar fate 
some 40 years later, and in 356 B.c. the great 
temple described by Pliny was erected. It was 
octastyle, dipteral, and had 100 columns, 36 
of which had sculptures round the lower drum. 
Portions of three of these drums were found, as 
also of the sculpture on five dies or pedestals 
on which some of the sculptured columns 


rested. The latest and most complete restora- 


tion is that put forward by Dr. Murray in 1896, 
and published in the R. I. B. A. Journal, Vol. 
III., 3d series, to which we refer our readers. 
Nearly all the important temples in Asia 
Minor were enclosed within a peribolus wall, 
but without the porticus we find in Syria at 
Palmyra, Gerasa, and Damascus ; on the other 
hand a porticus of two rows of columns, with 


ASIA MINOR 


revealed at Pergamon the remains of the famous 
city built by Eumenes II. (191-159 z.c.) and 
his brother Attalus (159-130) and bequeathed 
by the latter to the Romans, who subsequently 
largely added to it. The more remarkable 
ruins are those found on the hill overlooking 
the valley of the river Seleucus, on the borders 
of which the Romans built an amphitheatre, a 
theatre, and, among other structures, therme, 
part of which were erected on a series of vaults 
thrown across the river ; portions of the therme, 
subsequently turned into a basilican church, 
still exist, as also the vault over the river. 
The upper town, or acropolis, was built on a 
series of terraces, on the lower one of which, 
above the agora, was built the great altar of 
Zeus, from which the superb series of sculptures 
representing the battles of the gods and the 
Titans were removed and taken to Berlin. The 
great altar was raised on a stereobate, or plat- 
form, 98 feet by 90 feet, nearly 20 feet high, 
round which, at a height of about 8 feet from 


entrance propylie, sometimes formed a second | the level of the terrace, ran the great frieze, 7 


enclosure to the temple; examples 
of this are found at Aizani, Ephesus, 
and Priene. At Aizani the temple, 


closure are raised on a platform 
measuring 465 feet by 488 feet, and 


on the east side. Of large temples 
next to the two above described there 
are four octastyle, pseudodipteral ex- 
amples in the temples of Zeus at 
Aizani, Artemis at Magnesia, Aphrodite at 
Aphrodisias, and of Apollo Smintheus. Of 
hexastyle peripteral the best known examples 
are the Temple of Athena Polias at Priene and 
the Temple of Bacchus at Teos, both explored 
and measured by the Dilettanti Society in 1869. 
All the temples above quoted are of the Ionic 
order and of the first Greek work. Of the 
Doric order only two are known; the Temple 
of Athena at Assos, hexastyle and peripteral, 
with figures sculptured on the epistyle, is mi- 
nutely described in Mr. T. Thacher Clarke’s 
report on the investigations at Assos in 1881 
to the Archeological Institute of America ; the 
second example is a temple at Pergamon to 
which we refer later on. During the Roman 
occupation, many Corinthian temples were 
built, of which the largest, erected by Hadrian 
at Cyzicus, was hexastyle peripteral, with col- 
umns 70 feet high, and measured 312 feet by 
112 feet ; it was overthrown by an earthquake 
in the eleventh century and has since then served 
asaquarry. The only Corinthian temple of im- 
portance of which remains exist is that at Euro- 
mus (Labranda in Fellows’s Asia Minor, and 
Jackly in the Antiquities of Ionia) near Yakli. 

The researches of the German government 
(1879-1886) under Dr. Karl Humann, have 

161 


ft 


page” 


& W cuts AR ee 
! : aTeRTINoL eee 
nH f x gnth; 
ul ap i a 
SS bites pi. D 
o 
= 6r7Z 


AsiA Minor: PEASANT’S Hut AT GYOBEN. 


feet 6 inches high, of figures in high relief. A 
wide flight of steps led up to the altar, which, 
it is supposed, was enclosed within a court sur- 
rounded by an Ionic peristyle facing outward. 
On a terrace beyond this, and at a higher level, 
stood the Temple of Athena Polias of the Doric 
order. Beyond this, on an immense terrace 
facing west, was the most important of the 
Roman buildings, the Temple of Trajan, or 
the Augusteum, of the Corinthian order. At the 
foot of the terrace of the Temple of Athena 
Polias, and cut out in the side of the hill, was 
a great theatre with about 90 tiers of seats. 
The stage of the theatre partially encroached on 
the great terrace, 750 feet long, raised on two 
stories of substructures facing the valley. At 
the farther, or east end of this terrace was a 
small Ionic temple of refined Greek work, though 
possibly executed under Roman rule. The 
splendid site of this acropolis, with its succes- 
sion of terraces at different levels, crowned with 
the great altar, and the temples with their 
porticoes around them, must have formed one 
of the most beautiful groups of antiquity. 

The theatres in Asia Minor all date from the 
Roman period, but in some cases they are in 
better preservation than in any other country, 
except perhaps the theatre at Orange in France. 

162 


ve 
di Pr = ) 


ASIA MINOR 


Thus at Aspendus and Perga still exist the gal- 
leries which ran round the upper part of the 
theatre. The walls of the proscenium, with the 
three or five doorways leading on to the stage, 
are still found in a large number of the theatres in 
sufficient preservation to allow of their complete 
restoration on paper, though, since the first rec- 
ord of them by Sir Charles Fellows sixty years 
ago, most of the material has been taken away. 

The more perfect examples are those at 
Hierapolis, Myra (with composite capitals in 
the proscenium), Patara, Aigae, Alinda, Ephesus 
(493 feet in diameter), Laodicea ad Lycum, 
Magnesia, Telmessus, Termessus, Pinara, Lassos, 
and Tralles. 

The Greek market house is represented by 
two well-preserved examples at Alinda in Caria 


Asta Minor: MopEern LycrAn GRANARY. 


and Aigae in Adolia. The former is the larger 
of the two, measuring 320 feet long and 34 feet 
deep, with three stories, the lower one divided 
up into a series of stone chambers, the middle 
story being a long hall divided down the centre 
by square piers and semidetached Doric shafts 
each side, and the upper story an open porticus 
with three rows of columns. 

Colonnaded streets are found in many of the 
towns of Asia Minor, some of them of earlier 
date than those found in Syria. Remains exist 
at Perga (with cross streets) and Side in the 
south of Asia Minor, and other examples are 
found at Hierapolis and Laodicea ad Lycum, 
the most perfect colonnades being found at 
Pompeiopolis near Mersina, where more than a 
hundred columns of the street leading from the 
port to one of the entrance gates of the town 
still stand erect. 

Of the gymnasia in Asia Minor the remains 
are insufficient to judge of their architectural 
treatment. The plans of three are given in Falk- 
ener’s Hphesus, which show considerable resem- 
blance to the thermze of Rome, except that the 
baths occupy a position of secondary importance. 
Other examples exist at Alexandria, Troas (as- 
cribed to Hadrian), Iassos, Sardis, and Assos. 

163 


art. The earliest would seem to be the Phrygia ian 


tion of a column between, which recalls the e 


; ASIA MINOR \ See 
This brings us to the last subatae ot 
pagan work, viz. the tombs, which consti 
the most important series of Greek works 


tombs, dating from the ninth to the fifth centw: 
B.C. The Lion Tomb of Azazin, cut in the rock, 
has two lions rampant with a rude represeal 


Lion Gate at Mycene, though of inferior 1 worl kK 
manship. Numerous other examples are carved | 
in representation of a tent with the elaborat ee 
patterns of an embroidered tent cloth carved on 
the front, the tomb of Midas near Doghan a 
being the ‘most important example and of consid- — 
erable size, the width and height of the tomt b 

being 51 and 61 feet respectively ; ; others at — 
Delikli-tach and Azazin, figured in Perrot and 
Chipiez’s work (Histoire de Vart dans Panti-— es 

quité, Vol.V.), reproduce the same type of desig 2. 
In Lycia the earliest example is that known as 
the Harpy Tomb, consisting of an immense 7 
monolith crowned by a cella enclosed with slabs” ‘ 
of marble, on which are representations of — 
winged figures bearing children or souls to the 
shades of the lower world. Of the rock-cut Me 
tombs in Lycia made known to us by Sir Charles _ 
Fellows, the earliest of them are not considered q 
to be older than the fifth century B.c., and ere ms 
indicate a wooden origin so closely, that, as_ 
pointed out by Fergusson, it would be futile to | } 9 
look for any earlier examples in the country. Me : 
There are two types: first, those which, cut in 
the rock, are isolated on all four sides; and 
second, théas which form frontispieces only on\- a 
the ede of the cliff. Of the former the two x 
examples in the British Museum would seem to 
be copies in stone of a portable ark or shrine, 

placed on a substructure sometimes carved with } 
relief sculpture. They have high, pointed, curved — 
roofs, in the ends of which the purlins carrying 
the carved timber beams are clearly shown, and 
the whole design underneath consists of copies 
of timber framed with projecting beams such as BS 
to make it in its original model a portable — 3 
feature. ae 

The second class is of two types, the easliagt 
again copied from framed structures in wood 
with projecting roofs carried on circular logs of 
timber and sometimes with a pent roof; the 
later ones are imitations of the porticoes of 
temples, but with the ends of squared timbers 
projecting beyond the epistyle, which, likesimilar = 
features in the Persepolitan tombs, show the 
wooden origin of the Greek dentil here found 
in an undeveloped condition. At Myra, Telmes- 
sus, Antiphellus, Patara, and Araxa, these tombs 
can be counted by hundreds in the sides of the 
cliffs. 

The most elaborate tomb in Asia Minor was 
the Mausoleum erected by Queen Artemisia in 
memory of her husband Mausolus, and celebrated 
on account of the beauty of its sculpture and 

164 


ed 
*. 


, . — 7 5 ‘ 
_ the fame of the artists who executed it. The 


chief attempted restorations since its discovery 


are those of Newton and Pullan, Fergusson and 


Dr. Oldfield, whose clear and unbiassed descrip- 


___ tion in the Archeologia of 1896 may lead to 
other versions. 


Of the architecture of the Byzantine Empire 
comparatively little is found in Asia Minor ; it 
is possible that some of the earlier churches 
have been converted into mosques, and of these 
there are two examples at Trebizond. The 


other examples given in Texier are the churches 


of Ancyra, Cassaba, and Myra. In these exam- 
ples the prothesis and diaconicum are found, 
which show that they are posterior to Justin I1., 
and the comparatively low elevation of the 
drum carrying the dome suggests that they 
were built before the ninth century, when the 
drum began to be raised higher to obtain more 
light from the windows pierced in it. 

The last architectural phase in Asia Minor is 
that which was developed under the Seljuk 


‘Sultans, and whose chief interest lies in the 
fact that it forms the foundation of the Turkish 


Saracenic style. 
- It was toward the end of the twelfth century 


that the Seljuk Sultans developed a style of 


their own, largely based on Persian work. Their 


_ art, however, was more decorative than construc- 


tional, and whilst the portals of their mosques 
and the entrance gateways of their medressas 
or universities are conspicuous by the elabora- 
tion of their ornament, a close inspection reveals 


_ that their intricate patterns are an attempt to 


reproduce in carved stonework that decoration 
which the Persians produced, and much more 
happily, in brilliantly coloured fayence. Com- 
pared with the earlier work in Persia, or the 
numerous developments in Cairo, the construc- 


’ tive value and reason of the stalactitic vault, 


either in the pendentives which carry the domes, 
or in the half vault of the great portals, or even 
in the cornices or capitals, in Seljukian work is 
entirely lost on account of its want of due pro- 
jection and its elongation. The most remark- 
able buildings are those found in Sivas, built 
between 1211 and 1274; Kaisariyeh, in the 
mosque erected by Houen, 1238 ; Konieh, palace 
and mosques ; Nigdeh, the mosque of Ala-ed- 
Din, 1223, and the tomb of Fatma Khadoon, 
1344, one of the most beautiful buildings of 
the style. The conical roofs with which all the 
Seljukian tombs are covered, in contradistinction 
to the domes which surmount all Persian and 
Cairene tombs, are probably derived from Ar- 
menian and Georgian prototypes. All of these 
are represented in Texier, Asie Mineure. 
—R. PHENE SPIERS. 


The architectural history of Asia Minor has 
hardly been attempted previously to the prepara- 
tion of this paper. What is known of the build- 
ings on the seacoast is to be found in books 


165 


ASSEMBLY CHAMBER 


mentioned in the bibliography of Grecian archi- 
tecture; and that which recent explorations of the 
interior have recorded is to be found in certain 
large books of travel like Petersen’s Kleinasien, 
which are not architectural treatises. Professor 
Ramsay’s explorations, some of which are recorded 
in the publications of the Archeological Institute 
of America, are full of suggestive remarks. Also 
see, besides the books mentioned in the text, 
Texier, Charles, Asia Mineure, description géo- 
graphique, etc. ; Falkener, Edward, Ephesus, etc. ; 
Pottier, Edmond, and Reinach, Salomon, F cole 
JSrancaise d’ Athénes, la Nécropole de Myrina, 
recherches archéologiques exécutées . . ., Paris, 
1887 ; Niemann, George, and Benndorf, O., Reisen 
in Siidwestlichen Klein-Asien, Band 1.; Reisen in 
Lykien und Karien . . . mit einer karte von Hein- 
rich Kiepert, Band I1.; Reisen in Lykien, Milyas 
und Kibratis, Vienna, 1889; Humann, Karl, and 
Puchstein, O., Reisen in Kleinasien und Nord 
Syrien, Ausgefiihrt im auftrage der Kgl. preus- 
sischen akademie der wissenschaften, Berlin, 1890 ; 
Lanckoroénski, Karl, Niemann, G., and Petersen, 
E., Stddte Pamphyliens und Pisidiens..., Vienna, 
1890. 


ASPHALT. A. Natural mineral pitch or 
bitumen, as from the great Pitch Lake in the 
Island of Trinidad. 

J. An artificial compound, as of coal tar, 
sand, and lime; or of natural asphalt (A above) 
or some other form of bitumen with vegetable 
pitch, sand, and other ingredients. 

Either of these preparations is used for street 
paving, and for making walls and vaults water- 
tight. 

ASSEMBLY CHAMBER; ASSEMBLY 
HOUSE. Among the American Indians a 
structure built for meetings, ceremonies, and 
festivals. Those erected by Indians of Cali- 
fornia and the Northwest are particularly so 
called. In certain respects the function of the 
assembly house is similar to that of the Kiva ; 
it is ceremonial lodge, club house, council house, 
and dormitory combined. That built by the 
Korak was oblong, wholly underground, about 
6 feet wide by 10 feet long, and 6 feet high. 
An almost flat roof was supported by poles or 
posts, the top being on a level with the surface 
of the ground. The only opening was a hatch- 
way at one side with a notched pole for descent. 
The Yuki made a dome-shaped house thatched 
with grass and covered with earth. It was 
large enough to contain 200 persons. The 
Poémo house was similar, and every seven years 
they built an especially large one. In Potter 
Valley, California, remains of one had a circular 
excavation for a base 63 feet in diameter and 
6 feet deep. It was 18 feet high in the middle, 
the roof being supported on five posts, one 
in the centre and four equidistant between it 
and the edge of the excavation. Timbers 6 to 
9 inches diameter were built over from the 
edge to the central post, then grass and brush 
were laid on, and the whole covered with earth. 
The frame of a mammoth assembly house erected 
by Puget Sound Indians was still standing in 

166 


ASSEMBLY ROOM 


1855 at Port Madison. It was 520 feet long, 
60 feet wide, 15 feet high in front, and 10 feet 
high in the rear, the roof having but one slope. 
There were 37 rafters, each 60 feet long and 
from 12 to 22 inches in diameter. Roof and 
sides were of slabs or planks, as usual in that 
locality. (See Slab House; Kiva; Council 
House ; Lodge ; Communal Dwelling.) 
—F. 8. DELLENBAUGH. 

ASSEMBLY ROOM. A room in which 
assemblies in the sense of social gatherings, 
balls, etc., are held. The term was common in 
England in the eighteenth century, and is still 
in use, especially in the United States. 


ASSURANCE. (See Cailleteau.) 

ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE. (See 
Mesopotamia, Architecture of.) 

ASTRAGAL; ASTRAGALUS. 4. A 


small moulding of rounded, convex section. 
When plain it is more commonly called Bead 


ASTRAGAL. 


(which see), but it is very often, in classic and 
neoclassic architecture, cut into a row of slightly 
marked rounded parts. 

B. A moulded strip applied to one or both 
meeting stiles of a pair of folding doors. It 
projects past the edge so as to overlap the 
adjoining stile when the doors are closed. 

CO. Sometimes, a sash bar. 

ASTYLAR. Without columns, or without 
the habitual use of columns in important posi- 
tions and as influencing the design ; said of a 
style or a system of design. The opposite of 
this term is Columnar. 

ASYLUM. A. Originally a place of sanc- 
tuary where persons escaping from justice might 
be saved ; the term adopted in its full signifi- 
cance from the Latin, in which sense Rome is 
said to have been made an asylum by Romulus, 
and in which sense also the Capitoline Hill 
between the Citadel and the highest point, 
where the Temple of Jupiter stood, was the 
actual place of refuge. 

The district called Blackfriars in London 
maintained its right of asylum as late, at least, 
as the reign of Mary I., and that called pop- 
ularly Alsatia, but more properly Whitefriars, 
retained its right of sanctuary until it was 
formally abolished in 1697. (See Sanctuary.) 

$B. In modern usage a building or group of 
buildings intended as a refuge for the sick or 
the destitute. It may be considered to differ 
from Hospital in that the hospital is rather a 
place for the care and cure of disease, the asylum 
a place of refuge for those who need care rather 
than medical treatment. In this sense, used 
peculiarly as an abbreviation for insane asylum 

167 


eS | al eats 
: ‘ = 
a“ 


a ATRIUM 


and as a more delicate expression than Mad- ; 
house. (For the planning and architectural _ 
character of the building, see Hospital.) — R. S _ 

ASYMMETRY. Lack of symmetry. The 
term may be used to imply a defect, as when ivan 
is said that buildings of a given epoch suffer — - 
from asymmetry. It is more often used as | 
implying a quality which is good or evil as one a 
may judge it. The term “ Symmetry ” of which F 
this term is the opposite and negation, is item 4 
of a very loose and general significance. Thus — 
an irregular building or group of buildings may re 
be considered by one critic lacking in proper __ 
symmetry, and by another as characterized by __ 
an asymmetry so subtile as to be often over- 
looked, — and this may be asymmetrical to 
either of these critics, the term covering both __ 
characterizations. Ree es 

ATCHIEVEMENT. Same as Achievement. ia 

ATELIER. A workshop or studio; the a 
French term naturalized in English for an artist’s aan 
studio, and, especially, for one of those studios 
in which pupils are trained in any fine art. 
(See Ecole des Beaux Arts and Architect, The, 
in England; Architect, The, in France; Archi- — 
tect, The, in Italy. Compare also Painting ~ 
Room ; Studio ; Workshop.) 

ATLANTES (pl.). Figures of men used as 
supports or apparent supports. (See Caryatid; — 
Telamon.) Atlantes are rare in architecture 
before the seventeenth century, their use being 
limited to two or three known instances of 
which the most important is the great temple 
at Akragas, in Sicily. In the later neoclassic 
work they are common. (See Baroque; N eas 
classic Architecture ; Rococo.) 

ATLAS. The singular form of Atlantes. — 
ATRIUM. A. In Roman building, the 
principal room of an early and simple house. 
The hearth for cooking was in it, and the word 
“‘culina,” or special cooking room, is of later 
date ; hence, in small Pompeian houses the room 
with the hearth is named “atrium” or ‘ culina.” 
In more elaborate dwellings, a small court, only 
partially covered by a roof, the rain upon which 
fell through the opening in the middle. In the 
large houses known to us in Pompeii and 
Herculaneum the term “atrium” is applied to a 
smaller and less pretentious court, the larger ones 
being called “‘ peristyle” or ‘‘ garden.” Vitruvius, 
however, employs the term “ caveedium ” as that 
most common in his time, — that of the early 

Empire. 

B. In early Christian ecclesiology, the court 
in front of a basilica, usually surrounded by — 
covered ambulatories in the manner of a cloister. 
In most instances, the space of the atrium has 
been occupied by other buildings, but a few 
remain in very perfect condition, as notably — 
that of S. Ambrogio at Milan. (See Basilica ; 
Etruscan Architecture ; House ; Roman Imperial 
Architecture.) — R. 8. 

168 


% 
ey 


coer 


ATTACHED COLUMN 


Corinthian Atrium. One in which a number 
of columns were used to carry the frame of the 
compluvium. This, then, was a small peristyle. 

Displuviate Atrium. (Cavedium Displuvi- 
atum ; Vitruvius.) One in which the opening 
in the roof was not a compluvium, as the roof 
sloped the other way, and the water was carried 
outward toward the walls and so to gutters and 
leaders. 

Tetrastyle Atrium. One in which the four 
corners of the frame of the compluvium are 


rane tanra Smarr sale ea ant? iy aaa ee 
i o 
i 


NERVAE-TRALANO: 


POTES Tol VIMLIMP-VINCOSVI 


| NEWAETRAANG 
4 Pp P 
19) | FORTISSIMOPRINCIP ES NATVS:P: ORI | vy; 


ATTIC STORY 


ATTIC. A. Something built above the 
wall cornice ; a low story with windows, or a 
mere blank wall, but not a pierced or open 
parapet. The use of the term is confined to neo- 
classic buildings in which an additional story 
above the cornice is sometimes added in this 
way, this device being employed either to 
diminish the apparent height of the front, or 
as an afterthought. A purely ornamental con- 
struction above the entablature receives this 
name also, as in the Forum of Nerva (Forum 


gL Bein 
ERVAEFILIO} | "og 
PTIMO-AVG |} IP 
NTIFM AXTRIB 


NA 


Se ee 
EEE 


| 


eS Koen ie 


i \ 


Mi 
=i 


SSeS 


SY 


= . ames! 
Sm: _———, 


: \ 
eae Or oP a | 


=, V 
Ni) 


ATTIc: ARCH OF TRAJAN, BENEVENTO. 


Having a very lofty attic bearing inscriptions and two bas-reliefs. 


carried on four columns, while no other columns 
were used. 

Testudinate Atrium. (Cavedium Testu- 
dinatum ; Vitruvius.) One in which the roof 
was complete, without opening. This seems to 
be a survival of the earliest form, where the 
atrium was a mere sitting room. 

Tuscan Atrium. One which has no columns 
to carry the roof, the compluvium being merely 
a square framed opening like a skylight. This 
is unquestionably the early Italian form. 

ATTACHED COLUMN. Sameas Engaged 
Column (which see). 

ATTACHMENT PLUG. 
Appliances.) 


(See Electrical 


169 


Transitorium) at Rome. (See Facade; also 
Neoclassic Architecture ; Renaissance ; Roman 
Imperial.) 

B. A story at the top of a building compar- 
atively low and unimportant ; as if built behind 
the architectural attic (definition .A above). 
(See Attic Story; also compare Basement.) 

ATTIC BASE. (See Base.) 

ATTIC ORDER. A subordinate order, as 
of pilasters, used to adorn the front of an Attic 
(which see). 

ATTIC STORY. The story behind an 
Attic in sense A and the same as an attic in 
sense DB. 

170 


OP oe ee 
= 4 ay 7 


ATTRIBUTE 


ATTRIBUTE. An object, as a weapon, a 
flower, or the like, considered as expressing the 
character or authority of a divinity ; thus the 
dove is a recognized attribute of Venus in 
Roman and modern mythology. (Compare 
Emblem ; Symbology.) 

ATWOOD, CHARLES B.; architect; b. 
1849, at Charlestown, Massachusetts ; d. Dec. . 
1895, at Chicago. 

Atwood was educated at the Lawrence Sci- 
entific School of Harvard University. He 
worked for several years in the office of Ware 
and Van Brunt (Boston), and in 1872 began 
business on his own account. In 1875 he took 
charge of the architectural work of the firm of 
Herter Brothers in New York City, and in that 
capacity designed much of the detail of W. H. 
Vanderbilt’s house on Fifth Avenue. Atwood 
was chosen designer in chief to the World’s Fair 
in Chicago and designed the Peristyle and Art 
Building for that exposition. 

American Architect, Vol. L., p. 141. 


AUBELET, JEHAN ; architect. 

In 1401 Jehan Aubelet, maitre d’ceuvre du 
roi, with his nephew, Jehan Prév6t, was sent 
by Raymond du Temple (see Temple, R. du) to 
inspect the works at the Cathedral of Troyes 
(France). In 1403 Aubelet became maitre des 
@uvres to the Duke of Orleans. 


Assier, Les arts et les artistes dans Vancienne 
capitale de la Champagne. 


AUBRIOT, HUGUES ; prévdt de Paris. 

Before 1369 he completed the second wall of 
the city of Paris (enceinte de Charles V.) 
begun by his predecessor Etienne Marcel. He 
laid the first stone of the historic Bastille (Paris) 
April 22, 1370. The building was finished in 
about four years. This work brought upon 
him the animosity of the people. He was 
condemned by the bishop of Paris and himself 
imprisoned in the Bastille, March 1, 1382. He 
escaped to Dijon, where he died soon after. 

Hoffenbauer, Paris a travers les ages. 


AUDIENCE CHAMBER. A room in 
which a formal reception or meeting is held, as, 
especially, in a palace, as it is the sovereign 
generally who is said to grant audiences. 

AUDIT HOUSE; ROOM. In England, 
a house or room used for the transaction of 
business connected with a cathedral, and, there- 
fore, usually located in the cathedral close. 

AUDITORIUM (I.). A. In any building 
intended to receive an audience, as a church, a 
theatre, or the like, that part which is especially 
appropriated to the audience when listening to 
an address or concert, or watching a perform- 
ance, or the like. (See Acoustics; Amphi- 
theatre ; Concert Hall; Theatre.) 

. A parlor in which the inmates of a 
monastery or similar institution are allowed to 
see Visitors. 

hyat 


a AUSTIN an 
AUDITORIUM (II.). A building in in Chi- 
cago, Illinois, which contains a theatre, many 
business offices, and a large hotel. It occupies 
one end or side of a large block, and fronts — on 
three streets, having also a fourth front on a : 
narrow alley. The Auditorium Annex is at the | 
other side of the street upon which the main 
building faces, and is connected therewith by a 
tunnel under the roadway. 

AUDRAN, CLAUDE; painter and dec- — 
orator; b. Mar. 27, 1639, at Lyons; d.Jan. 4, 
1684. a 
The family of Audran furnished five cena 
tions of artists represented by sixteen individ- 
uals, most of them engravers. Claude Audran 
was a pupil of Noél Coypel and assisted Errard 
in the decoration of Versailles, the Louvre, and 
the Tuileries. He assisted Charles Lebrun (see 
Lebrun, Ch.) in many important undertakings. — 
The more famous engraver, Gérard Audran, was — 
a younger brother. ( 


Genevay, Style Louis XIV. 


AUGUSTZiUM. A building, oratemple, 
dedicated to the deified Augustus, as that at 
Ancyra in Asia Minor. . 

AULA. A hall or large room; the late 
Latin term used in medieval Latin documents 
and rarely in modern English. 

AUMBRY ; AUMERY. Same as Ambry. 

AUREOLA; AUREOLE. A glory which 
surrounds the whole figure of the divine or 
sainted personage. (See Glory; Halo; 
Nimbus; Vesica Piscis.) On the tympanum 
of a Romanesque or early Gothic church, Christ — 
is often represented surrounded by an aureole. 

AURIGA, HERMANN; architect and 
engineer. ; Bee 

At the end of the twelfth century (1190- 
1202) Bishop Conrad von Hunenbourg under- 
took the second enlargement of the walls of ! 
the city of Strasburg. He built a double line 
of fortifications with three gates. On one of 
these gates, which existed in the last century, — 
was the statue of the architect employed on 
the work and the inscription, ‘‘ Hermannus 
Auriga magister hujus operis.” It has been — 
conjectured that Auriga was architect of the 
choir and transept of the Cathedral of Stras- 
burg, built at about this time. 

Gérard ; Les Artistes de l’ Alsace au Moyen- 
age. 

AUSTIN, GHORGE; architect ; b. 1787; 
d. 1848. 

The Cathedral of Canterbury was allowed 
to decay until about 1819. Only mechanics 
were employed to care for it, and important 
parts of the building were in ruin. George 
Austin, a resident of Canterbury, urged the 
necessity of intelligent care, and was placed in 
charge of the monument. He restored the 
entire building. His restoration of the south- * 

172 


PLAT Em 


Lae ee 


$ 
& 
é 


AUSTRIAN STATES 


Cathedral church of S. Stephen, Vienna. The 
west front is of the thirteenth century, but the 
south flank and splendid south tower are of about 
1360 and the following years. The church is pe- 


culiar in that it has no clearstory whatever, but is 
a Hallenkirche, with the nave and two aisles of 
nearly the same height. 


AUSTRALIA 


eastern transept and northwestern tower were 
remarkable feats of engineering. 
Builder, Vol. VII. (1849), p. 205. 
AUSTRALIA, ARCHITECTURE OF. 
The natives of Australia were few in number 
when the land was first explored by Europeans, 
and were of a low type of savagery. They 
had no houses nor roofed buildings of any sort ; 
using screens as a shelter from the wind in 
summer, and in winter building low huts of 
bark or of slender poles tied together at top 
and covered with mud, with the one opening 
turned to leeward, and without door or open- 
ing for window or chimney. (See Mia-Mia.) 
The settlers of European stock have built 
two cities, Melbourne and Sydney, of over four 
hundred thousand inhabitants each, and nine 
more of twenty thousand or over. These are 
generally laid out with very wide streets, 
reservations for parks, sites selected deliberately 
for public buildings, and all the usual and 
proper consideration for the needs of a large 
population ; but as yet little of importance 
in the way of architectural art is noted. 
The public buildings are convenient, but 
in style are rather close copies of modern 
English architecture of the more conventional 
and less interesting type. Thus, in Adelaide, 
South Australia, a city admirably laid out 
with most sagacious provision for future needs, 
the buildings generally do not demand atten- 
tion. The town hall and the Supreme Court 
building are of late neoclassic character, with 
pilasters and colonnaded porticoes of an ordi- 
nary sort ; although the latter building is of 
good general proportions. In the same town, 
the Parliament house of the colony is in 
process of rebuilding, on a much larger scale 
than at first and in a neoclassic style. The 
Anglican cathedral is, however, an important 
structure, designed by William Butterfield and 
in the best style of that remarkable artist. 
In the colony of New South Wales, the city 
of Sydney is picturesquely situated, with its 
suburbs, around a beautiful bay, and is one of 
the most attractive new cities in the world ; 
but the architectural character of its public 
buildings is not high nor very unusual. The 
town hall is of a rather florid neoclassic 
design with two orders superimposed. There 
are open porticoes in two stories with coupled 
columns, and these are repeated and carried 
along the front by systems of pilasters ; there 
is also a high square tower of good general 
design rising from the roof above the porticoes. 
The university buildings have been begun on 
a very large scale in the modern Gothic style. 
Saint Andrew’s Cathedral is of moderate size ; 
a perpendicular Gothic design by T. Blackett. 
There is also a large Roman Catholic cathedral 
in progress, the design of W. W. Wardell, 
geometrical English Gothic, apparently studied 
173 


AUSTRIAN STATES 


from Lincoln Cathedral. The government 


‘house, of elaborate Victorian Gothic style, with 


towers, lies in fine grounds, a part of which is 
used as the botanic garden. That which a 
new and growing city needs seems to be done 
or doing in a good way; but, except for the 
cathedral, no important artistical or construc- 
tional peculiarities are brought to our attention. 

On a still larger scale are the buildings 
of Melbourne, the capital of Victoria. The 
houses of Parliament are of elaborate neo- 
classic design: a portico with ten columns in 
antis between wings decorated by pilasters, 
the whole forming a colossal order. The 
Roman Catholic cathedral, by W. W. Wardell, 
is of English Gothic. The Anglican cathedral, 
by Butterfield, is a remarkable design with 
free use of colour. 

Until a careful study of the houses built by 
early settlers and by later wealthy sheep 
farmers and cattle raisers shall have been 
made, there will be nothing of especial interest 
to record concerning the architecture of Aus- 
tralia — always excepting the chance of im- 
portant buildings of truly artistical character 
being undertaken.- That which would be 
interesting to a foreigner in the United States 
would not be the grandiose buildings of the 
cities so much as the naturally developed frame 
buildings, sheathed and protected with board- 
ing and shingles, which have grown up with 
the very life of the people; and the same con- 
ditions exist in the case of the prosperous 
British colonies of the Pacific Ocean. We 
desire to know wherein their unsophisticated 
system of building differs from the log house 
and the frame house of the English speaking 
nations of America ; but as yet no student has 
brought us this information. — R. 8. 

‘¢ Architecture of the Colony of Victoria’ (Aus- 
tralia), Journal R. I. B. A.; James Barnet, 
‘¢ Architectural Work in Sydney, N. S. W.,’’ Vol. 
VL, No. 17, July, 1899, Journal R. I. B. A. The 
literature of the subject is of lttle extent or im- 
portance, and photographs are hard to obtain. 

A part of the information contained in the 
above article is furnished by Mr. R. Phené Spiers. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, STATES OF 
THE EMPIRE OF. (See Austrian States ; 
Bohemia; Croatia; Dalmatia, under Balkan 
Peninsula ; Hungary.) 

AUSTRIAN STATES, ARCHITECTURE 
OF. Austria; the provinces of the empire 
excepting Bohemia, Hungary (which see), with 
its dependencies and the Adriatic coast (for 
which last see Balkan Peninsula). It may, at 
first, appear remarkable that the Austrian 
dominions should present fewer examples of 
medieval architecture, especially churches, than 
any other German lands; but a study of the 
history of the country will supply one reason 
for this, the continued wars with Hungary, 
Poland, and Turkey, and the fact that large 

174 


7 i i 


AUSTRIAN STATES 


portions of the country were for many years 
absolutely in the possession of the Turks. It 
may be doubted whether the Austrian churches 
ever equalled those of the north and west of 
Germany, but whether they did or no, they 
certainly do not at the present day. 

Nature, also, seems to have conspired against 
Austrian architecture. Scarcely a building has 
escaped earthquake, tempest, or fire. It is 
a remarkable and certainly a fortunate circum- 
stance that that which must always have been 
the finest church in these dominions is the best 
preserved ; this comes about by chances that it 
is almost impossible to describe. The great 
Cathedral of 8. Stephen at Vienna, with its 
stately interior, magnificent spire, and graceful 
details of every description, even to its internal 
fittings, monuments, and stained glass, is a 
storehouse of graceful architecture. We will 
simply note that the west front, with its 
octagonal spire-capped towers, is a valuable 
example of the beautiful Danubian architecture 
of the thirteenth century which we find further 
exemplified in those abbeys, or portions of 
them, which have escaped destruction or re- 
building. 

Perhaps the most interesting of these is the 
Abbey of Heiligenkreuz in the Wienerwald. 
The nave of the church is rich Romanesque 
work, but there is a magnificent fourteenth 
century ‘‘ Hallenbau” choir. The most valu- 
able portions, however, are the cloisters, 
chapter house, and “‘ Brunnen ” house or monks’ 
lavatory, in the same style as the works to 
which we have alluded in Ratisbon (see Ger- 
many, Architecture of) as being of that beauti- 
ful thirteenth century Gothic almost peculiar 
to the Danube. 

Another abbey, almost equally remarkable, 
is that of Zwetl, in lower Austria, which is of 
a very similar description, with the same 
arrangement of chapter house, cloisters, ‘ Brun- 
nen” house, etc., attached to a grand Gothic 
church built in 1343-1348. 

A third fine old abbey of very similar archi- 
tecture is to be seen at Trebitch in Moravia, 
with a large Romanesque crypt and magnificent 
west doorway. 

The abbeys of Klosterneuburg and Lilien- 
feld, both in Lower Austria, possess cloisters 
and other portions of this same _ beautiful 
architecture, though the church of the former 
was rebuilt in the seventeenth century and 
that of the latter very much modernized. 

The Abbey of Sekkau, near Gratz, has a 
fine church of the earlier school of Romanesque 
work. The little Cathedral of Gurk in Ca- 
rinthia, with its remarkable crypt and richly 
sculptured western portal, is an example of 
most highly elaborated late Romanesque. 

The Cathedral of Wiener Neustadt, 1240— 
1245, an extremely graceful specimen of very 

176 


hy , 
<a > iv: La 
“trae eyes ere, 
- at. ee. ot ihe nae 
eee A A 525 ne 


Ty cee) One 
AUSTRIAN STATES is 
early Gothic, is certainly the oldest in this 
part of the country. 

Of more developed Gothic are the Church 


of Strasso-Engel near Gratz, 8. Marien Stiegen, _ 
and the magnificent cathedral, at least its 
Of the later or flamboyant 
Gothic, there is a very perfect example in the _ 


nave and choir. 


great church at Steyr, a rich church with fine Z 
stained glass and carving. And, of course, 


the great and justly celebrated south tower of = 
S. Stephen’s at Vienna may be regarded as the 


masterpiece of this style of architecture. 


Although Austria contains few Gothic build- bi h 
ings, some of them, as may be seen from the ~ 


list we give, are works of great interest and 


beauty, showing vigorous and graceful detail = ’ 


of a very similar description to that most ex- 
cellent school of Ratisbon. Unfortunately, 
these Gothic churches are so few in number 


as to be completely lost and buried amongst a 


the dreary and overwhelming mass of build- 
ings of the very worst rococo in the whole of © 
Europe. 

Why the late neoclassic church architecture: 
of Austria should be so poor, and yet the pal- 


aces of the same period often so striking, is very == 


difficult to say. The seventeenth and eigh- 
teenth century palaces possess a stateliness and. 
grand solidity of treatment which reconciles one: 
to the wildness and extravagance of some of the. 
detail. Their great and powerfully designed 


doorways, with projecting canopies supported _ a 


by giant caryatides, present a very grand ap- — 
pearance. 
was Bernard Fischer von Erlach, who built the: 
only fine neoclassic church in Vienna, that of 
S. Karl Borromeo. 

The nineteenth 
Vienna is of more than ordinary interest. The — 
Palace of Justice, by Wielemans, 1881, is a — 
finely treated example of Italian Renaissance 
very magnificently carried out. 

The Parliament House, by Van Hausen, 
1883, is a somewhat severely treated Greek. 
building. 

The university, by Ferstal, 1883, is Renais- 
sance of a rather cold kind, but dignified. 

The court opera house, by Vandernul and. 
Siccardsburg, is a splendid work of more freely 
treated Renaissance style. 

The town hall, by the late Professor Schmidt,. 
is a vast Gothic building with a slight admix- 
ture of classical detail magnificently carried. 
out, and a great ornament to the town. 

There are many churches built by Schmidt, 
all of the Gothic style, though one is crowned. 
by a great dome very skilfully treated. The: 
large but very simple church of the Lazarists. 
is a scholarly work. ; 

Of course, the most important modern church 
in Vienna is the Heilands Kirche, an extraordi- 
narily elaborate work by Ferstal in the Cologne 

176 


One of the best masters of this style — = 


century architecture of 


AVANT-CORPS 


type of Gothic. Though carried out regardless 
of cost, its proportions are not satisfactory. 


THE TYROL AND SALZBURG 


Although the churches of the Tyrol are not 
fine examples of architecture, they contain 
much beautiful furniture, especially carved 
altarpieces of great intricacy and beauty. 

The Innsbruck churches are almost entirely 
of the late Renaissance type, but the Hoff 
Kirche contains the superb monument of the 
Emperor Maximilian I. by Colin of Mechlin, 
which is surrounded by twenty-eight bronze 
statues of magnificent workmanship. 

Frequent fires have left few medizeval build- 
ings in this town. The cathedral, 1614-1655, 
is a poor imitation of 8. Peter’s, Rome, but 
contains the most magnificent bronze font in 
Kurope, dated 1321. 

S. Peter’s, a very much modernized Roman- 
esque church, is surrounded by a very ancient 
cemetery with picturesque fifteenth and six- 
teenth century memorials. 

The church on the Nonberg has an ancient 
crypt and cloisters of a very early date, with 
ancient wall paintings and a superbly carved 
altar. 

Mittelalterl. Kunstdenkmalen des Oesterreich. 
Kaiserstates ; Ernst und Oescher, Baudenkmale 
des Mittelalters in Erzherzogthum Oesterreich ; 
Allgemeine Bauzeitung (about 30 vols.) ; Auer 
und Lange, Monuments de Vienne; A Magyar 
Mérnok Egyles Heti Ertesitéje, Budapest. And 
see Bibliography, Germany, Architecture of. 

—H. W. Brewer. 

AVANT-CORPS. That part of a building 
which projects prominently from the main 
mass, or a pavilion almost wholly separated 
from the main building and advanced in front 
of it ; the French term often used in English. 

AVENUE. A way of approach or of exit, 
or, in a general way, for circulation; a term 
of very general application. Especially :— 

A. A street in a town; usually a wide and 
straight one, and often with some pretensions 
to treatment in the way of landscape, as with 
trees and shrubs. Unter den Linden in 
Berlin is a well-known type, and there are in 
Paris avenues in this sense. 

B. A drive in a park or private country 
place, more especially the principal drive from 
the main entrance to the house; a term not 
often used unless the drive is straight or 
nearly so. 

C. By extension from B, a double row of 
trees ; the space between them and on either 
side being without other roadways or paths. 

AVERULINUS; AVERLINO. (See Fil- 
arete. ) 

AVERY ARCHITECTURAL LIBRARY. 
Founded in 1890 by Samuel P. Avery and 
Mary O. Avery, his wife, of New York City, in 

4 Wes 


AXE 


memory of their son, Henry Ogden Avery, 
architect. The ownership of the books is vested 
in the Trustees of Columbia University in the 
city of New York, and the purchasing of books 
and the general supervision of the affairs of the 
library is in the hands of a committee especially 
appointed by the deed of gift. The amount 
of the gift on the first day of July, 1899, in- 
cluding the invested fund and the purchases, 
binding, etc., to that date, has reached $68,- 
584.87 ; to which are to be added gifts, from 
time to time, of books, prints, and the like, 
amounting to about $10,000 more. The costly 
character of the large majority of the books 
prevents the comparison, per number of volumes, 
with libraries in other departments of knowl- 
edge, but the number of separate volumes in 
the library was, on the above date, 15,566. 
—R.S. 

AXE (I.). In French, the axis; the cen- 
tral or determining line. 

En Axe. In French, placed upon the axis, 
as of something else; or symmetrically dis- 
posed about the axis. A monument is said 
to be en axe with a street when the centre 
line of the street passes through the centre of 
the monument. Two rooms are said to be en 
axe; or an opposite window or door, or two 
opposite doors, are said to be en axe when the 
axis of the room, pavilion, wing, or whole 
building passes through them, or even when 
they are centred upon one another with delib- | 
erate care to bring them exactly opposite. 
The term, being entirely French, is taken over 
into English with many abuses and misunder- 
standings. (See Axis.) —R. S. 

AXE (II.). A form of Peen Hammer used 
for the rougher kinds of stone dressing. Its 

| head has the 
form of a 
double wedge 
with its two 
edges parallel 
to the handle. 

Tooth Axe. Similar to the above, the 
edges having teeth. Used in finishing the face 


UENO 


TootH AXE. 


of the softer kinds of stones or in preparing 
them for a still finer finish. (See Stone 

Dressing. ) 
AXE (v.). 
of the stone mason’s axe. 
178 


To dress or face stone by means 
(See Axe, II.) The 


PA 


. have been able to fix. 


bf ae © 


AXIAL 


term is often extended to include work done 
with the Patent Hammer (which see). It is 
customary to face granite and all granitic rocks 
in this manner, while softer stones are tooled. 
Bluestone, also, the hard sandstone known by 
that name in New York City, is often treated 
in the same way. 

AXIAL. A. Pertaining to an axis, as in 
the expression, an axial line. 

B. Situated on an axis, as any member of 
a building, either existing or shown in a draw- 
ing. The term is not common in architectural 
writing, but occurs sometimes as a substitute 
for en awe (which see under Axe, I.) and to 
avoid circumlocution. 

AXIS. A. In architectural drawing, a 
central line, not necessarily intended to form 
a part of the finished drawing, but laid down 
as a guiding line from which may be measured 
figure dimensions of rooms, the widths of open- 
ings, etc. A primary axis may pass through 
the middle of a Ground Plan (which see), in 
either direction, or, vertically, through the 
middle of a Section or Elevation (which see). 
There may be as many subsidiary axes as the 
different rooms, wings, pavilions, or other 
primary parts of the building may require. 

B. An imaginary line to which is referred 
the parts of an existing building or the rela- 
tions of a number of buildings to one another. 
Thus, in Greek architecture, the buildings 
standing on the Acropolis of Athens, or those 
within the sacred enclosure at Epidauros or 
Olympia, have each a distinctly marked axis, 
but have no common axis that modern explorers 
Such buildings are, 
indeed, set at angles with one another so 
obvious that the idea of a common axis is pre- 
cluded. On the other hand, the great temple 
at Karnak in Egypt has a bent or deviated 
axis; that is to say, while the first three or 
four halls and courts have evidently been care- 
fully arranged upon one axis, those that follow 
are arranged upon another axis, making a very 
slight angle with the former one. A similar 
deflection occurs in many medieval churches, 
and a legend exists, very hard to verify, accord- 
ing to which this change of direction from the 
nave to the choir is intended to suggest the 
reclining of the Saviour’s head upon the cross. 
All careful planning is done with some refer- 
ence to an axis, but the designers of different 
schools disagree widely as to the value to be 
given to the placing of buildings and parts of 
buildings accurately upon an axis, or as it is 
called, following the French term, En Axe 
(which see, under Axe, I.). Thus, to the de- 
signers of one school, it seems almost essential 
to put a monument, a fountain, or the like 
upon the axis of a street, while to the designers 
of another school it might even be thought 
desirable to avoid that. This seems to imply 

179 


BACK yee 


y a pan ie 


a Praferenes for Peete and exactness in he 

one case and a preference for picturesque effects a 
but it is to be observed i 
Street) that when men are planning a quarter ~ 


in the other ; 


of a city deliberately, the instinct seems to be 
to arrange the streets at right angles and in— 
this way to consider axes rather carefully. 
Deliberate picturesqueness of effect is hard to 
attain. (See Architecture ; Design (I.); Sym- 
metry.) — R. 8. 
AYA SOPHIA. 


Constantinople. 
ish appellation. 


AYA SOFIA, MOSQUE OF. (SeeChurch 


of 8. Sophia.) 


AYUNTAMIENTO, CASA DE In 


Spain, a building used by the city government 
or for law courts. Some of these, in the 
Spanish cities, are of great interest as pieces 
of neoclassic architecture. That of Seville is 


the most celebrated, and is, perhaps, the richest 
(See Plater- 


piece of plateresco decoration. 
esque. ) | 

AZTEC ARCHITECTURE. That of the 
Nahuatl or Aztec tribes of Mexico. (See 
Mexico, Architecture of, Part I.) Popularly 


applied to all pre-Columbian Mexican archi-— 


tecture. — F. 8. D. 

AZULEJO. In Spain, a glazed and deco- 
rated tile of earthenware. The term means, 
originally, a blue object, and was limited to 
the blue painted tiles brought from the Nether- 
lands; but in the language of collectors and 


students it means now the tiles of brilliant 
colour and often of semi-Moorish design which ~ 
The peculiar 


were evidently made in Spain. 
characteristic of these tiles is the slight relief 
given to the edges of the coloured patterns. 


B 


BABYLONIAN ARCHITECTURE. (See 
Mesopotamia, Architecture of.) 


BACCIO D’AGNOLO. (See Baglioni, 
Baccio.) 

BACCIO DA FIRENZE; sculptor and 
architect. 


Baccio and Giovanni da Firenze made the 
important monument of Robert of Anjou in 
the Church of 8S. Chiara in Naples. Two 
documents relating to this work are dated 1340 
and 1345. Nothing more is known about them. 

Maresca, La Tomba di Roberto d’Angio in 
Napoli. 

BACK. A. The more remote or further 
side of any member or part of a building, or 


what may have seemed more remote to the . 


designer. 
B. The rear of a building, in any sense. 
Where both of the longer faces of a large build- 
180 


(Also Ayiah Sophia, and — 2 
in other forms.) The Church of 8. Sophia in — 
This being the common Turk- 


BACK 


ing are treated with nearly equal architectural 
effect, that face which has not the principal 
entrance will be the back. Churches, while 
they often have a front, can hardly be said to 
have a back, because the chancel end, com- 
monly called the east end (see Orientation), is 
peculiarly important in the ecclesiological 
sense, and frequently has exceptionally impor- 
tant architectural features. 

In the plural, as “the backs,” that side of 
a long row of buildings which is opposite their 
principal fronts, as in Cambridge University 
(England), where the term covers the buildings 
as seen from the river. 

C. The top or upper surface or portion of 
-a member, as the back of a hand rail; the back 
of an arch, meaning the extrados. 

D. In composition, the reverse or inner side ; 
a lining or the like. (See Chimney Back ; 
Panel Back ; Window Back.) — R. 8. 

BACK (y.). To provide with a proper 
back ; to finish the back of; especially, to trim 
or adjust the back or top of a rafter, joist, or 
the like, to the proper level of the whole tier. 
Often with a preposition, as, to back off, to 
finish the back of masonry or the like by cut- 
_ting away projecting portions. 

BACK AIRING. (See Back Venting.) 
BACK BAR. In the United States, a 
- counter or shelf extending along the wall of a 
barroom behind the bar. It is generally 
formed by a series of refrigerators, cupboards, 
and the like, on the top of which glasses, 
bottles, etc., are kept. -(See Bar.) 

BACK CHOIR. Same as Retro-choir. 

BACK FILLET. The exposed edge of a 
slightly projecting quoin, architrave, or the 
like ; the fillet by which it returns to the face 
of the wall. 

BACK FILLING. A. The rough masonry 
forming the mass of a wall, built in behind the 
facing or between the two faces; similar ma- 
sonry or earth, and the like, used as a filling 
over the back (or extrados) of arched construc- 
tions, as tunnels and sewers. 

B. In some frame buildings, the rough brick 
masonry used to fill up the space between the 
studs. 

BACK FLAP. In a folding shutter, door, 
or the like, composed of two or more parts 
hinged together, that one which comes behind 
the others and next to the jamb when the 
shutter is open and folded back at the sides of 
the opening. Usually, the back flap is the 
one nearest the middle when the shutter is 
closed across the opening. 

BACKGROUND. JA. Ina piece of sculp- 
ture in relief, the surface, approximately flat, 
against which the figures and other details of 
the composition are relieved. A carved panel, 
as of a cabinet or in a wainscoting, will often 
have this background perfectly flat and in one 

181 


BACKING 


plane, the sculpture being relieved upon it as 
exactly as if it had been (as it sometimes is) 
carved separately and applied. In figure sub- 
jects the background will often be in several 
different planes, which may even be not. paral- 
lel with one another, or may in parts be con- 
cave, or not.a plane surface at all. Thus, that 
part of it which is seen around a head or be- 
tween the heads of the figures will not be 
exactly in the same plane as that at their feet. 
The more elaborate the composition, the more 
probable is this arrangement. Thus, in the 
celebrated bronze doors by Ghiberti, in the 
Baptistery at Florence, the crowd of details of 
suggested landscape, with buildings, fortifica- 
tions, plant form, and the like, so surrounds 
and accompanies the human figures that these 
last have more commonly a background made 
up of those other details than a fiat field of 
any sort. In like manner, there is one panel 
in which the upper space is filled by the 
arcades of a great building seen in slight relief, 
and in several others, architecture, in one form 
or another, fills the whole, or nearly the whole, 
of the distance. In one panel, rocks and dis- 
tant trees fill the upper part of the panel 
almost into the corners. Although a large 
number of students of art object to the veri- 
similitude used in these reliefs, the line of 
what is fitting in such cases cannot be accu- 
rately drawn. The doors of the north portal 
of the same Baptistery, the work of the same 
Ghiberti, have sometimes a perfectly flat back- 
ground to the figure subject in relief, and some- 
times the suggestion of rough earth under the 
feet of the figures is carried so far that the 
cracked masses of bronze project beyond 
the mouldings which enclose the decorated 
panel. In wood and marble work of the post- 
Renaissance styles, a similar freedom is often 
taken ; and it is to be observed that in high 
relief, where a head or arm is often separated 
wholly from the mass and treated nearly as a 
part of a statue is treated, the background will 
of necessity contain lower reliefs which serve 
to set off the higher parts of the relief as well 
as the freely rounded parts mentioned. 

B. In representative or decorative work in 
the flat, as mural painting and the more elabo- 
rate kinds of inlay, the distance as distinguished 
from the objects in the foreground, the ground 
as distinguished from the pattern, the general 
surface of the wall, vault, ceiling, etc., as dis- 
tinguished from what may be painted upon it, 
inlaid in it, or applied to it. — R. 8. 

BACKHOUSE. A building subsidiary to 
another and standing behind it ; especially, in 
the United States, a privy, when separate from 
the residence. 

BACKING. That which is used to fill in 
at the back of, or to finish on the inner or 
farther side of, or to support at, the back. 

182 


BACKING UP 


Specifically, the backing of an arch, the ma- 
sonry resting immediately on the extrados ; the 
backing of a wall, the masonry forming its 
interior face. 

BACKING UP. A. The process of build- 
ing some piece of masonry which will retain 
earth or sand. 

B. A piece of masonry so built ; a retaining 
wall, especially a rough and unarchitectural one. 

BACK LINING. Any lining or sheathing 
at the back of a recess or boxing. Specifically : — 

A. In a cased frame (which see under 
Frame, I.), the vertical member parallel to the 
pulley stile. 

B. The back of a shutter box, next to the 
wall, against which the shutter folds when open. 

CO. The sheathing, panelled or otherwise, 
under a recessed window against the wall. 
(See Panel Back.) 

BACK SHUTTER. Same as Back Flap, 
when applied to a shutter. 

BACK VENTING. The application of 
branch air pipes connecting with the sewer side 
of fixture traps for the purpose of preventing 
siphonage; called also Back Airing. (See 
House Drainage.) — W. P. G. 

BADAJOZ, JUAN DE. 
Badajoz.) 

BADIA. In Italian architecture, an abbey 
church, an abbreviation of abbadia. The 
Church of the Badia in Florence, near the Bar- 
gello, and that of Fiesole, outside the walls of the 
old town, are well-known buildings ; the former 
is rich in monuments and delicate sculpture. 

BADIGEON. A composition used to patch 
up hollows and defects in woodwork or stone- 
work. Carpenters employ a mixture of saw- 
dust and glue, or putty and chalk; masons, 
one of plaster and ground stone, or stone chip- 
pings. The term is English, of French origin, 
little used in the United States. 

BAECKELMANS, FRANCOIS ; 
tect’; b. April 17,1827 ; d:1896. 

Baeckelmans built the Palais de Justice, at 
Antwerp (Belgium), the churches of Sempst, 
Laer, 8. Armand, etc., and was professor at 
the Institut Supérieur des Beaux Arts, at 
Antwerp. 

Construction Moderne for April 18, 1896. 

BAGGAGE ROOM. Inthe United States, 
a room in a railway station for receiving, check- 
ing, and handling baggage. 

BAGLIONI, BACCIO (BARTOLOM- 
MEO) D’ AGNOLO ; architect, sculptor, and 
woodworker (intarsiatore) ; b. May 19, 1462 ; 
d. 1543. 

The Baglioni conducted a Botega in Flor- 
ence where many kinds of decorative work were 
done. The organ of the Church of S. Maria 
Novella .(Florence), one of Baccio’s earliest 
known productions, has been removed. The 
lower part, or “cantoria,” is at the South 

183 


(See Juan de 


archi- 


be, ) s. Ba 
at - war . La ¥ “ 
‘ = pan Ss 7 ae 


- BAGNIO “a 


Kensington Museum, London, the upper part 
in the Church of Rueil, near Paris. After 
1495 he assisted I] Cronaca (see Cronaca), and 
later Antonio da San Gallo (see San Gallo, 
A., I.) in the construction of the great hall of 
the Palazzo Vecchio, Florence. He built the 
Palazzo Bartolini (begun about 1520). As- 
cribed to him, also, are the villas Bartolini and 
Borgherini, and the Palazzi Ginori, Taddei, 
and Borgherini. In 1498 he became Capo- 
meestro of the Palazzo Vecchio. He made a 
model for the facade of 8. Lorenzo from the 
drawings of Michelangelo. In 1506-1515 he 
built a section of the cornice gallery of the 
dome of the Florentine cathedral, and in 1516, 
with Antonio da San Gallo, began the loggia 
opposite Brunellesco’s Spedale degli Innocenti. 
Geymiiller-Stegmann, Die Arch. der Ren. in 
Toscana ; Mintz, Renaissance, Vol. I]. ; Vasari, 
Milanesi ed., Vol. V. ; Milanesi, Lettere di Michel 
Angelo. 
BAGLIONI, DOMENICO DI BACCIO 
D’ AGNOLO ; architect and sculptor; b. 1511. 


Domenico was the second son of Baccio — ay. 


d’ Agnolo (see Baglioni, B.). He was consid- 
ered by Vasari a more talented architect than 
his brother Giuliano (see Baglioni, G.). He 
built the Niccolini, now Buturlin, Palace in 
Florence, and finished the Torrigiani Palace 
begun by his father. 

Geymiiller-Stegmann, Die Arch. der Ren. in 
Toscana; Mazzanti, del Badia; Migliori, Fab- 
briche... di Firenze. 

BAGLIONI, GIULIANO DI BACCIO 
D’ AGNOLO ; architect, sculptor, and wood- 
worker; b. 1491; d. 1555. 

The four sons of Baccio d’ Agnolo (see Bag- | 
lioni, B.) continued his work. Of these, the 
two oldest, Giuliano and Domenico,. attained 
eminence as architects. Vasari employed | 
Giuliano to execute work from his designs, and 
attributes many buildings to him. For Baldas- 
sare Turini he built the Capella Turini in the 
Cathedral of Pescia (1540), which was intended 
to contain a picture by Raphael. He also 
built the Casetta Campana at Montughi, near 
Florence, the Palazzo Campana at Colle in 
Val d’ Elsa, and the Palazzo Grifoni at San 
Miniato al Tedesco (between Florence and 
Pisa). 

Geymiiller-Stegmann, Die Arch. der Ren. in 
Toscana; Vasari, Milanesi ed., s.v. Baccio d’ Ag- 
nolo. 

BAGNIO. A. A bathing establishment ; 
this is the original meaning of the word. 

B. A Turkish prison (presumably from the 
occasional use by the Turks of their immense 
baths as prisons for captives, or from the em- 
ployment of prisoners as slaves in the baths). 

C. In France, formerly, one of the prisons 
substituted for the galleys ; in French, bagne. 

D. A place of prostitution (probably from 
the evil reputation of many public bath houses). 

184 


ER Meh Saisie aire ll al he ae 


BAGUETTE 


BAGUETTE. A. A small, convex, more 
or less cylindrical, moulding ; a bead or chaplet. 

B. In old English usage, a hip roll or mould- 
ing along the angle between two adjacent 
planes of a hip roof. 

BAHR, GEORG; architect; b. 1666; d. 
1738. 

Of his early life nothing is known. 
probable that he visited France or Italy. 
Bahr held the office of rathsbawmeister in 
Dresden (Saxony), and devoted his life to the 
developments of the architecture of Protestant 
churches. His most important building is the 
monumental Frauenkirche in Dresden, built 
between 1726 and 1740, one of the most 
notable domical buildings of the time. 

Gurlitt, Geschichte des Barockstiles in Deutsch- 
land; Schumann, Barock und Rococo. 

BAHUT. A. A large chest, usually some- 
what ornate. 

B. A species of dresser, the lower body 
deeper than the upper; hence, from a fancied 
resemblance ; 

C. <A low parapet wall, or attic wall; es- 
pecially that which carries the roofing, and is 
built up behind a gutter and balustrade, as in 
Gothic churches. 

D. Any solid parapet wall. 
Blocking Course.) 

-BAIGNOIRE. A. box of the lowest tier in 
a modern French theatre. The baignoires are 
usually open boxes, divided by low partitions, 
whose form resembles the side view of a cer- 
tain kind of bath tub, whence the name. The 
upper tiers (/oges) have partitions reaching 
from floor to ceiling. 

BAILEY. A. The external wall of a feudal 
castle ; hence, any similar circuit wall. 

B. By extension, a court formed by such a 
wall. 

BAILLARD (BAILLART, BILLART), 
CHARLES ; architect. 

Baillard is mentioned in the Comptes as 
Maistre Macon de Monseigneur le Conneta- 
ble, Anne de Montmorency (d. 1567). He 
was one of the inspectors of the contracts made 
by Gilles le Breton (see Breton, G.) at Fon- 
tainebleau (1540), and by Guillaume Guillain 
(see Guillain, G.) at La Muette (1548). Pa- 
lustre supposes that he was employed between 
1531 and 1550 by Montmorency to design and 
build those portions of the Chateau of Ecouen 
which were constructed before the time of 
Jean Bullant (see Bullant, J.). He was proba- 


(Compare 


bly connected with the family of Biard (see : 7 


Biard). 


It is not: 


BALCONY 


tion of the Cathedral of Troyes (Aube), France. 
In 1506 and 1507 he was consulted about the 
portal and towers of the Cathedral of Troyes 
which were built by Martin Chambiges (see 
Chambiges, M.). In 1508 he was made 
Maitre de Veuvre of the church of 8S. Panta- 
léon at Troyes. 


Assier, Les arts et les artistes dans lancienne 
capitale dela Champagne ; Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 


BAILLY, JEAN (II.); architect and sculp- 
tor; d. August 19, 1559. 

Jean, II., was the son of Jean, I., and was 
son-in-law of Jean de Soissons (see Jean de 
Soissons). May 17, 1532 he was made Maitre 
de ’oeuvre of the Cathedral of Troyes. 


(For bibliography see Bailly, Jean, I.) 


BAKEHOUSE. A building containing an 
oven and other necessary appurtenances for 
baking, as in a hospital, monastery, barracks, 
or the like. Under the feudal system each 
manor possessed a bakehouse to which tenants 
were obliged to resort. 

BALCONE. In Italian architecture, a very 
large and showy window or group of several 
windows arranged together. The term seems 
to have lost wholly the original significance of 
a small projecting gallery, for which are used 
the words Ringhiera, Cantoria, Loggia (see 
those terms); and also ballatoio, sporto ; 
according to the region of Italy, and the 
locality and character of the structure. 

BALCONET; BALCONETTE. A railing 
or balustrade at the outer plane of a window 
reaching to the floor, and having, when the win- 
dow is wide open, the appearance of a balcony. 

BALCONY. A small open gallery built 
out from a wall and supported generally by 


‘| i 
ofl 


4 
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POP AOS. 


SP OPSD O. 


¢ 
/ 
D} 
f 
i 
if 
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By 
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De Laborde, Les Comptes des Batiments du =-- 


Roi; Palustre, La Renaissance en France. 


BAILLY, JEAN (I.); architect ; d. between — 


1529 and 1531. 
In 1500 he was employed with Jean Gar- 
nache (see Garnache, J.) to direct the construc- 
185 


BALCONY: ISTRIAN STONE, 14TH CENTURY, WITH 
SHAFTED BALUSTERS, AND HANDRAIL CUT TO 
THE SEMBLANCE OF AN ARCADE; VENICE. 


186 


Pe EPEC Ca ESR ae ee ie? page OMe Oe hone iy thm ae 


BALCONY 


corbels or brackets. The term is generally con- 
fined to an unroofed structure consisting of a 
floor and low parapets only, but the balcony 
passes readily into the Loggia (which see), and 
no accurate distinction can be made. The 
balconies with which the medizval and later 
palaces of Venice are so abundantly provided 
are generally. of Istrian stone or marble to- 
gether with their parapets; those of the 
eighteenth century residences of France and 


SSS ath 
Z 
\ 


aa =) / Sd ree fis 
7s wis Ae oe eh Ya 


BALKAN PENINSULA © 
with a doorway from an upper apartment 01 
passage, such as is used for the singers at times 


a aoe 3 


an 


of high mass, is called Cantoria (which see). — a 
‘Balconies projecting into dancing rooms or halls — 


of reception and used for musicians are more 
often called musicians’ galleries. — R. 8. 
BALDACCHINO. Same as Baldachin; 
the original Italian form. . 
BALDACHIN ; BALDAQUIN. 
canopy made of a textile fabric (originally of 


baudekyn ; a precious stuff a iF 


Seeosse| brought from Baldacca or 
SALA Bagdad), used in processions, — 
SBT Ie placed over an episcopal chair _ 


Nn and throne of state, or sus- 
ft rs pended over an altar where 
there is no ciborium. 

B. A permanent canopy, 


4 || —— especially above the high altar 


of a church ; in this sense ap- 
plied to the most massive and 
permanent structures, as the | 


bronze baldachin in §. Peter’s Re 


at Rome which is stated to 
SDBIG | be ninety-five feet high. 

i BALK. A. A heavy piece 
of timber, of any kind not in 
the log. A squared timber. 
si B. By extension from the 
BC above meaning, in primitive 
i country houses of Great Brit- 
ain, a loft formed by laying 
planks or poles on the balks 
or main timbers of the fram- 
ing. Commonly in the plu- 
ral. 

BALKAN PENINSU- 
LA, ARCHITECTURE OF 
THE (excluding the kingdom 
of Greece). That of the mod- 
ern states or provinces of 
Dalmatia and Bosnia, in the 
Austro-Hungarian Empire, 


Wallachia, and Moldavia, 
forming the modern kingdom 
of Roumania; the kingdom 


of Servia ; the principalities 
of Montenegro and Bulgaria, 


BALDACHIN OF §. PETER’S CHURCH (S. PIETRO IN VATICANO), RoME. 


Designed by Bernini; of bronze; about 95 feet high (see cut of apse, 8. Giorgio, 


Al Velabro.) 


Germany had generally the floor and support- 
ing corbels of stone, but the parapets of wrought 
iron, in the design of which parapets a great 
variety of fanciful decoration is visible. The 
stone balcony projecting from the town hall in 
an Italian town is called Ringhiera (which see), 
that being the post from which the city 
authorities used to harangue the people. A 
balcony projecting into a church and connected 
187 


and the Turkish provinces of 
Albania, Macedonia, Eastern 
Roumelia, and Thrace. Its 
chief topographical features 
are the valleys of the Save 
and Danube and the Balkan Range. Inhabited 
by diverse and often hostile races, its history 
has been one of constantly recurring wars and 
rebellions. Its architectural chronicles are as 
confused as its political, and, for the most 
part, even more barren of great achievements. 
Although it is classical soil, comprising the 
ancient provinces of Dalmatia, Ilyricum, Pan- 


-nonia, Mcesia, part of Dacia, and Macedonia, 


188 


A. A 


Pe me eS hee eS 


BALKAN PENINSULA 


Thrace, and the Epirus, — the last three espe- 
cially rich in historical sites, —its centuries of 
disorder and Turkish misrule and the univer- 


sal treatment of its ancient monuments as 


quarries have combined to destroy the great 
works of antiquity, leaving only foundations 
and shattered fragments of their masonry. It 
must not be forgotten, however, that no thor- 
ough archzeological research has yet been under- 
taken within its boundaries. Relics of antiquity 
abound throughout the peninsula, especially 
prehistoric walls of cyclopean construction, serv- 
ing as foundations for Roman, Byzantine, mediz- 
val, or Turkish fortresses, and preserving the 
lines of ancient towns and citadels. It is note- 
worthy that the villages of Bosnia to this day 
retain the plan of Greek towns with their 
citadels, walled agorw with gates, and external 
or suburban streets of tombs. The best pre- 
served and most important classic remains are 
the great theatre of Dodona (Dramisios) in the 
Epirus, exceeded in size by only two Greek 
theatres in Europe,—those at Sparta and 
Athens, —and by two or three in Asia Minor ; a 
stadium six hundred feet long, and two theatres 
at Nicopolis (Prevesa) ; at Salonica, the ruinous 
triumphal Arch of Constantine (or Theodosius ?), 
and the stupendous ruins of Diocletian’s palace 
in Dalmatia where is now the town of Spalato. 
The Vardar gate or Arch of Marcus Aurelius 
at Salonica was demolished in 1869 ; the ruins 
of the unique Hippodrome Gate, called the 
“ Incantada,” formerly in the same city, were 
removed to the Louvre by Napoleon III. The 
palace of Diocletian, erected 303-305 a.pD., 
near the ancient Salona, on the plan of a forti- 
fied camp, covers a rectangle of 520 by 630 
feet, surrounded by a massive wall with sixteen 
towers and four gates admitting to the two 
chief intersecting avenues; and comprises 
within its area a temple, a domical mausoleum, 
now the Cathedral of Spalato, a basilica and 
numerous courts and halls. It is especially 
*remarkable for the disregard of Roman tradi- 
tions in its arcades borne directly on columns, 
its entablatures bent up around arches, like 
-archivolts, and its details of mouldings and 
carving affording a foretaste of the Byzantine 
style. Roman aqueducts (one 30 miles long 
near Prevesa in Epirus), bridges (piers of 
Trajan’s [Constantine’s?] bridge at Turn Sev- 
erin), forts, and towers, may be traced in ruins 
throughout the peninsula, or in substructions 
of medizval or modern buildings. 

From the fifth to the fourteenth century the 
Byzantine style prevailed throughout the whole 
region, except in Dalmatia, where it was early 
supplanted by the Italian Romanesque and 
Gothic. Most of its monuments, however, are 
of small size and internally adorned with fres- 
coes instead of mosaic, and the monasteries 
which abound in the Epirus, Servia, Wallachia, 

189 


BALKAN PENINSULA 


and Macedonia rarely possess architectural in- 
terest, being in most cases wholly devoid of 
any pretention to artistic design (Meteora” con- 
vent in the Epirus ; Sveti Prochor in Servia ; 
S. Naum in Macedonia; Rilo in Bulgaria ; 
Nemoieshti in Roumania), except sometimes for 
their chapels. One of these, that at Kurté 
d’Arjish in Roumania, is of remarkable external 
beauty. Hrected in 1514 by the Prince Negu 
Bessaraba in a style betraying Muscovite influ- 
ence, it measures 90 by 50 feet, and consists of 
a square nave with a 16-foot cupola on a high 
drum, and a triapsal chancel with a dome of 
about the same size ; two spirally fluted turrets 
adorn the front, and the whole exterior is richly 
decorated with wall arcades and panels. 

The chief centre of architectural interest in 
this region is, of course, the city of Constanti- 
nople, whose monuments cover the whole period 
of its existence as a capital. Practically noth- 
ing remains of the period preceding its change 
of name under Constantine (830 a.p.) from 
Byzantium to Constantinople, except the 
substructions of the Hippodrome (at Meidan) 
and some scattered fragments of architecture 
and sculpture. The bronze serpent-column from 
Delphi and the Egyptian obelisk, in the Hippo- 
drome, do not properly belong to the city’s his- 
tory. Of the early Byzantine period also but 
little has survived; the “ Burnt Column” of 
Constantine, the shaft of Theodosius (fifth cen- 
tury), despoiled long ago of its gilded bronze 
covering, and the column of Marcian, are the 
most important objects. The great monuments 
of the mature Byzantine style, and of its de- 
cline, are briefly described in the article Byzan- 
tine Architecture. There are some fifteen or 
twenty Byzantine churches still extant, the 
greater part being used as mosques, and of 
small size. Among them may be mentioned, 
besides the great Hagia Sophia (532-538), 8. 
Sergius (now Kutchuk Aya Sofia, 520 a.p.) 
the Church of the Holy Peace (Hagia Hirene or 
“8S. Irene”) of the sixth and eighth centuries, 
now used as an armory; the Kahrié Jami 
(mosque) originally the Church Moné tes Choras, 
of the tenth century, with fine mosaics; the 
S. John Studios basilica (Emir Akhor Jami) ; 
the Theotokos or 8. Theodore, and the Panto- 
krator churches, both late; and two immense 
cisterns (“ Yeré Batan Serai” and “ Bin Bir 
Direk” or Thousand and One Columns) with 
domical vaults carried by countless superposed 
columns. 

But the distinctive character of the aspect of 
the city is derived from its mosques, erected 
since the capture of the city by Mehmet II. in 
1453. These number some hundreds, nearly 
all vaulted with domes on pendentives, and 
provided with from one to four slender minarets 
with tapering spires. Their domes, unlike the 
Persian and Indian, are of the Byzantine type 

190 


BALKAN PENINSULA 


with low curvature, each crowned with a cres- 
cent finial; and their outlines, rising from 
buildings of brilliant white —in many cases of 
marble — and contrasting with the taper mina- 
rets, produce a silhouette of extraordinary pic- 
turesqueness. Hach of the larger mosques 
(Jami) is preceded by a large courtyard, sur- 
rounded by domed arcades, and many of them 
have as accessories tombs, schools, and hospi- 
tals. They are impressive, not by richness of 
detail, which is often meagre, but by their 
amplitude and loftiness, and by the noble scale 
of their parts. The chief among them are the 
Mehmediyé, by Mehmet IT. (1453) ; the Sulei- 
manyé (1553), by Suleiman I., the ‘ Magnifi- 
cent”; the Ahmediyé by Ahmet I. (1608), the 
only mosque with six minarets ; the Yeni Jami 
(1665) ; the Nouri Osman (1755); and a num- 
ber of smaller ones with rich interior veneering 
of tiles (e.g. Rustem Pasha). The more modern 
mosques show the degrading effect of late Italian 
influence in their vulgar detail and misuse of 
stucco; but the Shah Zadé is an exception, 
and some of those along the Bosphorus are 
picturesque objects. The same is true of the 
palaces and kiosques, mostly of late date and 
debased style, but not without bits of good de- 
sign. A number of richly decorated marble foun- 
tains possess considerable architectural merit. 
There are no civic or private buildings of any 
real architectural importance. 

Except in Constantinople, the most impor- 
tant group of Byzantine monuments is at 
Salonica (Thessalonica), the oldest of these 
being the Rotunda, or Church of 8. George, a 
circular temple having internally seven niches 
and an apsidal chancel, with a dome richly 
decorated in mosaic. It dates probably from 
the time of Constantine, though possibly from 
that of Trajan. Hagia Sophia, now a mosque, 
measuring 140 by 113 feet, with a 33-foot 
dome, recalls its larger prototype at Constan- 
tinople, though of much later date. 8. Bardias 
(Kazanjilar mosque), built in 987, the pictu- 
resque churches of 8. Elias and of the Apostles 
(both mosques at present), and the small but 
elegant church of 8. Pantelimon, all exemplify 
the later phases of Byzantine design with their 
small domes on high drums, and their pictu- 
resque use of brick and stone. Salonica also 
possesses two basilicas, the Eski Djuma, of un- 
known date, with three aisles and a gallery, 
and the larger five-aisled 8. Demetrius, dating 
from 520 a.p. In the former are incorporated 
Tonic columns of a supposed Greek temple of 
Aphrodite. 

The monasteries of Mt. Athos (Hagion Oros) 
on the Acte promontory, not far from Salonica, 
also deserve mention, not only as the most 
ancient monastic group in Europe, but also 
because Byzantine traditions are still preserved 
in their local art, frescoes of Scriptural subjects 

191 


a Dee 5% = eee ae a a iy wl ‘ 
e Le =A s oe: f >| 
= eo =. 4 ais me 
:. of 


BALKAN PENINSULA op 


being still painted according to manuscript 


formule handed down from the eleventh cen- 


tury. The chapels of these monasteries, and 
the church of Karyes, the chief town of Acte, 
are worth a visit. 
edifices may be mentioned, in‘ Roumania, at 


Jassy, the Church of the Three Saints ; at Kim- | a 


polung, a monastery, fort, and river tower 


(1240) ; at Tismana, a monastery (1366), with 


a beautiful chapel ; at Tirgovist, a church with 
rich carving ; in Servia, at Kurshumlié, a small 
but elegant domical church, with a nave, now 
in ruins ; at Studenitza, an interesting Byzan- 
tine church ; at Skopia, in northern Macedonia, 
a Byzantine aqueduct ; at Ochrida (Albania), 
the ruinous, but once beautiful, church of Hagia 
Sophia, and the cathedral, both ascribed popu- 
larly to Justinian, but probably of later date ; 


at Goertcha, a richly frescoed church- with a _ E 


splendid altar of carved wood. 

Dalmatia, though for a time a. Byzantine 
province, belongs architecturally to Italy rather 
than to the Orient, and what few edifices be- 
tray the Byzantine style are of the ninth cen- 
tury, those of earlier date having been destroyed 
in the barbarian incursions of the seventh cen- — 
tury. Among its circular and domical build- 
ings are the Baptistery and 8. Donato at Zara, 
S. Niccolo and §. Croce at Nona (cir. 810); 
S. Stefano and 8. Giacomo in Peline at Ragusa. 
S. Lorenzo and 8. Domenica at Zara, and 
S. Barbara at Trau are basilican churches, 
and 8. Pietro Vecchio at Zara has a double 
nave. All these date from the ninth and tenth 
centuries, and are rude in execution, but their 
bold and vigorous design shows traces of Lom- 
bard and Italian Romanesque influences. These | 
became dominant in the twelfth and thirteenth 
centuries, in a series of remarkable churches 
thoroughly Italian in character, and quite equal 
to contemporary Italian buildings. The cam- 
panile and the chapter house of 8. Maria at 
Zara (1105) are Lombard in style; the nave 
of the Duomo at Cattaro (1123) is more Ro- 
manesque with its alternating clustered piers 
and single columns. The works of the thir- 
teenth century display a more fully developed 
Romanesque style, earlier exemplified in the 
elegant east end of S. Grisogono at Zara 
(1175). To this period belong the nave of the 
Duomo at Trau (1213-1240), the campanile 
at Arbe, and the Cathedral of Arbe (1287). 
The Duomo at Zara is perhaps the finest of 
these works: its nave dates from 1250-1285 ; 
its facade (1324) is an especially admirable 
example of the style, with its wall arcades, its 
two wheel windows, and fine portal. These 
wheel windows are characteristic of the Dalma- 
tian Romanesque, which makes good use also ~ 
of arcaded cornices, wall arcades and arcaded 
galleries on the exterior, and of fantastic sculp- 
tured monsters and deeply recessed portals on 

192 


Among other Byzantine a 3 


_ tracery, 


BALKAN PENINSULA 


its facades. The Duomo at Trau deserves 
especial notice for its fine east end and west 
portal. §S. Maria Infunara at Cattaro (1220), 
called La Collegiata, and the tiny Church of 
8. Luca beside it retain a trace of Byzantine 
tradition in their pendentive domes over the 
central bay of their naves. The Italian Gothic 
is exemplified in the campanile and sacristy at 
Trau, a fine Gothic Franciscan cloister at Cur- 
zola, the imposing Pal. del Rettore at Ragusa 
(1435) and the cloister arcade of the Domini- 
can convent at the same place, with rich late 
and in a number of buildings at 
Sebenico in the Venetian style. The Duomo 
at Sebenico (1430-1556), a three-aisled church 
without transepts, is remarkable for having no 
protective roof to the barrel vault of the nave: 
vault and roof are a single structure of stone. 
The octagonal dome and many details of this 
church belong to the early Renaissance.  §8. 
Chiara at Cattaro has a Renaissance facade 
with the inevitable wheel window: at Trau the 
Baptistery and Chapel of S. Ursini (1468), by 


A. Alexici of Durazzo, are in the style of the 


Renaissance, and so is the Loggia at Sebenico 
(1552). The Middle Renaissance is hardly 
represented in Dalmatia, except by the Porta 
di Terra Firma at Zara by Michele San Michele 


(1543); and the later works of the debased 


Jesuit style hardly deserve mention. The re- 
vived classic style spread into Servia in the 
seventeenth century, but it was carried by 
Italians who introduced the worst practices of 


. the Decline, and its productions in Servia pos- 


sess little or no beauty or interest. 

Under Turkish dominion mosques were 
erected throughout the Balkan provinces, and 
their domes and minarets form to this day the 
most conspicuous features in the silhouette of 
the chief towns such as Serajevo in Bosnia, 
with one hundred and fifty mosques, Salonica, 
Adrianople, Sofia, Philippopolis, Rustchuk, 
Shumla, and even Bucharest (see Moslem Archi- 
tecture). Among them all the Selimié mosque 
at Adrianople is preéminent, and is perhaps 
the crowning achievement of Turkish architec- 
ture. It was built by the great architect 
Sinan, during the reigns of Selim I. and Sulei- 
man I. (cir. 1516-1550), and equals or sur- 
passes the later mosque of Suleiman at 
Constantinople; its outline and masses are 
more symmetrical, its interior better composed 
and more richly decorated. Its great dome, 
105 feet in diameter, rises in a very happy 
outline from an octagonal drum admirably com- 
posed with the masses of the surrounding half- 
domes below it, and of a remarkable series of 
buttresses disposed with an almost Gothic 
science and skill. The four fluted minarets 
with three galleries reached by separate con- 
centric stairways, and the fine atrium with 
arcades carried on antique shafts of cipollino 

193 


BALL FLOWER 


and verd antique, are worthy of special men- 
tion. The bazaar of Aali Pasha in the same 
city, a vaulted street nine hundred feet long, 
with six imposing gates; the mosques of 
Murad II. and Bayazid II. (1510), and the 
tomb of Mehmet I. (1422) are also worthy of 
mention ; and there are many Turkish bazaars, 
khans, caravansarais, and aqueducts in the 
larger towns. 

With the exception of the Legislative Palace 
at Bucharest and a few other public buildings 
in that city, the modern architecture of the 
Balkan peninsula is not worth noticing, even 
when it is not positively vulgar and ugly. 

Curzon, Visits to Monasteries in the Levant 
(London, 1849); Franz Pasha, Baukunst des 
Islam (in the Darmstadt Handbuch der Archi- 
tektur) ; L’ Architecture Ottomane ; Jackson, Archi- 
tecture of Dalmatia; Leake, Travels in Northern 
Greece ; Longfellow, Cyclopedia of Architecture 
in Italy and the Levant ; Owen Jones, Grammar 
of Ornament (1856); Ottomanische Baukunst 
(1875); Parvillée, Architecture et Decoration 
Turques au 15 Siécle (Paris, 1874); Reid, Tur- 
key and the Turks (1840) ; Tozer, Researches in 
the Highlands of Turkey (1869). See also bibli- 
ography of Byzantine Architecture; Moslem 


hi ‘ 
Architecture A. D. F. Hamtin. 


BALL. An ornament of rounded form, 
common as the termination of a cupola or 
lantern. It is usually made of copper, and 
gilded. That of S. Paul’s Cathedral is six feet 
in diameter. That of S. Peter’s is about eight 
feet six inches in diameter. 

BALLAST. The filling of rough masonry 
required to give stability and weight to any 
construction, as above the haunches of light 
vaulting, also the rough broken stone or gravel 
used as such filling. 

BALL COCK. A_ stopcock intended for 
supplying cisterns or tanks with water, and 
which is automatically opened or closed by the 
downward or upward motion of a floating ball. 
(See Ball Lever.) — W. P. G. 

BALL FLOWER. A globular ornament 
frequently occurring in the hollow mouldings 
of English Gothic architecture. It suggests a 
flower with three, or rarely four, petals nearly 


BALL FLOWERS FROM KINGSTHORPE CHURCH, 
NORTHAMPTONSHIRE; LATE 13TH CENTURY. 


closed over an inner ball, and is repeated at 
short intervals to give points of light in the 
darkness of the hollow. Isolated four-part ball 
flowers are sometimes found in late Norman 
work. (Cut, col. 195.) 

194 


Winpow TRACERY OF GLOUCES- 


BALL FLOWERS: 
TER CATHEDRAL, 14TH CENTURY. 


BALL LEVER. A brass or copper rod 
having a tinned copper ball float attached at 
one end, while the other end operates the ball 
cock, as in cisterns or tanks. As the water 
rises, the ball floats and moves the lever, which 
then shuts off the flow of water. — W. P. G. 

BALLOON. A. The ball sometimes used as 
a terminal ornament to a cupola or lantern. 
(See Ball.) 

B. A large ball, as of stone, used as an 
ornament ; especially, one set high on the para- 
pet of a building or porch, or on top of an iso- 
lated column. 

BALLOON FRAMING. In the United 
States, a system of framing wooden buildings 
in which the corner posts and studs are con- 
tinuous in one piece from sill to roof plate, the 
intermediate joists being carried by girts spiked 
to, or let into, the studs, the pieces being se- 
cured only by nailing, without the use of mor- 
tises and tenons, or the like. (See Wood, 
Construction in, Part II.) 

BALLROOM. A large room or hall es- 
pecially designed for balls and similar festivi- 
ties. (See Assembly Room ; Banquet Hall.) 

BALLU, THEODORE ; “architect ; b. June 
Slat i id. May 19, 1885. 

Ballu was a pupil “of Louis Hippolyte Lebas 
(see Lebas, L. H.) at the Hcole des Beaux 
Arts from 1834 to 1840. In 1840 he won 
the Grand prix de Rome. His envot de 
Rome was a remarkable restoration of the 
Erectheum at Athens. Returning to Paris, he 
was employed on many important public works, 
notably the completion of the Church of 
S. Clotilde, the restoration of the Tour de 
S. Jacques de la Boucherie (1854-1858), 
and the restoration of the Church of 8. Ger- 
main |’Auxerrois (1858-1863). In 1860 he 
was made architect in chief of the fourth sec- 
tion of the public works of the city of Paris 
(religious edifices). Between 1861 and 1867 
he built the Church of the Trinité with its 
presbytery. From 1871 to 1876 he was 
inspecteur général of the public works of the 
city of Paris. In 1874, with de Perthes, Ballu 

195 


“BALTARD sais a 
won the first prize in the competition for the 
new Hotel-de-Ville (Paris), which they con-_ 
structed. 
Paul Sédille, Notice Biographique in Revue 
Générale (1886) ; Bauchal, Dictionnaire. a. 
BALL VALVE. The supply cock of : a Ps 
cistern or tank which is controlled by a Ball 
Lever (which see). — W. P. G. i 
BALNEARIUM. A Latin term for a pri 
vate bathroom ; in the plural (balnearia), — a 
range or series of such rooms. 
BALTARD, LOUIS PIERRE ; architer, 3 
painter, and engraver; b. July 9, 1764 ; : 
January 22 1846. Ba. 
Baltard was a pupil of A. F. Peyre (ase ae 
Peyre) and Pique. Between 1788 and 1791 — 
he studied in Rome. In 1792 he was made — 
architect and designer of decorations at the: 
Opéra (Paris). In "1793 he served as engines ay 
with the army in Calvados (France). In 1796 — 
he was appointed professor of architecture at 
the Hcole Polytechnique, and was employed 
as engraver on the great work undertaken to 
illustrate Napoleon’s Egyptian expedition. Bal- _ 
tard was architect of the Panthéon under the 
Empire, and between 1815 and 1818 served as 
supervising architect of the prisons and markets 
of Paris. (See Halles Centrales.) In 1818 he — 
was made professor at the Hcole des Beaux — 
Arts, and from 1837 until his death was in- — 
specteur général of the public works of the — 
city of Paris. At Lyons (Rhone, France) 
Baltard built the Prison of the Quartier Per- 
rache (1830), the Arsenal for Artillery (1840- 
1846), and other buildings of importance. He < 
exhibited paintings in the Salons of 1810, 
1812, and 1814. He published La Colonne 
de la place Venddme (1810), Recueil des 
Monuments antiques (1801), Grands Prix 
@ Architecture (with Vaudoyer, 1818-1834). 
César Daly, Notice Nécrologique in Revue Géné- 
rale, Vol. VI. ; Bauchal, Dictionnaire ; Bellier de 
la Chavignerie, Dictionnaire ; Gourlier, 
@ Edifices publics. 
BALTARD, VICTOR; architect ; b. June 
10, 1805; d. January 14, 1874. ae 
A son of Louis Pierre Baltard (see Baltard, — 
L. P.). He was educated at the Lycée 
Henri IV., and studied architecture and paint- 
ing with his father and at the Ecole des Beaux 
Arts, Paris. In 1833 he won the Grand Prie 
de Rome. In 1850 he was associated with — 
Lassus (see Lassus) and Viollet-le-Duc (see 
Viollet-le-Duc) in the preservation of diocesan — 
buildings. Between 1852 and 1859, with © 
F. E. Callet (see Callet, pére), he designed and 
built the great market (Halles Centrales) of 
the city of Paris. In 1853 he was made 
architect of the Hétel de Ville, Paris. With 
Max Vauthier he designed and built the famous 
stairway of the Cour d’Honneur of this build- 
ing, afterward destroyed (1871). March 30, 
196 


: 


Choix 


BALUSTER 


1860, Baltard was made architect 
in chief of the city of Paris. 
Between 1860 and 1871 he 
built the Church of 8. Au- 
- gustine. In 1847 he 
published his mono- 
graph on the Villa 


2 Médicis a 
ie Rome, and 
i i in, 1803, 
if with F. E. 
é Callet, 
4 I i, | 
ie) 
WAIN) 
TNA yt 
va 


SZ 
SF 
a 

f 24 


sosseeemn anes Leff ffm nn nncnn ne nenee 


NOIZE a 
J) 

i 

| i 

i : 

} | 
‘3 } 

ae 

i ) = ++ 

{ b 


BALUSTER FROM THE PULPIT STAIRCASE, SIENA 
CATHEDRAL. 


The stair is of 1543, much later than the pulpit. 


the Monographie 
des halles centrales 


BALUSTRADE 


ally complete with shaft, cap, and base, and 
used as one of many to support the hand rail or 
horizontal top member of a low screen or para- 
pet (see Balustrade). The term is applied 
primarily to the classic and neoclassic instances, 
of which the typical form is that in which the 
shaft swells out decidedly near the bottom, 
producing a gourd-shaped or bottle-shaped form. 
There are, however, many varieties even of 
this ; some having a square, some a polygonal, 
and some a circular horizontal section, while 
some are sculptured in all their parts. The 
term is equally applicable to the medizval 
colonettes, such as those well known in the 
balconies in Venice and other northern Italian 
cities. In modern times the term is, by ex- 
tension, applied to the similar member of wood 
or iron which forms one of the comparatively 
slight, vertical supports of a hand rail of the 
ordinary type. — R. S. 

BALUSTER COLUMN. 4. A column 
shaped somewhat like a baluster, with a short, 
massive, and strongly bel- 
lied shaft, such as occur 
not infrequently in the so- 
called Saxon architecture as 
supports in double-arched 
openings. 

B. Any very short and 
thickset column in a sub- 
ordinate position, as in the 
windows of early Italian 
campanili. 

BALUSTER SHAFT. 
The same as Baluster Col- oll aa 
umn (which see), or, more en oie 
specifically, the shaft of FROM §S. ALBAN’S 
such a column. CATHEDRAL; 11TH 

BALUSTRADE. A. OR 12TH CENTURY. 
A. parapet or low screen composed of balusters 
carrying a rail or horizontal, usually heavy in 
proportion to the balusters themselves. The 
term is not often applied to any light struc- 
ture, as of metal or of wood, but rather to a 
somewhat ponderous piece of stonework or its 
imitation. 


de Paris (2d ed, 


folio, 1873). 


Paul Sédille, Vic- 
tor Baltard in Gaz. 
des Beaux Aris; A. 
Magne, Notice Né- 
crologique in Revue 


Générale d’ Architec- 
ture, 1874; Vachon, 


DLancien Hotel de 


Ville de Paris ; Bau- 


chal, Dictionnaire. 


BALUSTER. A 
short colonette usu- 
197 


BALUSTRADE, FORMING ALLEGE, ITS HAND RAIL FORMING THE SILL; FROM A. 
WINDOW IN THE COUR DE CASSATION, PARIS. 


198 


ie a ree ee ee eee ae ea 


BALUSTRADE ORDER 


B. By extension, and erroneously, any low 
parapet ; although more usually one which is 
not a solid wall but is pierced with openings. 
Thus, a Gothic balustrade will often consist of 
a long and narrow strip of Tracery (which see) 
with cusped openings and with the top either 
horizontal or broken into the form of battle- 
ments. (See Parapet.) — R. 5S. 

BALUSTRADE ORDER. An order of 
baluster columns; particularly the orders or 
systems of columns of short and massive pro- 


LLU | 


BALUSTRADE ORDER, FORMING THE PARAPET OF 
THE PALAZZO PITTI, FLORENCE. 


portions used in the Buddhist cave architecture 
of India, as at Aurungabad, Ellora, and other 
places. 

BAMBINO. In Italian, a child or baby. 
Specifically, an effigy of the child Jesus, as dis- 
played in the churches of Italy. 

BANCO, NANNI D’ANTONIO. (See 
Nanni d@’Antonio di Banco.) 

BAND. A flat member, usually hori- 
zontal or nearly so, decorating or serving 


Piao ero 


ey ah ae 


aly | eae is oan o 
1 Fane nip 


BANDED COLUMN — 


the shaft ; or built of drums alternately plain 
and richer in decoration. The introduction of 
this feature is generally ascribed to Philibert 
de Orme. The earliest instance which is well _ 
known and can be accurately dated is that of 
the south front of the Louvre, the part called 
that of Henri II. In this, every alternate 

course or drum is thicker or higher than a 
its next neighbour’s, and is fluted, 
while the thinner courses project 
slightly, or are thicker hori- 
zontally, than the rest 


to divide a wall when treated architectu- 
rally ; or forming part of the ornamentation 
of a column in certain styles of architec- 
ture. The term is hardly used as an 
accurate architectural expression, but 
the special varieties of band are in- 
dicated by the terms string course, 
sill course, lintel course, frieze, plat 
band. (See also Banded Column ; 
Entablature. ) 

BANDAGE. A band, ring, strap, or the 
like, generally of metal, placed around a 
structure to secure and hold its parts to- 
gether ; as around a tower or the springing 
of a dome. 

BANDED. Provided with bands; bound 
at intervals with encircling bands or having 
bands as of a different material or a different 
colour. 

BANDED ARCHITRAVE. In late neo- 
classic architecture in Italy, France, and Eng- 
land, an architrave (as to a door or window) 
interrupted at intervals by smooth projecting 
blocks, between which are set the moulded 
portions of the architrave. 

BANDED COLUMN. In the architecture 
of the French Renaissance, a column built of 
drums alternately larger and smaller, of which 
the larger have the appearance of bands around 

199 


BALUSTRADE OF STAIRS FROM A HOUSE IN THE y 
EE 


RuE DE LISBONNE, PARIS; WORK OF THE 19TH 
CENTURY. 


of the shaft, and are richly sculptured with em- 
blems and the letter H. The same ornamenta- 
tion is carried through the pilasters and the 
lines of it are carried along the wall. The term — 
is equally applicable to a column decorated by 
one or more bands, carved or otherwise pro- 
duced, about the shaft; as at the front of the 
Scuola di 8. Rocco, Venice, where this feature is 
obviously introduced to decrease the apparent 
height of the shaft. The first sense, however, 
appears to be the only specific use of the term. 
200 


BANDED PILASTER 


BANDED PILASTER. A _ pilaster con- 
structed or decorated in the manner described 
under Banded Column. 

BANDEL, ERNST VON; sculptor; b. 
1800; d. Sept. 25, 1876. 

Bandel was educated at the Academy in 
Munich, and made several statues in that city. 
In 1834 he went to Berlin and later to Han- 
over, where he was employed on the Residenz 
(Royal Palace) until 1838. In 1875 he began 
the erection of the Hermann monument on the 
Grotenburg near Detmold, Germany. 

Seubert, Hiinstler-lexicon. 

BANDELET. A. A small flat moulding, 
larger than a fillet, less than a fascia or band. 

B. A ring or small collar encircling a shaft : 
an annulet, as under the echinus of a Doric 
column. 

BANDE NOIRE. In France, a number of 
persons supposed to have been associated as 
purchasers of the lands and buildings offered 
for sale by the revolutionary governments of 
1791 and following years; or the whole num- 
ber of such persons taken together. The term 
implies the mischief done by the destruction of 
precious monuments of art. 

BANDEROLE. A sculptured band, as for 
bearing an inscription, or the like, especially 
_when in the form of a ribbon or long scroll. 

BANDLET. Same as Bandelet. 

BANISTER. A baluster; a colloquial but 
improper and corrupted form. The term has, 
however, come to have the meaning only of a 
light and slender baluster, usually of wood, 
and forming part of an upright along the edges 
of well holes in houses, and along flights of 
stairs. In the plural, as The Banisters, it 
applies to the whole of such a light balustrade. 

BANK. The place of business of an asso- 
ciation, firm, or other organization which is 
doing banking business. Architecturally, the 
term is used loosely to cover Banking House, 
Banking Room, Bank Building. 

BANK BUILDING. In the modern cities 
of Europe and America, a structure, often very 
large, built for a banking house and containing 
the rooms occupied by that business associa- 
tion, as well as, in very many cases, offices for 
rent to other firms or individuals. Some of the 
banking houses in the cities of the United 
States are of very great size and cost. One 
such, as in New York or Chicago, may contain 
several hundred offices for rent. A public 
institution such as that known as the Bank of 
England, the Bank of France, or the like, is 
generally housed in an important structure ; 
some of those buildings are ancient palaces or 
mansions altered and perhaps enlarged to re- 
ceive the bank, as is the case with the Bank 
of France (which see) ; while others have been 
especially planned for the purpose, as is the case 
with the Bank of England (which see). — R. S. 

201 


BANQUET HOUSE 


BANKER. A bench on which stonecutters 
dress and prepare blocks of stone. 

BANKING HOUSE. Same as Bank 
Building (which see). The term, as signifying 
also the business establishment or firm, may 
be considered as more properly limited to the 
building appropriated to the uses of a bank 
alone. Such buildings are still frequently 
erected in the smaller towns where space in 
the business quarter is not so precious as in 
the greater cities, and where the temptation is 
not so strong to utilize many upper stories for 
rent. Before the introduction of elevators such 
buildings were more numerous than at present. 

BANKING ROOM. A room occupied by 
the clerks, tellers, etc., of a banking house, and 
to which access is given to the public for the 
purpose of depositing and withdrawing money, 
presenting notes for discount, and the like. 
The banking room of a large institution is often 
very decorative, lofty, and spacious, and richly 
adorned with architectural or other artistic dis- 
positions. In some cases important mural 
paintings have been introduced, as is the case 
in the Bank of Pittsburg, in Pennsylvania. 

BANKING UP. The process of piling 
earth or sand against the outer walls of a 
building to preserve the contents from the 
effect of cold or sudden storm. An Observa- 
tory (which see) in a high place, as upon a 
mountain top, is protected in this way for the 
sake of the instruments as well as for the resi- 
dent astronomers and their assistants. 

BANK OF ENGLAND. An important 
building in London, finished in 1734; the 
whole structure is one architectural story in 
height, and encloses several courts. 

BANK OF FRANCE. A building in the 
heart of Paris, formerly the private palace 
called the Hotel de Toulouse, but which has 
received many additions. One great room, the 
galerie dorée, designed by Francois Mansart, is. 
splendidly decorated in the style of Louis XIV. 

BANQUET HALL. A large room, hall, 
or apartment designed or used for festal or 
state functions; particularly one intended for 
dinners and banquets, as distinguished from 
salons and ballrooms. The term is not com- 
monly applied to the great halls or galleries 
of English manor houses. It is nearly the 
equivalent of the Salle des Fétes in French 
public buildings (e.g. the Hétel de Ville, Paris) 
and chateaux. A famous example is that built 
by Henri II. on a bridge crossing the Cher, to 
form a wing to the Chateau at Chenonceau. 

BANQUET HOUSE; BANQUETING 
HOUSE. A. A wing or annex to a palace, 
specially designed for state receptions and ban- 
quets, as at Hampton Court. 

B. In particular, the structure at West- 
minster, London, erected from the plans of 
Inigo Jones (1619-1622) as a part of his 

202 


KS OT eee ms ee a” ae ae |, ree eae Ce em 


hy * 
=f I 


rate 
enNeR 


BANQUETTE -BAPTISTERY 

design for a vast palace to replace the a narthex screened off for the purpose ; it aan S. 
Whitehall Palace. It was used at first as the whole southern part between the southern 
Banqueting House, and then (until recently) as | arm of the transept and the chapel called 
the Chapel Royal. Capella Zen at the southwestern corner, and __ 

BANQUETTE. In fortifications, a raised “J~ it corresponds to three bays of the northern. £3 
standing place or narrow platform, behind a § / branch of the narthex. a 
rampart or the like; hence, a similar raised C’. In modern American practice, the large 
walk, especially when narrow, as HO tank used by Christians of the Bap-_ 
along the side of a roadway. In the gs tist denomination, and for which — 


special arrangements are made in 
their places of worship. —R. 8. | 
From the earliest days of the © 
Church, separate buildings were set _ 
apart for the rite of baptism. A 
prototype appears ina bath cham- — 
ber found at Pompeii; 
a square building | 
containing a round 
chamber with a semi- 


southern United States, (perhaps 
in Louisiana only) any sidewalk. 

BAPTISMAL FONT. (See 
Font.) 

BAPTISTERY. A. In Chris- 
tian church architecture, a build- 
ing used to contain 
and shelter a baptis- a 
mal font, and used vif 
chiefly for baptismal sox 
service. f 


; ia 


- +f fee 
| Li 
i 


ip 


F TS Pye 
rit i pita’ 


‘ vit: tiff al 


= Kl] \ 


= 
== 
————— 


me H Teen ti : ao 
i il i wh ae TITEIT : ae (i = { sii fi i 
lena ii LL A A ‘nM E. itu mm | 


- —— Lda Hl Tat . ri = 


ie iy Hath 
1 i ii | | d 
Via 2 5 EN 
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| ze Hil 


a I 


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MN) Eee 


YY 
MMMM 


oa Ei) aha 
atin 7 TOT 


Binns AT Pisa: A ROUND CHURCH OF THE 12TH CENTURY. 


Yi 


This vertical section shows a conical roof over the central part, which corresponds to the nave of an oblong church, and yaulted — 
aisles two stories high. The curved outer cupola is a much later addition. 


B. Part of a church especially reserved for | circular niche in each corner of the square, and 
baptismal service, as, in some modern buildings, | a round basin for bathing sunk in the floor. 
the chamber under the tower or one arm of | This arrangement, with some variations, is char-. 
the transept, the western extremity of one aisle, | acteristic of the oldest baptisteries. None older 
or the like. The well-known baptistery of | than Constantine’s time are known, and they were 
S. Mark’s Church, at Venice, is a part of the | always much fewer than the churches, one being 

203 204 


BAPTISTHRY 

usually considered to be enough for a town. 
They were apart from the churches, but near 
their entrances, baptism being called figuratively 
by early writers the door of the Church. As 
early as the sixth century, a habit began of 
setting a font within the narthex, and later in 
- the body of the church ; by the eighth century, 
outside baptisteries began to fall into disuse. 
But in the large Italian cities independent 
baptisteries were built or rebuilt much later, 
being chapels or churches dedicated to 8S. John 
the Baptist, as we see in Florence, Pisa, Parma, 
and other cities. The usual form of baptisteries, 
built to cover a principal object, the font, which 
was naturally set in the middle, was round, or 
polygonal, or radiating from a centre. In the 
centre was the font, a large basin usually sunk 
in the floor, like those of the Roman baths, and 
railed in. In the oldest this was often sur- 
rounded by columns to which curtains were 
hung which could enclose the catechumen, who 
was stripped for immersion. The commonest 
form was octagonal, often an octagon rising out 
of a square. The oldest is probably that of 
S. John Lateran, apparently built with the 
adjoining basilica at the order of Constantine, 
though he was baptized elsewhere. It is an 
octagon some 68 feet across inside, with an 


aisle surrounding a central space enclosed by~ 
_ eight columns. 


These carry an upper order of 
columns with an entablature, and over this a 
modern drum and dome. They enclose the 
sunken basin, encircled by a balustrade, and 
holding in the centre an antique font of green 
basalt. Less important baptisteries were built 
without the outer aisle. It was common to 
wall them about with a square, filling up the 
angles with round niches, as in the Pompeian 
bath, and sometimes sinking square niches in 
the walls between. The octagon was then 
usually carried up into a clerestory and domed. 
We find this form at Ravenna, Novara, Parenzo, 
and Aquileia, and, farther east, in the baptistery 
attached to 8. Sofia at Constantinople, and at 
Kalat Siman in Central Syria. The great 
baptistery of Nocera dei Pagani (Nocera, in 
the province of Salerno, Italy), now the Church 
of §. Maria Maggiore, is a rotunda of 70 
feet inside, with an outer aisle and a central 
space surrounded by fifteen pairs of coupled 
columns, with the sunk basin in the middle 
under a canopy, the aisles vaulted, the middle 
domed. ‘There are also square, hexagonal, and 
cruciform baptisteries. Most are ascribed to 
the first eight centuries —let us say the first 
ten. The large ones, which are baptismal 
churches, like those of Florence, Pisa, Pistoia, 
Parma, etc., were later, dating from the eleventh 
century to the thirteenth. That of Florence 
was the cathedral before it was the baptistery. 
There may have been many in Northern Europe, 
though the great ages of church building there 
205 


BAR 


were later than the time of building baptisteries, 
and naturally they were not adjuncts of monastic 
architecture. They are scarcely to be found 
now in Germany, England, or the North. In 
the south of France one remains, at Riez in 
Provence, which is typical —a square enclosing 
an octagon, with corner niches, and a central 
space surrounded by eight columns which bear 
adrum and dome. Another at Poitiers, called 
the Temple de 8. Jean, is simply an oblong 
rectangle with a deep basin in the middle, of 
the peculiar Latin architecture which the French 
call the Gallo-Romain, but much disguised by 
later additions. — W. P. P. LonarEtiow. 

For bibliography, see those under Latin Archi- 
tecture, Romanesque Architecture, Italy, Ger- 
many; Isabelle, Les Edifices Circulaires. et les 
Domes ; Gosset, Les Coupoles @ Orient et d’ Occi- 
dent. 

BAPTISTERY OF THE ARIANS. At 
Ravenna; called more commonly Church of 
S. Maria in Cosmedin; an octagonal building 
of the fifth century. 

BAPTISTERY OF CONSTANTINE. 
(Called also Baptistery of the Lateran and 
Church of 8. Giovanni in Fonte:) In Rome, 
near the great Church of 8. Giovanni in Lat- 
erano. Parts of the building date from the 
reign of Constantine (d. 337), but as now built 
it is mainly of the fifth century. It has been 
altered and restored at different times. 

BAPTISTERY OF THE ORTHODOX. 
At Ravenna ; an octagonal building of the fifth 
century. 

BAR. A piece or member of any material 
whose length is much greater than its lateral 


| OTHE Frat Door 


~ 


BAR OF AN OUTER Door; OLD HOUSE IN CHELSEA, 
MASss. 


dimensions, generally of the same cross section 
throughout; hence, a structure consisting of 
such a member with its supports used as a 
barrier, railing, gate, or the like; hence, by 
extension, — 

206 


* .- <7. 


BAR 


A, The structure at, or in connection with, 
such a bar; a gateway, as the Temple Bar, 
formerly existing in London. 

B. A counter or table in an eating house, or 
the like, over which refreshments are served, 
and acting as a barrier between the inmates 
and the public. 


C. The space about or in front of a bar; the 


room containing a bar, in sense B. By exten- 
sion, in England, the space behind the counter 
or bar, where is sometimes a fireplace and where 
the proprietor may have a small office and 
receive friends. —D. N. B. 8. 

Angle Bar. 


A, Same as Angle Iron. 


: : ay ree Saye <i 1 Ne ig w 
BARCA a oe 


T Bar. Same as T Iron. : 
Z Bar, A metal bar whose SERED, approxi: me 


a web perpendicular to two anes which it : q 
connects by their opposite edges. : 
BARABARA. An Alaskan house made ail 
logs or whale ribs surrounded by sods, with chau 
roof covered with sticks, dried grass, ‘and sods. = 
The grasses and flowers in the sods commonly | 
continue to grow. A small window at the end, — 
primitively glazed with seal intestine, furnishes 
light when the door is closed. A sod house. a 
In 1741, Bering found houses at Kyak Island — 
made yf logs and rough planks, roofed with — 
bark and dried grass. The ‘ 
term “barabara” seems, how- 
ever, to apply properly only to 4 ’ 
the sod, or semi-sod house. ¥ a 
—F.8. D. 

BARAHDART; BARAH- 


DURRI. In Indiay a palace 
or castle, an elegant pavilion 
or place of resort ; the term 
signifying, originally, a hall 
with twelve doorways. By 
extension, the term is taken 
to mean a mausoleum or tomb 
of great splendour. 
BARBACAN. dA. An 
outwork in medieval fortifi- 
cation, as a gate tower; but 
more frequently an advanced 
work used to flank the ap-_ 
proach to a gateway. \ 
B. A movable structure 
used in an attack on a fortress. : 
C. A loophole for the ay, 
charge of missiles. 
Written also Barbican. 


TT = : 
dee recnteee Eats 


BAR: 
REN. 


. An upright bar, as a slender timber, at 
the angle formed by two faces of a polygonal 
structure. 

Channel Bar, 
Beam.) 

Eye Bar. A tension member, common in 
iron and steel trusses, having each end worked 
into the form of a small loop or eye, through 
which a pin secures the member to other parts. 

I Bar. (See I Beam, under Beam.) 

Swing Bar. A bar pivoted or hinged to 
serve as a gate or movable barrier, or, by fall- 
ing into a socket, to operate as a fastener to 
doors or shutters. 


(See Channel Beam, under 


207 


TEMPLE Bar; Lonpon, 1670. DEsigNED By SIR CHRISTOPHER 
WwW 


BARBARY STATES, 
ARCHITECTURE OF. (See 
North Africa, Architecture 
of.) 

BARBICAN. (See Bar-— 
bacan.) 

BARCA, ARCHITEC- 


TURE OF. That of North- — 
ern Africa, west of and near 
Egypt, including the Pantapolis of Cyrene. 

This has been little investigated; the few 
travellers who have published their impressions 
of the country have given but little attention to 
the buildings. The city of Cyrene, once the 
great centre of Greek civilization, and after- 
wards of singular importance under the Roman 
Empire, is still traceable in a vast number of — 
ruins marking the city proper, and in a.ne- 
cropolis of unusual extent outside the ancient 
walls. The modern name is Grennah. Cyrene 
was only the first of five important cities, the 
others being Barca, Teucheira (afterward Ar- 
sinoé), Hesperides (afterward Berenice), and 
208 


ve = iid wre re eee, i “‘4do0xo ‘tavoys sprerep ou. jo ase aut mared Aemoyzes SNOTIND S}t UTA ' 


- pai ae = i 4 ~e ms ~~ f - “ i . 
al Tem OY} UI poysns0US oIV  ASVOITVIS OY} ‘CHET OF OGET Woz savodk oy) Sulanp yMq sea sty) Jo . . 
orga spysapod @AISSo00NS JO ssuLIveq [RILOmI1e PoArBo out ‘9san00 JO o[OUmM oy, “ALOT [VS qioddn oq} OF OSBIITBIS. [vu.1e}xo AIM JING oO"uLL 
" oes ts : OTTADUVA 


Pages Veld 


B. ARCH 


Apollonia, which was at first the port of Cyrene. 
Moreover, in the great oases, which le sur- 
rounded by the desert at the south of the 
modern Turkish province of Barca, the few 
recent travellers have discovered important 
Roman remains. It is altogether probable 


BARGEBOARD AT SHREWSBURY, SHROPSHIRE; 
ABOUT 1350 (THE WINDOW Is LATER). 


that an archeological expedition, with means 
sufficient to allow of several years’ continuous 
research, would add immensely to our knowledge 
of Greek and Greco-Roman art. (See North 
Africa, Architecture of.) — R. S. 

B. ARCH. The abbreviation used in some 
colleges for the degree of Bachelor of Archi- 
tecture. 

BARDI, DONATO. (See Donatello.) 

BARDIGLIO. Same as Bar- 
diglio Marble, under Marble. 

BARE. In roofing or siding, 
that part of a slate, shingle, or 
roof tile which lies exposed to 
the weather. The bare and the 
cover comprise between them 
the whole surface of the slate, 
shingle, or the like. 

BAREFOOT (adj.). Set up- 
on and secured without a mortise 
and tenon, or the like; said of 
‘a post or stud in a Balloon 
Frame (which see). (U. 8.) 

BARGEBOARD. A piece 4 
of board hung from the edge of ™ 
a gable roof where it projects | 
beyond the gable wall, and either 
covering one of the rafters of the 
bargecouple or taking its place. — 
The two bargeboards usually meet at the ridge 
of the roof and extend, one on either side, to the 
eave. They are often made ornamental, carved 
or pierced with patterns, and, especially in Eng- 
lish work, form an important part of the deco- 
rative treatment of the building. 

209 


BARILE 


BARGECOUPLE. One of the pair of 
rafters which carry that part of a gable roof 
which projects beyond the gable wall. These 
rafters must be carried by projecting horizontal 
timbers, and these timbers may be the roof 
plates, the ridgepole, and the purlines, or they 
may be separate pieces projecting horizontally 
and supported from beneath by brackets. 
The two rafters of the couple-close may be 
chamfered, carved, or the like, as is often done 
in German wooden buildings, or they may be 
concealed by the bargeboards. 

BARGECOURSE. A. The range of tiles 
or slates along the sloping edges of a gable roof ; 
they usually project slightly over the bargeboards. 

B. The whole projection of a gabled roof 
beyond the gable wall. In Swiss chalets this pro- 
jection is sometimes very great, 6 feet or more, 
and may cover and shelter one or more galleries 
or verandas projecting from the walls below. 

C. A course of bricks forming the coping of 
a wall, set on edge and transversely. 

BARGELLO. Any Italian building used 
as the headquarters of a watch or armed police ; 
especially, in Florence, the ancient palace of 
the podesta, and considered as the centre of 

-the armed force of the town. It was built 
in the fourteenth century in an interesting and 
unique Florentine style, with segmental arches 
on the court, of which style its great court is 
the most valuable specimen. 

BARGESTONE.~ One of several stones 
which form the sloping top of a gable built of 
masonry. (See Boltel; Coping ; Gable.) 

BARILE, ANTONIO; woodworker 
tarsiatore) ; b. 1453; d. 1516. 


(in- 


i 
(Ht Hi 


a LA 
a | 


AR 
yale 


BARGEBOARD: LATE 14TH CENTURY; WINGHAM, KENT, ENGLAND. 


Antonio and his nephew, Giovanni Barile 
(see Barile, G.), were employed in the decora- 
tion of the palace of the tyrant Pandolfo Pe- 
trucci at Siena, Italy. He did much carved 
and inlaid work at the Cathedral of Siena. 

Miintz, Renaissance. 

210 


i 


| i 
in ( 


} 


“ aali 


fe 


f . y Y 
\ OW { 
= SBN 
yy, yey = 
FILE] 
“Tw, \i/= 
Sa Sa 
eee 
‘ Sy t 


ae 


y) ii re 
Y ee, = 
pas 


ay “A Yj YY 
<a 
ent 


SSys 


= = age & 


== 


—— 
er 
— 


Res : = Ss" 
aE {A 


\ to 
| sn TetCe oir 
NS ahs ind Kean 


MLE WHEEL yg ee OP 


fe 


oe Tee Ui 
iit 


Vi } 40 iti 
Ma ai 


Tihs 


Barocco (GERMAN, BAROCK) ARCHITECTURE: STREET FRONT IN MunicH; ABour 1760. 


211 212 ® 


Ge: ‘ 
Ha Ne 


all 


Barocco ARCHITECTURE: DooRWAy oF CHURCH 
ON THE ESTATE OF TYRESO, SWEDEN. 


it 


BARILE, GIOVANNI ; 
tarsiatore) ; d. 1529. 

Giovanni was a nephew of Antonio Barile 
(see Barile, A.). He assisted his uncle in the 
decoration of the palace of Pandolfo Petrucci in 
Siena, and made the doors of Raphael’s Stanze 
in the Vatican. He carved the frame of 
Raphael’s “‘ Transfiguration.” Nov. 1, 1514, 
he was commissioned to make a _ wooden 
model of S. Peter’s according to Raphael’s design. 

Mintz, Renaissance; Letarouilly, Vatican. 


BARK HUT. A decorative summer-house 
of the “rustic” kind, covered with small logs, 
whole or split, with the bark still in place; or 
else with strips of bark nailed directly to the 
siding. 

BAR LIFT. A lift fora heavy window sash, 
consisting of a stout bar, usually about 20 
inches long, held horizontally at the distance of 
an inch or more from a plate or plates screwed 
to the sash. 

BARN. A building used for the storage of 
hay, grain, or the like; usually one of the build- 
ings of a farm. In the United States, the term 
is constantly extended to cover the stable for 
horses or cattle, or both, as it is more usual to 
build a single large building for all these pur- 
poses. (Out, cols. 211, 212.) 

BARN RAISING. (See Raising.) 

BAROCCO (adj.). Irregular ; informal ; un- 
expected ; not according to the traditions of the 
schools, The term seems to be the Italian form 

213 


woodworker (in- 


BAROQUE 


of an original Spanish or Portuguese word, the 
French form of which is baroque. According 
to the tastes and opinions of the person who 
used it, the term is either one of reproach, or a 
mere qualification descriptive of the decorative 
art of a certain period. 

BAROCCO ARCHITECTURE. That which 
is assumed to have the characteristics included 
in the term “barocco.” It is a mistaken use of 
the term to treat it as synonymous with rococo, 
or to apply it with any accuracy to a period or 
style. English writers are sometimes influenced 
by the example of the Germans, who use the 
equivalent term Barock for the Italian archi- 
tecture following the Renaissance, or roughly 
from 1550 nearly to the French Revolution, and 
thus overlapping and including the style which 
they call rokoko. The Italian writers, using 
all such qualifications with much greater subtlety 
of meaning, always imply by this term a certain 
decadence in taste ; and they have introduced a 
verb imbarocchire, meaning to pass into vul- 
garity, or at least into tasteless abandonment of 
the traditions. (See Classicismo; Decadence ; 
Decadenza ; Neoclassic ; Renaissance ; Rococo.) 
(Cut, cols. 211, 212.) —R. S. 

BAROQUE. An irregular pearl; one which 
is so far from spherical in its shape that it is 
used by jewellers rather for some piece of imita- 


TTR 
— ae 
Ce H asap tiny radititi 

yan ul i 


ANS 


y) 
ANS 
N 


SS 


: ALE: 
S ALG A 
—rw« ; C3. WAS = 
aN We, i ES a 
pee Ny : = 
earth ap = 
4 a SV S lif 


it 


a 

zy i i 
W ! Ape | 
re a si 


Barocco ARCHITECTURE: DoORWAY OF A COURT 
IN ANTWERP, BELGIUM; ABOUT 1663. 


The other illustrations have shown more graceful types, this 
shows an ugly and distorted one, of this widely prevalent 
style of design. 

214 


BAROQUE 


tion jewellery, as to form the body of a bird, or 
the like, than in the usual way of employing 
pearls. 

BAROQUE (adj.). .d. Same as Rococo ; 
used in this sense by many French writers and 
by English writers who follow them. 

B. Same as Barocco. In this sense it is 
rather as a term of reproach that the adjective 
‘“baroque” is applied to architecture. It is used 
in this way without very exact meaning, char- 
acterizing rather the late neoclassic architecture 
as of the middle of the seventeenth century ; but 
applied also to the Jesuit style, and even to the 
Italian architecture of Bernini and Carlo Ma- 
derno ; and in general for anything assumed to 
be excessive, extravagant, and in bad taste. 

BAROZZIO, GIACINTO (JACINTO, HY- 
ACINTBH) ; architect. 

The son of Vignola (see Barozzio, G.). He 
assisted Ignatio Danti in editing Le due fe- 
gole della Prospettiva Pratica of Vignola, in 
1583, and superintended the construction of 
many of his father’s architectural undertakings, 
notably the ducal palace of Piacenza. 

Arch. Pub. Soc. Dict. 

BAROZZIO, GIACOMO (called VIGNO- 
LA); Italian architect ;b. Oct. 1, 1507; d. July 
7, 1573. 

Giacomo was the oldest son of one Clemente 
Barozzio of Milan, who, forced to leave that city 
by political disturbances, settled at the village 
of Vignola near Modena, Italy. He went to 
Bologna to study painting, and later turned his 
attention to architecture. About 1535 he went 
to Rome. Vignola was commissioned by Prima- 
ticcio (see Primaticcio), who visited Rome in 
1539-1540, to superintend the casting of antique 
statues for Francois I. of France. A visit to 
France about this time was not productive of 
any important results. Returning to Rome, he 
was charged by the Vitruvian Academy, which 
was founded in 1542 by Marcellus Cervinus 
(afterward Pope for twenty-one days as Mar- 
cellus II.), Bernardino Maffei (afterward car- 
dinal), Alessandro Manzuola, and others, includ- 
ing probably Michelangelo, with the investigation 
and measurement of the Roman monuments. 
He was about this time much occupied with 
important works at Bologna. Gaye publishes 
a long letter from Vignola to the officials of the 
Church of 8. Petronio at Bologna defending the 
design which he had made for the facade of that 
church. (The facade was never built.) He 
made the canal at Bologna at this time, and 
designed the fine Palazzo Isolani at Minerbio 
(now destroyed). The famous Portico dei 
Banchi at Bologna was built by him later, in 
the pontificate of Pius IV. (Pope 1559-1565). 
Vignola was made chief architect of Julius ITI. 
(Pope 1550-1555) and directed the reconstruc- 
tion of the aqueduct called Aqua Virgo at Rome 
(built 48 B.c.). He also built at the Villa di 

215 


BARRACK 


Papa Giulio at Rome the larger casino with the 
semicircular colonnade. For Alessandro Farnese, 
second cardinal of that name, he built the great 
pentagonal palace of Caprarola, seven miles 
southeast of Viterbo, Italy (begun 1547, finished 
1559), the famous church at Rome called del 
Gest, and laid out the Farnese gardens on the 
Palatine Hill. The fine gateway which he built 
for these gardens was removed for the recent 
excavations in the Forum. For Ottavio Farnese 
(1520-1585) Vignola planned the ducal palace 
of Piacenza, now nearly destroyed. He is sup- 
posed to have been employed by Michelangelo 
Buonarroti (see Buonarroti), and some of the 
characteristics of that artist’s work as architect 
are ascribed to Vignola. Charles Garnier (op. 
cit.) ascribes the cornice of the Farnese Palace 
to Vignola. He built the Porta del Popolo in 
Rome. In 1564 he succeeded Michelangelo as 
architect of S. Peter’s. He composed two 
books: the Regola delli cinque ordini d’archi- 
tettura (1563), still the standard text-book of 
the French schools, and Le due Legole della 
Prospettiva Pratica, published by Ignatio 
Danti after his death in 1583. Vignola had a 
large professional practice. A partial list of his 
buildings is published in the Architectural 
Publication Society’s Dictionary. The G?wvres 


complets de Vignole, ed. Lebas and Debret, — 


was published in Paris in 1815. 


Miintz, Renaissance ; Ronchini, I due Vignole ; 
Ignatio Danti, Vita di Jacopo Barozzi da Vignola ; 
Enrico Maccari, Jl Palazzo di Caprarola; Milizia, 
Memorie; Charles Garnier, Michel-Ange, archi- 
tecte,; Gaye, Carteggio. 

BAR PARLOUR. Same as Bar, C. 

BARRACK ; BARRACKS. [The term more 
properly treated as a plural noun (like thermee) 
and as such a little difficult to use in an ordinary 
sentence. The term “barracks” -is, however, 
very common, especially as in definition C.] 
A. A plain and coarse building, especially if 
large ; thus, although a hut or small cabin has 
been called by this term, it seems to be in more 
general use as applied to a large structure or a 
row of houses joined together. The term seems 
to carry with it also the idea of residence. Thus, 
a row of houses erected for the workmen on a 
newly opened mine or proposed fortress, or the 
like, is commonly called a barrack, both in 
England and America. 

Bb. A building erected for the permanent 
lodgement of soldiers. In this sense exactly 
equivalent to the French Caserne (which see). 

C. A roof of thatch or similar inexpensive 
material loosely fitted at its four corners to four 
poles so that it is adjustable at a higher or 
lower level; generally by pins in auger holes. 
This is intended for shelter for hay, which in 
America is commonly laid up within the square 
formed by such poles and used from the top, 
the roof being lowered as the hay is removed. 

216 


Lh, 


BARRACK ROOM 


This practice seems to be peculiarly American, 
as in England the carefully made haystack is 
used, the hay being cut from it, in what is called 
a truss, by means of a knife specially made for 
the purpose. — R. 8. 

BARRACK ROOM. A. A room in a Bar- 
rack, or used for purposes of a barrack. 

B. In the eighteenth century, that room in 
large country houses in which many beds were 
kept for the use of unexpected guests. 

BARRACOA. A grain house of the north- 
west coast American Indians. It is built above 
ground on four posts about 15 feet long. 

—F.S. D. 

BARRE, ELOY DE LA; architect; b. 
Aug. 17, 1764; d. May 20, 1833. 

De la Barre was a pupil of J. D. Antoine (see 
Antoine) and Francois Chalgrin (see Chalgrin). 
In 1813 he succeeded Alexandre Brongniart (see 
Brongniart) as architect of the Bourse in Paris. 
He finished this building, of which the founda- 
tions only had been laid. 

Lance, Dictionnaire ; Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 

BARRICADE. Originally, a barrier, screen, 
or wooden wall, stout and useful as protection ; 
the term being derived from bar, as Palisade 
(which see) is from pale. By extension, and in 
imitation of French usage, a Rampart (which 
see) hastily made of the material most readily 


_at hand. The term has no strictly architectural 


sense. 

BARRIER. A wall or unroofed enclosure of 
bars or posts intended as a protection, or as a 
separation between parts of a town or of a room, 
of wood or iron, or of a permanent material. 
Barriers may be as small as the low railings 
used in theatres to keep the crowd in line while 


-waiting for the purchase or giving up of their 


tickets, and they may be high, strong, permanent 
and rudely ornamented. In Paris, before the 
completion of the fortification in the reign of 
Louis Philippe (since which time the mur 
Wenceinte has served the purpose) there was a 
barrier where each important street crossed the 
line of the octroi or limit within which goods 
had to pay for their entrance. The French term 
in this case (barriére) corresponds exactly with 
the English one in significance. (See Bar.) 
—R. 8. 
BARROOM. In the United States, a room 
fitted with a bar for drinkers. This bar is the 
only necessary appendage; but in an establish- 
ment of any pretensions there are small tables 
and chairs for persons who propose to make some 
stay conversing together, etc. The term is, 
therefore, nearly equivalent to the English use 
of the word Bar (which see). In the towns of 
the United States there has been since about 1880 
some attempt to substitute the word Café, but 
perhaps only where there are tables, etc., as above. 
BARROW. A mound of earth usually consid- 
ered as a sepulchral erection and to have been 
217 


BARRY 


heaped above the stone coffin or the larger tomb 
of a chief. The term may be considered as 
synonymous with Grave mound and Tumulus 
(which see). The barrow is of many shapes, as 
nearly circular, oval, etc., but no safe classifica- 
tion based upon form and appearance has been 
made. There are, however, one or two peculiar 
forms, as the Twin Barrow, so called, which 
consists merely of two mounds near together, 
and often enclosed by one ditch or sinking in 
the surface, and the Bowl Barrow, which has 
a raised rim and a sinkage within it. The 
Chamber Barrow is nothing more than a mound 
in which the stone chambered tomb has been 
found still in existence. The term “ barrow” 
has been extended to remains which are evi- 
dently of totally different character; thus, the 
term “pond barrow” has been given to what 
is evidently the trace of a primitive building 
of some kind, most often a dwelling house. 
Some very large mounds, such as Silbury Hill 
near Marlborough, in Wiltshire, England, are 
admitted to be not grave mounds, and, there- 
fore, not in strict sense barrows, but rather 
raised platforms upon which special sacrifices 
could be performed. (Compare Teocalli. See 
also Cairn; Cist; Cromlech ; Dolmen ; Moathill.) 
—R.S. 

BARROW HOLE. An irregular hole left 
temporarily in the wall of an unfinished building 
to admit the workmen with their wheelbarrows 
or handbarrows. 

BARRY, SIR CHARLES, R. A.; archi- 
tect; b. May 23, 1795; d. May 12, 1860. 

Barry was articled to Middleton and Bailey, 
surveyors, at Lambeth, London. He exhibited 
his first drawing, a ‘‘ View of the Interior of 
Westminster Hall,” at the Academy in 1812. 
In 1817 he visited Italy, and in 1818, Greece, 
Palestine, and Egypt. Barry built the Sussex 
County Hospital and the Manchester Royal 
Institution. In 1832 he completed the Tray- 
ellers’ Club in London, one of his most successful 
buildings. 8. Stephen’s Chapel (Westminster, 
London), which had been used for the sittings 
of the Houses of Parliament, was destroyed by 
fire Oct. 16, 1834. July 17, 1835, a royal 
commission was appointed to select a site and 
designs for a new building. Barry entered the 
competition. His designs were accepted Feb. 
29, 1836. He laid the first stone of the new 
building of the Houses of Parliament April 27, 
1840. That portion which was intended for 
the House of Lords was completed in time for 
the session of 1847, and the House of Commons 
for the session of 1852. In 1837 Barry won 
the competition for the building of the Reform 
Club, London. In 1840 he made additions to 
University College, Oxford. Barry was elected 
associate of the Royal Academy in 1840, a Royal 
Academician in 1844, and knighted in 1852. 
He was a Fellow of the Royal Society, a member 

218 


BARTH 


of the Royal Institute of British Architects, and 
won the gold medal of the Institute in 1850. 
He published Illustrations of the new Palace 
of Westminster, one vol. fol., London, 1849, 
and The Travellers’ Club House, one vol. fol., 
London, 1839. 

Alfred Barry, Memoirs of Sir Charles Barry ; 
Hittorff, Notice sur la vie et les cuvres de Sir 
Charles Barry ; Digby Wyatt, The Architectural 
Career of Sir Charles Barry, in R. I. B. A. Trans- 
actions, 1860. 

BARTH, WILHELM ; sculptor and archi- 
tect. 

Barth made a fine stone fireplace in the Som- 
merrathsstube in the Rechstddtisches Rathhaus 
in Danzig, Prussia. It was painted and gilded 
by Hans Vredeman de Vries. (See Vredeman 
de Vries.) 


Schultz, Danzig und Seine Bauwerke. 


BARTIZAN. In Sir Walter Scott’s writings, 
a turret or balcony carried on corbelling or arches 
and projecting from the walls of a building. 
The term seems to be a reminiscence of the old 
English bretising or some such misspelling of 
the word Brattice or Bratticing. Writers copy- 
ing the term from Scott use it as equivalent to 
machicolation. 

BARTOLOMMEO DEL CAPRINO. (See 
Meo del Caprino.) 

BASALT. A volcanic rock lava, consisting 
essentially of augite and a soda lime feldspar 
with usually olivine. Usually of a dark gray, 
sometimes almost black, colour, and _ highly 
vesicular. —G. P. M. 

BASCULE. A mechanical apparatus acting 
on the principle of a balanced or counterpoised 
lever ; especially one serving for the lifting of a 
Bascule Bridge (which see under Bridge) ; com- 
mon in medizval military architecture. 

BASE. ‘The lowest part or the lowest main 
division of PES as of a column, pier, the 

front of a building or 
of a pavilion, tower, 
or the like. (For its 
general meaning, com- 
pare Base Block; 
Base Course; Base- 
ment.) 

The term is used 
independently in the 
following senses : — 

mute year Sit A, The lowest of 
BASE oF EaypPTIAn CoI- the three principal 
UMN. IN THE RUINS OF > 
Wanna parts of a column, 
when the column is 
so divided. Many Egyptian columns and the 
columns of the Grecian Doric order have no 
bases ; moreover, in other styles many pillars, 
which, from their approximately cylindrical form 
are called columns, have no base in the strict 
sense here given to the term. The traditional 
base of the Ionic columns of one of the porches 
219 


BASE 


of the Erechtheum in Athens is made up of, 
first, a group of hollow mouldings divided by 
narrow fillets, below this a larger cove between 
two fillets, and below this a convex moulding 
almost semicy- 
lindrical in sec- 
tion, called gen- 
erally a Torus 
(which see). The 
Attic base, so 
called, consists 
of the following 
members, begin- 
ning at the top: 
a convex mould- 
ing of nearly 
semicylindrical section; a scotia between two 
fillets ; another convex moulding somewhat larger 
than the upper one. The base of the medizeval 
columns, Eastern and Western, Byzantine, Ro- 


BASE oF IONIC ORDER; THE 
ERECHTHEUM, ATHENS. 


; e 228 


BASE OF LATE GREEK WORK IN SYRIA ; TEMPLE 
AT SOUEIDEH. 


manesque, and Gothic, are extraordinarily varied, 
and it is evident that the artist tried very many 
combinations of mouldings, retaining for fre- 
quent use only those which were the most 
agreeable to the eye and expressive of the func- 
tion of the base, which is, of course, to extend 
somewhat the 
area of pres- 
sure. As the 
use of the 
square plinth 
below the base 
had been 
adopted from 
Roman _ prac- 


tice, and had Base or Imprr1aL RoMAN STYLE 
become very FROM THE AQUEDUCT OF HA-. 
DRIAN. 


Compare with cut, Attic Base. 


common, the 

medixval ; 

builders adopted a spur to fill each of the four 

corners of this plinth and to extend still 
220 


K a5 X 0.27 *0,09%0,11 * 0,21 x———— 0,95 ———> 


ae Ne ee ea 


BASE OF CORINTHIAN ORDER ATTIC BASE: BASE OF CoR- BASE oF A WALL PIER, 
FROM THE TEMPLE OF CAS- . INTHIAN ORDER, OF THE oR ENGAGED CoL- 
TOR, Rome. PATTERN PRESCRIBED BY UMN; HADDISCOE 
é VITRUVIUS, AND CALLED ~ CHURCH, NORFOLK- 
BY HIM ATTIC BASE. SHIRE. 


I 


i 


Mae 


BASES AT §. PETER’S, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE; LATE 12TH CENTURY. 
Base with spurs or griffes of a round column; Base ofa clustered pier of quatrefoil section. 


BASE OF CLUSTERED PIER, SALISBURY 


BASE OF CLUSTERED PIER WITH RICH CATHEDRAL; ABOUT 1230. 


SCULPTURE (AN UNusUAL DECORA- 
TION): CHAPTER HovuszE, LINCOLN 
CATHEDRAL; ABOUT 1200. 


BAsE FROM BERNINI’S COLONNADE, PIAZZA DI SAN PIETRO, ROME; A.D. 1667. 
2921 222 


BASE 


more the even pressure of the base upon the 
plinth. 

B. The lowest part of a wall or pier, es- 
pecially if ornamented by mouldings or by a 
projecting feature decorated by panelling or 
sculpture. In this sense the term is incapable 
of accurate and exhaustive definition, as the 
lowermost course of stone in the exterior of a 
wall, where it shows above the pavement or 
the surface of the ground, is capable of an 
infinite variety of artistic treatments. Hence, — 

C’. A member of any material applied as a 
finish or protection at the foot of a wall, or the 
like, especially in interior finish, as a baseboard 
forming part of the wooden trim of a room. 
(See Skirting.) (Cuts, cols. 221, 222.) 

Attic Base. In Greco-Roman architecture 
and its imitations, a base consisting of an upper 
and a lower torus between which are a scotia 
and two narrow fillets, as described in the 
article Base (which see). Vitruvius (III., 3) 
says that it will be in height one third of the 
thickness of the column; that of this height 


(oe. 


= San Se AL = 
{tyne ts 


{is 


WSaaos SS SSUNS SN — 
SS 3S 


6) 


TB 
i ih eam pt 


a 
vas UAB pb UnAaLE 


a anc 


Mae i ina 


BASEMENT, INCLUDING Two STORIES, OF THE BUILDING PALAZZO ace AT Venta 


1705 A.D. 
223 


See ae en eee aiiy ceerreatis ruta 
f A 
ere jisaninvee 


BASEMENT 


the upper torus will form one quarter (or one 
twelfth the diameter of the column), the lower 
torus, one half of the remainder (or one eighth 
of the diameter), and the scotia, with its fillets, 
an equal amount. (Cut, cols. 221, 222.) 

BASE BLOCK. A block of any material, 
generally with little or no ornament, forming 
the lowest member of a base, or itself fulfilling 
the functions of a base ; specifically, a member 
sometimes applied to the foot of a door or 
window trim, corresponding in position to 
Base, C (which see). 

BASE BOARD. In carpentry, a wooden 
base in the sense of Base, C’ (which see). 

BASE COURSE. The lowest course of 
masonry of a wall or pier; the footing. 

BASE COURT. A. The inferior or outer 
court of a mansion. 

. The rear court of a farmhouse for domestic 
animals, and connected with the outbuildings. 

BASE LINE. A. In architectural draw- 
ings, the lowest horizontal line; the line 
which marks the base or bottom of the de- 

sign ; especially, 
in perspective, 
the trace of the 
picture plane on 
the ground 
plane. 

B. In engi- 
neering and sur- 
veying, the first 
line determined 
upon, located, 
and measured as 
a base from 


a = nl which other 
pS >, =. 4 HRS A . 

lines, angles, 

and distances are 


laid out or com- 
puted in survey- 
ing or plotting 
a piece of ground 
for a map or 
plan. 
BASEMENT. 
A. The lower 
part of the wall 
i or walls of any 
li building, espe- 
ioe cially when di- 
vided from the 
upper portions 
in an architec- 
tural way, as by 
a different ma- 
terial, a differ- 
ent and perhaps 
more solid archi- 
tectural  treat- 
ment, smaller 
and fewer win- 


224 


: SRNR 
i eee es 


x 


||| aReeereRSerseSI| 


IS2S2SASASASASESESES| 


| 
| 5 


YD=<P<D<D—D-L 


Aint Ol UsouoUoanoDAeoNr An t 


con 


POI SD 
PARRA AAAS Paar anal 


EI 
SEIS 
Eas S<IPIE<I] 


PII <e<) 
aes 


SpE 
EINECS MISIEAIS<I< 


| Wl 
Hie 


a er ee 


wf i om 86 


i 
Ans 
a 


: am SS 


=n ear ‘cal un el hast aa ee ee eS 


gam Bas ay Ga aa 
pul Soles 


—— 


Sa0 25 So 


BASEMENT As HIGH AS THE PRINCIPAL STORY — ABOUT 23 FEET: PALAZZO STOPPANI, RomE, 1515-1520 a.p. 
225 226 


” 


BASEMENT STORY 


dows, or the like. The basement may occupy 
only a small part of the whole height of the 
structure, or it may be even more than half of 
that height, as in some palaces of the Italian 
Renaissance, especially in North Italy. It fre- 
quently happens that there is a double base- 
ment; that is to say, the basement proper, 
serving as a foil and a support to the more elabo- 
rate story or stories above, has itself a still more 
massive basement, probably without openings. 
B. The story which comes, in the construc- 
tion of the building, behind the piece of wall 
above described ; in this sense, an abbreviation 
of the term ‘basement story.” Originally, 
this story would have its floor almost exactly 
on a level with the street without, or with the 
courtyard ; but in some buildings it is raised 


several steps above the street, and in others its 


i 


14." 5 Ve 
iia 


Ge Oe ee See Cee ROS San cee 
? 3 eres | 


Ve 


~e ur af ase 
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ra ath 

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vt, § , : ts ea ia! ‘ot 
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BASILICA -.) .. 
BASILE, GIOVAN BATTISTA FI ; : 


LIPPO ; architect; d. 1891. : 
A distinguished architect of Palermo, Italy. 
Basile made one of the best designs in the 


competition for the facade of the Cathedral of . 


Milan. He built the Victor Emmanuel Theatre 
in Palermo, and was director of the Royal 
Italian School of Engineering. He published 
Curvatura delle Linee dell’ Architettura 
Antica (2d ed, 1896, with atlas, folio), 


Calcolo di Stabilita della Cupola del Teatro — 
Massimo di Palermo (1878, 8vo), and other 


works. 
American Architect, Vol. XXXIII., p. 46. 
BASILICA, (The Greek adjective signify- 


ing ‘“‘royal,” ‘“‘kingly,” and, therefore, “ splen- 
did,” and the like ; used in Latin substantively 
by writers of the classical time. 


The significa- 


i NN 


ud 
(i 
ST UT | 


nim 
a 


me 


ll 


Nhl 
ia} 


i] 


rR 


rn 


in rT 
HT 


cll U 


BASILICA: RESTORATION BY PALLADIO OF A TYPICAL ROMAN BASILICA. 


floor is some distance below the street, as, nota- 
bly, in city dwelling houses. (See Basement 
House, under House.) (Cuts, cols. 225, 226.) 

: —R.S8. 

American Basement; English Basement ; 
French Basement. (See Basement House, 
under House.) 

BASEMENT STORY. 
ment, DB. 

BASE STONE. Same as Footing Stone. 

BASEVI, GEORGE; architect. 

Basevi entered the office of Sir John Soane 
(see Soane) in 1810. In 1818 he went to 
Italy for three years. In 1825 he designed 
Belgrave Square, London, and in 1835 the 
Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. With Sid- 
ney Smirke (see Smirke) he built the Conserva- 
tive Club in Pall Mall, London. Basevi was 
killed by a fall from a scaffold while inspecting 
the tower of Ely Cathedral. 


Redgrave, Dictionary of Artists. 
227 


Same as Base- 


tion would be basilica stoa, ‘ the royal portico,” 
or, perhaps, in Latin usage, basilica cedes, 
“the royal house.”’) 

A, In classical antiquity, a building intended 
for the meeting of great numbers of persons 
for business purposes, like the modern Exchange, 
and for the sitting of judicial tribunals. It 
appears that the earliest building called by this 
name was built in Rome in 184 B.c., by Cato 
the Censor. This was called, from his family 
name, Basilica Porcia. The Basilica Fulvia 
was built 179 B.c. The Basilica Sempronia 
was built soon after (170, B.c.) close upon the 
Forum on its northeastern side, and following 
this the Basilica Opimia and the Basilica 
Emilia, both named by Pliny in his Natural 
fTistory as two of the four most splendid build- 
ings in Rome. All of these buildings have 
remained wholly unknown to modern archzeolo- 
gists, and this either because of complete 
destruction or because of uncertainty of site 

228 


; 


, c : Dee i add al 
ae eee eee he ee Ee Poet ke 


ie 
oe 


Sp Guhl apis erica 


a 
Tear 


‘BASIL OA ae 


| es is known to us, so far as its plan 
and general arrangement goes ; it stands on the 
‘$8 uthwestern side of the Forum. All of these 
but dings were intended to enlarge, in a sense, 
the available space of the Roman Forum, by 
% partly enclosed and roofed porticoes instead of 
open squares. Other great basilicas were added 
by the different emperors, of which the most 
nsive was the Basilica Ulpia, connected with 
an’s Forum on the northwest, and built by 
that emperor or in his name. We learn of no 
_ basilicas of the provincial cities which are com- 
parable with those of the Imperial City in size 
and architectural importance. 
It was characteristic of all these buildings 
that they were specimens of trabeated construc- 
tion throughout. They were nearly as columnar 
bein their character as the porticoes of the Greeks, 
“nor does it appear that the favourite Roman 
Se asatem of vaulting was introduced in any of 
ose named above or in any basilicas of the 
me period. The general character was a 
ive and two aisles, one on each side. These 
sles, in the majority of cases, returned at 
either end, so that the nave, as it may be called, 
“as was in reality a higher central portion surrounded 
/ 00, every side by lower porticoes. The Basilica 
oe is described under Roman Imperial Archi- 
eture (which see). It is, however, the opinion 
‘some that here the central space was not 
roperly a nave, but was open to the sky, in 
£ be which case the building would have been a 
ee double portico surrounding an open court. It 
is, of course, not rapecsibis that it was built 
z “originally open to the sky, and was afterward 
roofed. As to distribution of the court rooms 
in all the basilicas, this is very uncertain, but 
it is generally agreed that the semicircular apses, 
projecting sometimes at one end, sometimes at 
the side (see Exedra), were used for this 
purpose. — 
In the reign of Maxentius (d. 312 a.p.) was 
begun a vaulted basilica which is still partly 
in existence (see below). The central compart- 
ment on the southwestern side seems to have 
had a great entrance from the Forum; the 
‘Opposite compartment on the northeastern side 
has an exedra, At the northwestern end there 
is either an exedra or apse, and at the south- 
eastern end a great narthex; but there has 
been no exhaustive examination of the founda- 
tions, and only the existing walls and vaults are 
sufficiently known. 
B. A Christian church of the earliest western 
or central Italian type, distinguished by having 
a long and comparatively narrow nave and 
aisles with an apse at one end and a narthex 
229 


Ne ~ j 
ero 4 \ , ker. ae rise 


: from the very limited character of the | and perhaps an atrium at the other. 


i a 
« 


ica 


(For the 
description and history of the Christian basilica, 
see Latin Architecture. ) The same type ap- 
pears in the north in such buildings as the 
Basse (CHuvre (which see) at Beauvais in 
northern France, the church at Cravant, and 
one of those on the island of Reichenau in the 
Sea of Constance. Moreover, of the ancient 
Cathedral of Cologne, and the magnificent 
Church of S. Martin at Tours there remain 
such complete accounts, traditionally and in 


BASILICA OF §. JOHN LATERAN AT ROME, AS BUILT 
IN THE 5TH CENTURY A.D. 


Width within the outer walls, 180 feet. 


writing, that we are sure of the completely 
basilican character of those important structures. 

(For bibliography see those under Roman Im- 
perial Architecture ; Italy — especially Lazio; Latin 
Architecture ; Romanesque Architecture. ) Also 
see Bunsen, ’ Die Basiliken christlichen Roms, 
Munich, 1842. ec 


Ambrogian Basilica. That of S. Ambrogio 
at Milan. (See Church.) 

Liberian Basilica. That of S. Maria Mag- 
giore at Rome, so-called from the Bishop of 
Rome, Liberius, 352-366. (See Church.) 

BASILICA (The, so-called, at Pzestum). A 
building standing among the ruins of the ancient 

230 


ie any or a J ye oi ape a rf “ 


BASILICA 


Saitienn 


ERSCS 


~ 


ESCH GECCLE GH 


ees 


ee 


mC 


a5 


i i 
ses SSO | 

os. 

€ Ds. 
> 
Dy 

oe * 
3 


= 2 


ESE LE CLOSENS SE IV ROC EEL 


Sa ee 


Wie SS 
~ Ss * 
& 


BASILICA OF §. LORENZO WITHOUT THE WALLS. 


Try 
Ne 

JI 
S 


. 

ANS A 

ee ieee 
UZ 


he>d y Sgr D ia By 
yy ak 


2 


y 


In PART OF THE 4TH CENTURY A.D., MADE UP OF 


FRAGMENTS OF IMPERIAL WORK. 


Pestum (Greek, Poseidonia; modern Italian, 
Pesto) on the coast of Campania. It resembles 
a Doric temple, but has the peculiarity of a 
row of columns through the middle, and in con- 
Sequence an uneven number on each of the 
narrower fronts. Also, there are no traces of 
a wall which might have enclosed the naos. 
For these reasons it has been called a basilica 
according to the ancient or pagan type; that is 
to say, a portico for public resort. 

Koldewey and Puchstein, Die Griechischen 
Tempel in unteritqlien und Sicilien, Berlin, 1899. 

231 


BASILICAN, Having to do with a basilica ; 
having the characteristics of a basilica; thus, 
the early churches of northern France, such as 
S. Martin of Tours, were of basilican plan. 

BASILICA OF MAXENTIUS. Erected 
in Rome by the would-be emperor, Maxentius, 
and completed by his conqueror, Constantine 
“the Great,” in the first quarter of the fourth 
century A.D. The building covers an immense 
parallelogram, divided into a nave vaulted in 
three squares, and, on each side, three nearly 
Square compartments, each group or set of three 

232 


ey 


BASILICA OF S. AGNESEH 


corresponding nearly to one of the aisles of a 
medieval church. The plans of these compart- 
ments differ slightly. The height of the nave 
is about 125 feet; that is to say, nearly equal 
to the height of the nave of Amiens Cathedral, 
although the Roman building is of prodigious 
solidity and the Gothic cathedral slight and 
elastic in build. This building, with the halls 
of the latest imperial therme, are peculiarly inter- 


—_ 


|| 
| 
| 


: 


PLIST OEY OD, 


( 


A} 


ayy =>. Y 


«44! 


XXX 


My 


Ke. 
4 i 


BASIN 


BASILICA OF S.PAUL (S. Paolo Fuori 
le Mura or Without the Walls). Near Rome. 
(See Church.) | 

BASILICA OF TRAJAN; BASILICA 
ULPIA. The great basilica built by or in the 
name of the Emperor Trajan in connection with 
his forum, the temple dedicated to him, and 
the famous column which still stands complete. 
It was named from Trajan’s Gentile or family 


Basizica or §. CLEMENTE, RomE; REBUILT IN THE 11TH CENTURY ON THE OLD PLAN. 


esting, as showing how certain forms of architec- 
ture still flourished at a time when the art of 
sculpture was much degraded, and when this decay 
had been advancing with incredible rapidity. 

BASILICA OF S. AGNESE (Fuori le Mura 
or Withoutthe Walls). Near Rome. (See Church. ) 

BASILICA OF S. CLEMENTE. In 
Rome. (See Church.) 

BASILICA OF S. LORENZO (fuori le 
Mura or Without the Walls). Near Rome. 
(See Church.) 

233 


name. (See Basilica; Roman Imperial Archi- 
tecture. ) 
BASIN. A. A_ vessel generally round, 


elliptic, or ovoid, with curved sides, used for 
holding water, and intended chiefly for washing 
the hands and the face. In plumbing, the 
“set” or stationary earthen or china wash 
basin set beneath a marble or earthen slab, 
with metal or other supports, and with waste, 
overflow, and supply pipes, faucets, trap, and 
other appurtenances, the waste outlet of the 
234 


BASING 


basin being generally at the bottom, sometimes 
at the back, more often in the centre. 

B. A more or less artificially constructed 
reservoir for water; in modern times generally 
only for decoration, as at the foot of a chdteau 
deau, surrounding a fountain, or the like. 

—W. P. G. 

BASING. Same as Footing. 

BASKET (I.). Same as Bell of a capital. 


r- a ee Neill Mk meee Peis nora eel 0. eta eee 


BAS-RELIEF OF THE 13TH CENTURY; NoTRE-DAMB, PARIs. Four PANELS 
FROM A BUTTRESS OF SOUTH TRANSEPT. 


BASKET (II.); BASKET GRATE. (See 
Grate. ) 

BASON. Same as Basin. 

BAS-RELIEF. A. A form of sculpture in 
which the figures project but slightly from the 
general background ; low relief; as, for example, 
in the frieze of the Parthenon. 

235 


| Ser ee Rises 


2h 1) 


we aon 


Nee A TER Of eee Sn 


Peer Waly Nahe | Sete Oa a2 ay 
; Palak <<: a ae eee . 


BASSE-TAILLE 


B. Any sculptured work thus executed in 


low relief. 

Bas-relief is especially used as an adjunct to 
architecture. The contrasting treatment of 
sculpture is high relief or Alto-rilievo. 

BASSALECTUS ; BASSALLECTUS. 
(See Vassallectus. ) 

BASSANO, ANNIBALE ; architect. 

According to the records, the Loggia del 

Consiglio in the Piazza 


was begun in 1493 
from the model of 
Annibale Bassano. It 
was completed after 
1523 by one Biagio 
da Ferrara, of whom 
nothing more is known. 

Paoletti, Rinasci- 


mento in Venezia, Vol. 
IL, p. 287 (1897). 


BASSEN, BAR- 
TOLOMEUS VAN ; 
: painter and architect. 
: In 1613 Van Bas- 
sen was a member of 
the guild of painters at 
Delft. In 1622 he 
went to The Hague. 
After a visit to Eng- 
land, he settled at Arn- 
heim and designed the 
facade of the ath- 
haus of that city. 
He held the office of 
city architect at The 
Hague. 

Galland, Holldndi- 

schen Baukunst und 
Bildnerei. 
' BASSE GHUVRE. 
At Beauvais (Oise), 
north of France. A 
very ancient church of 
unsettled date, per- 
haps as early as the 
sixth century. It was 
the cathedral until the 
choir of the new (un- 
finished) cathedral was 
completed in the thir- 
teenth century. One 
tower of the Basse 
(Huvre is of the same 
date. 

BASSE-TAILLE. A. Bas-relief; the 
older French term which was in use until the 
seventeenth century. It has passed into Eng- 
lish as a term used by collectors and dealers 
in ancient works of art. 

B (as an adjective). Having a background 
with figures in relief; said of a piece of enamel, 
236 


A ska el capt ee ice cars ord penn re ob Sad vo ie os ein ee 


ane |e 1) 
Cae sS Kk Wie | 


Penne Pees weet Aten y te Want ates weer oben ss. 


ze It ieee 
Swett i atl tag i 


Tt qlee 


dei Signori at Padua. 


Z : 


Bs "BASE .O-RILIEVO 


: ae of the kind of enamel so characterized. It 
is a variety of champlevé enamel, marked by 
the peculiarity that the background i is sculptured 
and that the enamel itself is translucent so as 
to show the background. 
_  BASSO-RILIEVO. Same as Bas-relief. 
BASTARD CUT; SAWED. Sawed from 
a log longitudinally by parallel cuts in regular 
sequence from one side to the other. 
_ board or plank so cut. 
see Lumber.) 
_ BASTARD GRANITE. A quarrier’s term 
for nearly any stone which he may not consider 
a true granite ; particularly applied to gneiss. 
—G. P. M. 
 BASTEL HOUSE. On the English and 
Scottish border, a partly fortified house; one 
whose lowest story is vaulted, and which has 
battlements or some defence for the gate. 
BASTIDE. A. In France, 
a city or town built for special 
purposes of defence and with 
the purpose of occupying an im- 
_ portant position by a garrison, 
_ properly sheltered and housed ; 
especially, one of those founded, 
as it is thought, by the Eng- 
__ Jish kings as monarchs or claim- 
ants of Aquitaine. The most 
important of them appears to 
have been Libourne, on the 
Dordogne, founded about .1290, 
__ gtilla place of some importance. 
_ Monpazier, farther east, and 
_ south of the same river, retains 
its original aspect. The bastides 
are peculiar in medieval archi- 
tectural history for their straight — 
streets, forming right angles 
_ with one another, and the exact 
placing of the public buildings, 
all indicating the building of 
the city at one time on a systematic plan. 

B. Anciently, in fortification, an isolated 
defensive work, sometimes forming part of a 
permanent system of defence, sometimes used 
by the besiegers in an attack on a fortified place. 

C. In southern France, a small country 
house near a town, and used more for occasional 
resort than for residence. — R. S. 

BASTILLE. In French, a bastion, fortified 
tower, or, according to the epoch, other work 
of medizeval fortification ; especially, and always 
in English, the strong building whose proper 
name was La Bastille de la Porte S. Antoine, 
which was built by Charles V. It was for 
many years the chief state prison of France, and 
in that capacity was especially hated by the 
populace, who took it at the beginning of the 
French Revolution (July 14, 1789) when it was 
but feebly garrisoned. It was destroyed by 
order of the municipal authorities of Paris. 


237 


(Compare Quarter Cut ; 


Said of a 


BATEMENT LIGHT 

BASTILLE HOUSE. 
House. 

BASTI, MATTEO. (See Pasti, Matteo de.) 

BASTION. In military architecture, a pro- 
jecting member; a combination of rampart, 
parapet, ditch, ete., by means of which a stretch 
of wall is flanked s0 that its face may be swept 
by the fire from the bastion. In the fortifica- 
tion of the times just succeeding the introduc- 
tion of gunpowder, the bastions had some 
architectural character, in partial reminiscence 
of the flanking towers of medizeval castles ; they 
were, moreover, of masonry with somewhat high 
walls, and presented an imposing appearance. 
The modern bastion is, of course, to outside 
appearance, a mere green slope like a natural 
hillside, but more regular. In manor houses 


Same as Bastel 


and other large country residences of the later 
fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries, an enclos- 


BASTIDE: VIEW OF THE PUBLIC SQUARE AND COVERED STREET ADJOIN- 
ING, AT MONPAZIER (DORDOGNE), SOUTHWESTERN FRANCE. 


ing wall and ditch was often used to protect the 
immediate surroundings of the house ; its stables, 
gardens, and the like, as well as the house itself, 
and the angles of this outer enclosure were fre- 
quently treated with projections simulating the 
bastions of regular fortifications.— R. S. 

BASTON. Any large moulding of convex 
rounded section. (Compare Torus.) 

BAT. A. A piece of a broken brick ; usu- 
ally the half or about the half of a brick, espe- 
cially when having one end unbroken. More 
usually called brickbat. (See Closer.) 

B. A kind of sun-dried brick. 

BATARDEAU. Same as Coffer Dam. 

BATEMENT LIGHT. In English Gothic 
traceried windows, a peculiar form of light, or 
subdivision of a window ; one comprised between 
two mullions, and having a curved or inclined 
bottom caused by the arched heads of other 
lights below. 

238 


BATH 


BATH. A. The immersion of the body, or 
of a part of it, in water or other liquid. By 
extension, the contact of the skin with, or ex- 
posure to, a semisolid, liquid, or gaseous sub- 
stance, or with imponderable matter like sunlight 
or electric currents. 

B. Anarrangement or apparatus for bathing ; 
hence, an apartment or building containing 
baths, 

The object of bathing is improvement of the 
bodily health, (a) by maintaining health, (6) by 
restoring health. The first result is accomplished 
by cleansing baths, and by baths taken for cool- 
ing, stimulating, or hardening purposes, or for 
athletic bodily exercise; the second object by 
medicated baths. The numerous kinds and 
forms of baths may be classified: (1) according 
to the medium or substance used (fresh air, salt 
water, mineral water, hot air, steam, vapour, mud 
and sand, sun and electrical, air, pine needle, 
hot springs and medicated baths) ; (2) according 
to temperature (cold, tepid, warm, hot baths) ; 
(3) according to manner of application or part 
of body treated (full bath, half bath, sitz, hip, 
foot, hand, eye, sponge bath, douche, spray) ; 
(4) according to purpose, viz.: cleansing baths 
(tub, spray, douche, foot, sitz, hip, and vapour 
baths) ; refreshing baths (douche, needle, sponge, 
wave, swimming or plunge, river and sea, and 
Turkish baths) ; curative baths (air, sun, hot air, 
vapour, mud, sand, sulphur, electric, galvanic, 
hydropathic, and other baths); (5) in single 
baths (tub, sponge, douche, needle, and shower), 
and common baths (swimming tanks, river and 
sea baths, hot air, and vapour baths) ; (6) accord- 
ing to location (baths in private houses, public 
baths, factory, school, hospital baths, river baths, 
sea and surf baths, mineral springs, and thermze). 
(See Bath House.) — W. P. GerHarp. 

Douche Bath. (See Douche.) 

Needle Bath. A bath in which water is ap- 
plied to the body in a number of rows of very 
fine jets. (See Bath.) —W. P. G. 

Rain Bath. A special form of shower bath, 
with inclined overhead douche, intended as a 
substitute for tub baths, over which it has many 
advantages. (See Bath House.) — W. P. G. 

Shower Bath. A special form of bath for 
applying water in finely dispersed particles or 
jets over the body. (See Bath House.) —W. P. G. 

Sitz Bath. A special form of bath tub, in- 
tended for the bather to sit in, for immersion of 
the hips. — W. P. G. 

Swimming Bath. (See under S.) 

BATH HOUSE. A building erected for 
bathing purposes, and fitted up with some or all 
of the conveniences and appliances for bathing, 
such as dressing rooms, bath tubs, douches, 
needle baths, foot baths, hot air, vapour, steam, 
and electric baths, swimming baths, and some- 
times also containing hot springs and medical 
baths, 

239 


BATH HOUSE 


For historical notes on bath houses see under 
“Thermee.” In the present century the Public 
Bath and Washhouse Act, passed in England 
in 1846, gave the first impetus to the erection 
of public bath houses, and many such establish- 
ments were built in cities and towns, not only 


in England, but also on the Continent. But ~ 


the admission fee charged and the comparatively 
elegant exteriors and interiors of bath houses 
debarred the poorer classes. In 1883 the Berlin 
Health Exhibition stirred up public sentiment 
in favour of people’s baths; a like movement 
took place in the United States in 1891. The 
need of luxurious public bathing establishments 
is not felt in America, because most dwellings 
of even inferior class have bathing conveniences ; 
but, in the cities, need is felt of cheap spray or 
rain baths for the masses, who lack bathing 
facilities at home. One good reason why munic- 
ipalities should provide people’s baths is because 
they reduce the general mortality of a city and 
the number of sick in the hospitals. The state 
of New York initiated, in 1895, by a legislative 
act, the establishment of public baths kept open 
throughout the year. Such bath houses exist 
now in New York, Butfalo, Rochester, and 
Yonkers, and, in other states, at Philadelphia, 
Boston, Chicago, Pittsburg, and Brookline. 

In planning a bath house, the chief questions 
are: (1) Shall single baths (tubs, douches), or 
common baths (swimming tanks, hot air and 
steam vapour baths), or both, be provided? (2) 
Shall the single baths be fitted with tubs or 
with sprays? 

Elaborate bath houses for well-to-do people 
generally embrace all the different kinds of baths. 
Such buildings comprise apartments with bath 
tubs (often designated in England as slipper 
baths, though strictly speaking the latter is a 
short bathing receptacle in the form of a shoe 
in which the bather sits erect, while being partly 
covered in) ; needle and spray baths, large swim- 
ming tanks with preparatory cleansing foot tubs 
and douches; Russian and Turkish baths, 
massage and shampoo rooms, lounging rooms for 
cooling and resting after treatment, refreshment 
and reading rooms, hairdressing establishments, 
etc. They are either provided in duplicate for 
men and women, or else, when the building is 
small, different days or hours are appointed for 
the two sexes. The figure shows an example of 
a large modern bath house, viz. the ground 
floor plan of the new municipal bath house at 
Frankfort-on-the-Main, completed in 1892, at an 
expense of about $200,000. (The illustration 
is taken from Fortschritte der Architektur, 
Part XI.) 

People’s baths, as a rule, do not contain swim- 
ming tanks, for these are not intended for cleans- 
ing purposes. Instead of being provided with 
tubs, they are nowadays always fitted up with 
rain or spray baths, because these afford superior 

240 


a ow a 


BATH HOUSE 


advantages in a hygienic sense. Different forms 
of mixing valves are used to obtain tepid water 
of proper temperature from the hot and cold 
water supply pipes. Sometimes the cold water 
is warmed by means of steam, which passes 
through tubes surrounded by water, the latter 
flowing upward, while the steam travels in the 
opposite direction. The chief hygienic advan- 
tage of the rain bath lies in the fact that the 
bather is not surrounded by water, as when 
sitting in a bath tub, the water of which soon 
becomes soiled. Almost as fast as the clean 


BATH HOUSE 


formerly led to abuses and involved the danger of 
scalding patients, spray baths are now preferred. 
Tn all hospitals for the insane of New York State 
bath tubs are abolished, and spray baths have 
been substituted. They are placed either in single 
stalls in the wards, or in congregate bath rooms 
or bath houses, of which good examples may be 
seen at the Utica State Hospital, and the Long 
Island State Hospital, at Kings Park, LI. 
Following the success of people’s rain baths, 
a movement was inaugurated in Germany to 
provide cleansing baths for the children in public 
school buildings. Sanitarians are agreed that 
the practice of affording baths to the children 


‘ 


7 
) , 
Kate 
aa: 
D 


ES 
a 
i! 
(ROO: 
<== 


{/? ~ a 
Migr ~ . 


pi 294 S67 690, 4S bane 


SCALES. 


Batu House: New Municieat Batu Housek ArT FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAIN ; GROUND FLOOR. 


Swimming bath, first-class, for men. 

. Swimming bath, second-class, for men. 
. Swimming bath for women. 

. Open vestibule. 

. Inner vestibule. 


ahh 


water in form of a tepid spray is delivered 
through the overhead douche over the bather, it 
passes away more or less soiled from his ablution 
through the floor drain. Other advantages are 
the invigourating and tonic effect of the spray, 
and the fact that this form of bath is less expen- 
sive to fit up, requires-less time in application, 
uses less water, and that the apartment is 
quickly gotten ready for the next bather. 

The value of rain or spray baths is not con- 
fined to people’s baths only. In hospitals for 
instance, where the bathing of patients in tubs 

241 


fF. Ticket office. L. Water-closets. 
G. Waiting room for men. 
H. Waiting room for women. O. Restaurant. 
JI. Inner court (open). 

A. Cleansing and preliminary baths, 


NV. Barber shop. 


P. Towels, ete. 
W. Tub baths. 


in public schools does more to improve the air 
of the class rooms than any system of artificial 
ventilation. Such school baths would prove a 
boon to the children of the tenement population 
in American cities. Neither bath tubs nor 
swimming tanks are adapted to the needs of 
workingmen in factories, and here again the 
tepid rain bath offers many advantages and can 
be cheaply procured, as manufacturing establish- 
ments generally have an abundance of waste or 
exhaust steam. (See also article on Swimming 
Bath.) — W. P. GerHarp. 
242 


BATHING BOX 


BATHING BOX. In England, a booth for 
dressing, etc. ; same as Bathing House, B. 
BATHING HOUSE. A. Same as 

House. (See also Swimming Bath.) 

B. A small cabin or booth for undressing 
and dressing, and set up on the seashore or at 
the edge of a river or the like where bathing is 
common. Such booths are often made of a light 
wooden frame with strong muslin or canvas 
nailed to the uprights and horizontals. When 
made entirely of wood, they are usually covered 
with rough boarding. A floor is always needed, 
and a shelf, some hooks, etc., are usually provided. 

BATH OF MORTAR. Mortar used in large 
quantities, as when it is laid thick upon a hori- 
zontal surface as of a partly completed wall or 
pier, that small materials may be bedded deeply 
into it. The most important masonry of the 
Romans of the Empire was made with small 
stones bedded in a bath of mortar, the wall be- 
ing faced with small bricks or tiles of baked 
clay. | 

BATHROOM. A room provided with a bath 
tub or other appliances for bathing. In modern 
houses of ordinary cost, bath tub and hand 
basin, with hot and cold water faucets, and in 
many cases also, a water-closet fixture, constitute 
its equipment. In superior houses the water- 
closet is separate, and there is the fixed sitz bath, 
a shower bath, which may also serve as a douche, 
and a needle bath, or one or two of these fittings. 
Moreover, the possibility of bathing in flowing 
water is kept in view, and a marble tank with 
elaborate appliances sometimes replaces the 
bath tub. 

BATHS OF CARACALLA; OF DIO- 
CLETIAN, etc. (See Therm.) 

BATH STONE. Bath Oolite ; a light cream- 
coloured or nearly white, soft, oolitic limestone 
from the English Jurassic formations. Some- 
what resembles the American ‘“ Bedford Stone,” 
but is softer and of lighter colour. Much used 
in English ecclesiastic architecture. — G. P. M. 


Bath 


Whi 


Batu Tus: Sora” Batu, 18TH Century. 


BATH TUB. A receptacle of sufficient size 
and of proper shape to enable a person to 
- immerse the body in water, for washing and 
bathing purposes, and, in modern buildings, a 
stationary plumbing fixture, generally provided 

245 


te beet j 


with waste and overflow pipes, hot and cold 
water supply pipes, plug and chain or waste 
valve, and single or combination bibbs (see Bibb 
Cock). The fixture is either set on the floor, or 
raised from it on legs, or sunk into the floor. 


Batu Tus: ‘‘ Sora” BATH, 18TH CENTURY. 


Examples of fine monolithic Roman bath 
tubs cut out of large blocks of granite or marble 


are on exhibition in some of the museums of 


BatH Tusp: STATIONARY FoLpInG ‘‘ CABINET ’”’ 
BATH TuB, WITH WATER CISTERN WHICH CAN 
BE CONNECTED WITH HEATER. 


Europe. Similar marble baths of great splendour 
were constructed for the French kings. It was 
usual to place in the tub a linen sheet, as the 
sides were cold, and this custom has remained 
in France up to the present day. Marble tubs 
being costly and cold, bathing tubs were subse- 
quently made of wood and of sheet metal. Some 
curious varieties, like the “‘ sofa” baths illustrated 
in the Figures were designed by the French 
furniture makers of the past centuries. A 
‘“‘mechanical” bath tub, the invention of a cer- 
tain French count, is mentioned, in which the 
water was constantly kept in motion to imitate 
the effect of a river or surf bath. A similar 
device, called a ‘ Wellen” or ‘Schaukel-bad” 
has attained some popularity in Germany at the 
present day. Another curious out-of-date form 
of bath tub, the so-called “‘slipper bath,” consisted 
of a tub in the shape of a shoe, and partly 
covered, in which the bather sat erect with his 
feet in the toe of the slipper. The object of the 
244 


BATH TUB a 


{ : 
: j a ie jee 

any Copa ee ee ie ean i es, PR nae 
Na es Ee aig One aba hey a a5 et ee 


ie 


Lees 


> SS ee eas 


OREN ae 


aye te 
na oan 


. az Ce FD DP vias ag a or ee, 
Dg tae ee econ 
_ BATONS ROMPUS | 


_ protect the bather, and to enable a person to 
take a long soaking bath, as required by some 
_ medical practitioners. In some of the towns of 
Provence in the south of France slipper baths 
may be found at this day. In England, the 
modern tub baths are sometimes designated as 
“slipper baths ” (see Bath House). The modern 
bath tub, as used in private houses, is manufac- 
___ tured of wood lined with zine or with copper; 
of heavy copper; of cast iron 
or sheet iron, painted, galvan- 
ized, or enamelled ; of porcelain 
or stoneware, and, quite recently, 
of glass. In the older patterns, 
_ the long sides are tapering in 
plan and also from the top toward 
the bottom ; all recent tubs have 
_ parallel sides which make the 
_ tub more roomy. The head end 
_ of the tub is semicircular in plan 
; > some- 


The length 
of tubs varies from 4 feet to 6 
feet 6 inches; the width varies 
from 22 inches to 32 inches; 
according to the inside depth 

the bath is called either a shal- 
low or a deep tub. 

Special forms of tubs, for bath- 
ing only parts of the body, are 
_ the Sitz Bath (which see under 
Bath), the foot bath, the bidet, — 
and the cleansing tubs arranged 
in modern swimming baths for 
bathers to take a thorough 

ablution with soap and warm 
__ water before they are permitted 
___ to enter the swimming pool. 
—W. P. GERHARD. 
BATONS ROMPUS. The 
_ short straight billets or portions 
of moulding, usually of rounded 
section, which form the Zigzag 
Moulding in Romanesque archi- 
tecture. In its English use it 
is a collective noun. (Compare 
Chevron.) 
BATTEN. In English usage, 
a plank of 7 by 24 or 7 by 3 
inches, which may be cut into three boards or 
deals. The term is also applied to furring strips 
for flooring or plastering. In American usage, 
any thin and narrow strip of wood such as 
may be used for nailing over the joints between 
the boards of the siding of framed houses. 
(Compare Cleat ; see also Lumber.) 

BATTENING. The affixing of battens to a 
wall or frame; or the whole system of battens 
so affixed. In English usage, the application of 
furring strips to a wall or roof frame for plaster- 
245 


ARS 


Cee 


¢4 covering was to prevent the spilling of water, to 


BAL THE ce 

ing, or to joists to receive the flooring. This is 
usually called Furring in the United States. 

BATTEN PLATES. Tie plates at the ends 
of compression members, or used at intervals to 
connect the channel beams or Z beams, which 
form the column or strut, replacing, for instance, 
the latticing on the open side of a built strut 
or column. — W. R. H. 

BATTER. A slope, especially a slight in- 
clination from the perpendicular ; specifically, 


oe ee J es 1 


Batu TusBs OF DIFFERENT FORMS: 


. Slipper bath, ancient form. 


Old pattern, tapering horizontally and vertically. 
Recent ‘‘ French ’’ pattern, parallel sides. 
**Roman”’ pattern. 

Special form with head rest. 

Special form, south of Europe. 

Chair for vapour baths, with cover of rubber cloth. 


the slope given to the face of a wall, embank- 
ment, or the like. In retaining walls, a batter 
is given to the face of a wall to economize 
masonry, to prevent overhanging in case of 
slight movement, and sometimes for esthetic 
reasons. It may be a plane, or slightly curved, 
surface. If, after a wall with vertical faces has 
been designed to support a given earth press- 
ure, the face line be revolved about a point 
one ninth of the height from the base to form a 
batter not exceeding one sixth, the wall will 
246 


BATTER RULE 


then have the same stability as before. (Vau- 
ban’s rule). The word is often said to be 
derived from the French word bdtir, to build. 
It is difficult to follow this derivation ; the 
French word for batter is fruit. 

—W. R. Hurron. 

BATTER RULE; BATTERING RULE. 
An instrument or templet to regulate the 
amount of batter to be given to a wall or pier 
in process of construction. 

BATTERY, ELECTRIC. 
Appliances. ) 

BATTISTA DI CRISTOFANELLO ; (in- 
fregliati) ; architect. 

The fine church of 8. Maria Nuova, near 
Cortona, Italy, is his only known work. A 
parchment, preserved in the sacristy of the 
church, declares that it was begun May 11, 
1550, con disegno di Battista Cristofanello 
Cortonese, and finished in 1600. He is also 
mentioned in Mancini, Manoscritti della Li- 
breria del Commune dell’ Academia Etrusca 
di Cortona, 1884. The high altar was added 
by Rodi da Cortona about 1610. 

Geymiiller-Stegmann, Die Architektur der Ren. 
in Toscana. 

BATTLE, JOHN DE (JEAN DE LA BA- 
TAILLE); architect and mason “ cementarius.” 

Between 1291 and 1294 John de Battle 
built the Eleanor Crosses at Northampton, 
Stony Stratford, Woburn, Dunstable, and St. 
Albans (England), An associate (socius), John 
de Pabeham, is mentioned. (See Cross of Queen 
Eleanor.) 

Hunter, Death of Eleanor of Castille, in Archeo- 
logia, Vol. XXIX. 

BATTLEMENT. 4A. In fortification, a 
parapet which is so broken into higher and 
lower alternate parts that the archer or cross- 


(See Electrical 


BATTLEMENTS OF DECORATIVE PURPOSE; 8. MARy’s 
CHURCH, BEVERLY, YORKSHIRE. 


These are much smaller than the military battlements, and 
have mouldings and drips which are not used in the latter, 


bowman on the rampart may be sheltered by 
the higher part, and may at will discharge his 
weapon over the lower part of this parapet. 
The higher part, the dimensions of which may 
be taken roughly as 6 feet high above the top 
of the Rampart with a width of from 5 to 7 
feet, is called the Merlon or Cop, and sometimes 
also Battlement. (See definition B.) This 
merlon is often pierced by a loophole, or even 
by more than one. ‘The lower piece of parapet 
between the merlons may be breast high, or 
247 


BATTLEMENT 


somewhat less ; its width horizontally is usually 
about equal to that of the merlons. The open 
space between the merlons and above the lower 


—> => : 
St 
= SS SS 
SS SS SSS SS SSS) 2 SS SSS See 
bx —) 


SST Ss= 


BIN, \L2O Sh pa 
eS AYRE re am 


NOELIA TATOO BES 
Ws Car aw A ANE ae sem ¢ 
aS CS ae GS SS S38 BSS SScaq | 


BATTLEMENT OF BRICK, OF DECORATIVE PURPOSE; 
VERONA. 


This is the pattern known as the Scaliger or La Scala Battle- 
ment, 


parapet is called Crenelle, Crenel, or in later 
writing, Embrasure, and this term may be held 
to include the low parapet as well, or the latter 
may be called the Parapet of the Crenel. The 
ramparts of Pompeii are defended by battle- 
ments of a pattern unknown in medizyval forti- 
fication, in which each merlon has a piece of 
wall returning across a part of the footway on 
the top of the rampart, thus forming a series of 
traverses, one for each embrasure, so that each 
defender of the walls is protected on his left 
side as well as in front. 

Battlements formed the actual defensive prep- 
aration for almost all fortified walls before the 
introduction of 
gunpowder, those 
in early Greece be- 
ing very like those 
of the later Mid- 
dle Ages. Some 
few exceptions ex- 
ist to this rule; 
thus in later By- 
zantine  fortifica- 
tion a vaulted 
gallery near the 
top of the wall 
seems to have BarrieMenr FROMTHE GAR- 
taken slerge chet 
in the  arrange- : ; 
ments for defence, Mage 
and in the castles of Europe, from the thirteenth 
century on, an elaborate system of wooden out- 
side galleries was used, which galleries were put 
into place when a siege was feared, or in some 
cases seem to have remained permanently in 
condition for use. Even apart from these 
wooden defences, the defensive parapet of the 
Middle Ages was often carried on corbels pro- 
jecting beyond the wall so as to leave openings 

248 


” + ~ 
ee” OTe ee eee a ee 


a | a ea ee ae 


- ihe 


___-with its adjoining crenel, in a battlement in the 


ee 


tga” 
ATTLE STON 


w ys ee 
~~ ‘ E 


Co 4B 


oe for the discharge of missiles vertically down- 
ward. (See Machicolation.) 


B. One of the merlons, or such a merlon 


sense A, above. This use, though not recog- 


nized by the dictionaries, is warranted by the 


common use of the plural form, battlements, for 
the general line or front of such a parapet. 

C. A decorative fringe or crest showing 
against the sky or against a high-ridged roof, 
common in many architectures, evidently de- 
rived from the battlement of fortification, but 
often unlike it in form, in size, and in solidity. 
Thus, in the churches of the later Gothic style, 


BATTLEMENT OF BRICK FROM A GARDEN WALL; 
VENICE. 


_ battlements are often pierced with ornamental 


openings, or cut into elaborate tracery, leaving 
nothing but slender bars of stone. Some forms 


of battlements are traceable to a defensive pur- 
pose, but, as generally seen in buildings which 


remain intact, are altogether ornamental. On 


_ the garden walls in Venice a cresting is formed 


by brick battlements of extraordinary beauty, 
and a repetition of this on a large scale is seen 


in the well-known fringe of marble uprights 


- which crown the wall of the ducal palace in 


that city. The common form in Moslem archi- 
tecture is the Almena, in which a stepped slope 
has the uprights of the steps cut to a backward 
or reversed slope, giving very picturesque forms. 
R. S$. 

BATTLESTONE. (See Cath; Pillar of 


_ Victory.) 


BAUDROT (BOUDROT), LAURENT and 
GERARD ; architects. 

In 1607 Laurent succeeded Gérard Faulchot 
in the superintendence of the works at the 
Cathedral of Troyes. Gérard Baudrot was 
probably his son, and in 1620 and 1622 ap- 
pears as employed in connection with the 
cathedral. 

Assier, Les Arts et les Artistes dans Vancienne 
capitale dela Champagne; Bauchal, Dictionnaire ; 
Lance, Dictionnaire. 

BAUDRY, PAUL JACQUES AIME; 
painter; b. Nov. 7, 1828; d. Jan. 17, 1886. 

-Baudry entered the Hcole des Beaux Arts, 

249 


BAY 


April 16, 1845, and won the Grand Prix de 
Rome in 1850. His greatest achievement was 
the decoration of the foyer of the Grand Opera 
in Paris, built by his friend, Charles Garnier 
(see Garnier), for which the commission was 
given in January, 1866. This work was inter- 
rupted by the war of 1870-1871, but the 
entire series of thirty-four compositions was ex- 
hibited at the Hcole des Beaux Arts in 1874. 
His ceiling, ‘‘The Glorification of Law,” at the 
Cour de Cassation, won for him the Médaille 
Vhonneur in the Salon of 1881. Baudry 
painted two ceilings for the Vanderbilt houses 
in New York. 

Charles Ephrussi, Paul Baudry, sa vie et son 
wuvre; René Ménard, Paul Baudry in Gaz. des 
Beaux Arts; Jules Claretie, Peintres et sculpteurs 
contemporains (deuxiéme serie) ; Charles Garnier, 
Le Nouvel Opéra de Paris. 


BAULK. (See Balk.) 

BAUTA. In Scandinavian archeology, an 
upright stone, like a menhir, but often crown- 
ing a barrow, and sometimes 20 feet high. 
They are often of such late epoch that the 
names of persons in whose memory they seem 
to have been set up are engraved upon them in 
runes, and therefore they are hardly prehistoric 
monuments, but belong rather to the Viking 
age. It is not, however, absolutely certain 
that the stones themselves may not. be of earlier 
date than their present placing, although the 
inscriptions are later. 

BAWN. In medizval archeology, a forti- 
fied enclosure. 

BAY. <A. An opening, as of a window or 
door, or as between two columns or piers. In 
this sense, the French baie should be consulted, 
as it is commonly used for a window. The 
term in England seems to carry with it the sup- 
ports, imposts, jambs, and the like, on both sides 
of the opening. 

B. One compartment or division of a build- 
ing, or other structure, which consists of several 
similar compartments. The earliest English 
permanent dwellings, and barns also, although 
the two were often united, were built in bays, 
whence undoubtedly the sense C below. A 
house might consist of one bay, or many, and 
could be rented, sold, or left by will in separate 
bays ; thus, three children might inherit each 
one bay of a house, and in this way the houses 
of early times in England, having a nearly uni- 
form section at all points, much resembled the 
Long House of the Iroquois Indians. The 
general length of the bay was about 16 feet 
(see Wood, Construction in, Part I.); and it 
has been alleged that the measure of length, 
known as the rod, pole, or perch, is derived 
from this length of the bay. (See Crutch.) 
Hence, in later and more elaborate structures, 
the term applies to a similar division, as of a 


roof or floor, which is included between any two 


250 


ins 7 Rea ee ce 


. 
. 
- 
4 
i 
~ 
2 
: 
2 


ea 
voit | 


' ov us vy rs 


BAYEUX | 


Wall-plate, 


ZOW 


Pee 
WG 


\\ 


x 


SS 


ORAM SUELLAN TPE TaD DOP CULE 
AML) VERGE HAMLIN 
LT AT) 
MTT eT TT 


CLERESTORY 


SN 


WS 


TE WS 


TRIFORIUM 


PIER-ARCH. 


Bay OF TRANSEPT; WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL, 
c. 1090. 


The wall of the nave arcade, the triforium, and clerestory are 
shown white; the more distant wall behind the triforium 
and upper gallery is shaded. A series of such vertical com- 
binations of three parts makes up the design of the interior. 


main transverse supports of a series. In such 
connections, the term is commonly used in com- 
bination, as in bay of joists, bay of rafters. In 
modern times the nave or an aisle of a church, or 
any building divided by arcades or colonnades, 
is considered as divided into bays, each bay con- 
sisting of two columns, pilasters, or the like, 
with the space between, so that one bay of a 
three-aisled church consists of a piece taken 
across the whole building from outer wall to 
outer wall, including both aisles and the nave. 
In like manner, one compartment of any single 
wall or arcade of such a building is spoken of 
as a bay, and the decoration of a piece of wall 
around, and enclosing one of the windows, is 
sometimes spoken of as a unit. (See Bay Win- 
dow, which common term illustrates both of 
these definitions, A and B.) 

By extension, the term is sometimes applied 

251 


. Fendent 


» Capital of Shaft 


AUYOLSAAXTO 


Stringcourse. 


-“HoUV-aald 


Capital: 


UaAld 


Base 


Bay: FOTHERINGAY CHURCH, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE,, 
c. 1440. 


One of the units of design of the interior of a small church in | 


the perpendicular style, with a simple “wooden roof. The: 
aisle is seen beyond the pillars of the nave arcade. 


to divisions, or compartments, of small and rela- 
tively unimportant structures, as to the divisions. 
of a bookcase ; the spaces formed by the mul- 
lions of a window ; and, in engineering, to the: 
portion, as of a chord, included between two: 
apices of a truss. 

C. By extension, a compartment or recess, 
as in a barn, for a special purpose, as expressed 
in the compound terms, “‘hay bay,” ‘horse 
bay.” 

D. In plastering, that piece of the work. 
which is included between two screeds (see 
Screed, A), and which is done at one operation. 
(Cut, cols. 253, 254.) —R. 8. 

BAYEHUX, JEAN DE (1.); architect; d. 
1398. 

May 29, 1388, he succeeded Jean des Per- 
riers (Desperriers, or Périer) as maitre magon 
of the cathedral of Rouen, France, and Aug: 5, 
1389, became maistre des euvres de macon- 

252 


| eS 

} WS \ ("Es 

| Ae Nov 
ORY ES 


t 


i eeedeeeteetcal 
>= 


= ie 


il 


—————— ———— es 


Mag LIAN Wale ‘ 7 
- i lee = ee ay 


BAZAAR 
term, Balcone (which see). The word 
“bay” in its two senses, first, of a recess 
or opening, and second, of one of many 
subdivisions of a long building, seems to 
have suggested the use of the same term, 
“bay,” for an enclosed structure which 
would form a recess, or opening, and which, 
by means of its projection from the exte- 
rior wall, would seem to constitute one 
subdivision, or ‘“‘bay,” as seen from the 
exterior. This structure was then called 
bay window, and the term has no closer 
or more exact signification than is here 
explained. In modern times an attempt 
has been made to distinguish the bay win- 
dow as a structure resting on the ground 
from the oriel window as a structure cor- 
belled out from the wall of the building. 
Also a distinction has been attempted 
between Bow Window with a curved 
outline in its plan, and bay window 
with a broken or polygonal outline. As 
generally understood, in modern country 
houses and the like, the bay window is of 
the nature of an enclosed loggia by means 
of which a view can be had along the face 
of the walls on each side, and the sun can 
perhaps be let into a room which would 
otherwise not receive it; it may be two 
or three feet deep, or it may be as large 
as a moderate-sized room with a projection 
from the wall even greater than its meas- 
urement along the face of the wall. In 
some cases, the bay window is separated 
from the room which it adjoins by a de- 
cided break in the ceiling, as by an arch 


BAY oF THE OUTER WALL oF CHorIR AISLE; CHURCH 


AT NORREY, NEAR CAEN. 


or transom, and the ceiling of the bay 
window may be lower than that of the 
room. In other cases the ceiling is con- 
tinuous, and the bay window is really a 


An interesting wall arcade below, and very unusual panels filled with prolongation, or widening, of the room. 


carving above. Norman work, 14th century. 


nerie of the city of Rouen. In 1390 he made 
plans for the reconstruction of the “ Beffroi” at 
Rouen. He built a large part of the city wall, 
including the tower called Guillaume-Lion, and 
the Porte Martainville, for which he made the 
plans in 1394. 


Deville, Architectes de la Cathédrale de Rouen ; 
Lance, Dictionnaire. 


BAYEUX, JEAN DE (II.) ; architect. 

He succeeded his father, Jean (I.), as maitre 
des oeuvres of the city of Rouen, but not as 
architect of the cathedral. April 25, 1398, he 
presented new plans for the Porte Martainville, 
Rouen. . 

Deville, Architectes de la Cathédrale de Rouen. 

BAY STALL. A stall, or similar seat, in a 
bay window. 

BAY WINDOW. Originally, a large win- 
dow, often of many parts, or subdivisions, and 
corresponding nearly to the modern Italian 

253 


—R.S. 

BAZAAR. In cities of the Levant, and 
generally of Southwest- 
ern Asia and Northern 
Africa, that part of the 
town which is devoted to 
shops, stalls, or booths, 
for the sale of objects of 
all sorts. It is often, 
divided into districts, 
one of which is occu- 
pied by each branch of 
trade. In a few in- 
stances an architectural 
character is given to the 
whole quarter, or to one 
street of it, by roofs 
through which light is 
admitted, the great Ba- 


PER- 


Bay WINDOW: 
PENDICULAR GOTHIC ; 


Saati CoMPTON CHURCH, 
zaar of Constantinople WEG La Wak, 
being especially remark- = wicxsurrE. 


254 


BHACON TOWER 


able as being vaulted with stone, and having the 
light admitted through cupolas. The bazaars 
of Constantinople, taken all together, are com- 
monly said to contain several miles of continuous 
streets lined throughout with small booths open- 
ing directly upon the public way. — R. 8. 

BEACON TOWER. A. A tower intended 
to support a flaming beacon, that is to say, a 
fire of alarm or warning. 

B. In modern times, a towerlike structure 
intended to indicate a line of approach on enter- 
ing a harbor, or to warn vessels of the location 
of a shoal or rock, or the like ; often without 
any provision for a fire or other light. 

BEAD. A. A convex rounded moulding, 
commonly of semicircular section. Hence, by 
extension, — 

B. A slender piece or member of wood or 
metal, having generally, wholly, or in part the 
section of a bead in sense A. 

Angle Bead. A bead in either of the 
above senses, applied as a finish to an angle or 
corner. Specifically, a strip used in place of an 
Angle Staff (which see under Staff) as a protec- 
tion to the salient angle of a plastered wall, to 
which it is secured under the plaster, the only 
visible portion being a projecting moulding form- 
ing a bead at the corner. By extension, a 
metal contrivance for the same purpose, but 
having no bead and arranged so as to be quite 
concealed by the plaster. 

Centre Bead. A flush bead moulded at 
about the centre of a board, or the like. 

Cock Bead. A bead moulded or applied 
so as to project beyond a surface or surfaces. 
It is return-cocked if it occurs on the angle or 
arris, and quirked if flanked by a groove on 
each side. 

Corner Bead. Same as Angle Bead, espe- 
cially in the specific sense as used in plaster- 
ing. 

Double Bead. ‘Two beads side by side, 
there being no other surface or moulding 
between them. 

Flush Bead. One worked in material so 
that its rounded outside is flush with the. gen- 
eral surface. 

Nosing Bead. A moulding, generally semi- 
cylindrical, on the edge of a board or the like, 
and occupying its entire thickness. Generally 
placed so as to project beyond an adjoining face, 
as at the juncture of a tread and riser of a 
staircase, where the moulded projection of the 
tread beyond the riser is the nosing. 

Parting Bead. Same as Parting Strip, espe- 
cially when small, and having in part the form 
of a bead in sense A. 

Ploughed Bead. Same as Flush Bead. 

Quirked Bead. A bead separated from an 
adjoining surface by a quirk or narrow groove 
along one or both sides, as is common in the 
case of a flush bead or the like. 

255 


BEAM 


Rail Bead. A cock bead when on a uniform, 
continuous surface, and not at an angle, reveal, 
or the like. 

Rebate Bead. 
angle of a rebate. 

Return Bead. A bead at the edge of a 
return, as along the edge of the salient corner 
of a wall. (Compare Angle Bead, above.) 

Staff Bead. An angle staff of which the 
greater part forms a bead at the corner. (Com- 
pare Angle Bead, above.) —D. N. B. §. 

BEAD AND BUTT. A method, and the 
result, of framing panels flush with the rails 
and stiles on all sides, each panel having the 
two longer edges, with the grain, worked into 
beads which butt against the rail or stile at the 
ends. 


A bead in the reéntrant 


BEAD AND QUIRK. A bead set off by 


one or two quirks. 

BEAD AND REEL. A convex rounded 
moulding representing a string of beads in which 
disks alternate, singly or in pairs, with oblong 
beads or ‘‘olives.” This ornament, akin to the 
egg and dart in effect, is traceable to early Asi- 
atic origins in Persia and Assyria. (See Astra- 
gal; Baguette.) 

BEAD BUTT AND SQUARE. Similar 
to Bead and Butt; but having the panels flush 
on the beaded face only, and showing square 
reveals on the other. 

BEAD BUTT WORK. Sameas Bead and 
Butt. | 

BEAD FLUSH WORK. A method of 
framing panels to show a bead about the whole 
panel or planted upon it, the panel and bead 
flush with the frame. 

BEAD HOUSE. Same as Bede House. 

BEAK. Any ornament or moulding having 
a beaklike form or section ; specifically, a small 
pendant moulding along the outer edge of the 
soffit of a cornice or similar member to form a 
drip. It may either project downward from 
the general surface, or be formed by a groove or 
channel cut behind it. 

BEAK HEAD. An ornament occurring in 
the mouldings of some Norman buildings, and 
representing the head and beak of a bird. 

BEAM. A piece or member of which the 
transverse dimensions are small relatively to its 
length ; intended generally to be supported at 
two or more points to resist forces acting in a 
direction normal to its axis; but sometimes 
secured at one end only and sometimes acting 
as a member of a truss, in which case its pur- 
pose may be that of a strut; but always occu- 
pying a more or less horizontal position. By 
extension, however, the term is still used to 
designate any piece of a form intended pri- 
marily for the purpose described although put 
to another use: thus, a steel column may be 
constructed of channel beams, which would then 


| be set on end. Beams of wood or stone are 


256 


: 


2 7 Sea tall eacellan ia es 


owe 


~ 


j= * ° 
- _ usually rectangular in cross section, or nearly 


go. Those of iron or steel have different cross 


BEAM 


sections, but are generally composed of a top 
-and a bottom flange connected by a thin verti- 
cal web. The most common forms are the 
I Beam, the Channel Beam, the Z Beam, and 
the Deck or Bulb Beam. (See subtitles below.) 


Tron and steel beams are now (1900) rolled in 


one piece up to a depth of 2 feet. The larger 
sizes are made up of several pieces, and known 
as built beams and box beams. (See Box 
Beam and Built Beam below.) <A large beam 
is frequently known as a Girder, irrespective of 
its use. — D. N. B.S. 

Arched Beam. Any beam or similar mem- 
ber formed with an upward curve, whether of 
one piece bent or cut to the required curve, 


or whether made up of several parts secured 


together. A common form is the Laminated 


_ Arch (which see under Arch) ; which, however, 


acts by direct downward pressure upon its points 


~ of support and with little or no outward thrust. 


Binding Beam. In floor framing, the beam 
which supports the bridging beams (or floor 
beams) above and the ceiling beams below. 
(See Double Floor and Double Framed Floor, 


under Floor.) 


Bowstring Beam. In British usage, a 
simple form of the bowstring truss. 

Box Beam. An iron or steel beam, in shape 
like a long box with open ends, formed by two 
webs connected by top and bottom plates, or 
latticing. The webs may be either I Beams, 
Channel Beams, or Built Beams (see subtitles 
below) of plates and angles. Larger or more 
important ones are known as Box Girders. 

Bridging Beam. A floor beam carried by 
girders or binding beams (see Binding Beam 


_ above) as distinguished from one which spans the 


whole space between bearing walls. (See Double 

Floor and Double Framed Floor under Floor.) 
Built Beam. Any beam made up or built 

of several parts, as a Plate Beam (which see 


BEAM 


centre for the purpose of counteracting any pos- 
sible sagging in the future. The name is also 
applied in England to a beam whose upper 
surface is cut to a slight slope from the middle 
toward each end, as for nearly flat roofs. 

Ceiling Beam. A light joist or beam set to 
receive the lathing for a plastered ceiling. In 
English practice the ceiling joists are mortised 
into the binding beams, or notched into their 
under edges and spiked. In American practice 
ceiling joists are seldom used except for false 
ceilings under fireproof floors, the ceiling laths 
being usually nailed either directly to the under 
edges of the floor joists, or to furring strips 
crossing the joists to whose under edges they 
are nailed. Their use has the advantage that 
heavy pressure or sudden blows upon the floor 
above will be less apt to injure the ceiling. 
Such ceilings are less apt to transmit sound. 

Cellular Beam. The cellular beam or tubu- 
lar bridge at one time in vogue for large 
bridges. It was a box beam large enough for 
trains to pass inside of the tube. The top, the 
compression member, and in a less degree the 
bottom, were made of cells formed by thin 
longitudinal partitions between their upper and 
lower plates. By this form of construction 
great stiffness and resistance to compression 
were obtained with a small quantity of metal. 
These bridges were, however, expensive to con- 
struct, difficult to repair, and remained in vogue 
only a short time. The Britannia Bridge in 
England and the Victoria Bridge at Montreal 
are two notable examples. 

Channel Beam. A beam of iron or steel of 
such section that it resembles a gutter or chan- 
nel. It consists of a vertical web with a flange 
at top and bottom on one side only. Those of 
the smaller dimensions are commonly known as 
Channel Bars or Channel Irons. (See Iron 
Construction. ) 

CollarBeam. A tie beam in a roof truss, 
connecting two opposite principal rafters at a 


Buitt BEAM. 


This beam is formed by uniting five pieces of timber by scarfs and bolts. 


The beam is formed with a slight camber to avoid 


sagging. See illustration of Truss Beam. 


below), a Box Beam (which see above), or a 
wooden beam composed of Flitches. 

Bulb Beam. An iron beam having a flange 
at one edge of the web and a nearly cylindrical 
rib or bar along the other edge ; the name being 
given from the appearance of a section of the 
beam showing a cross piece at one end and a 
rounded expansion at the other. 

Camber Beam. A beam to which has been 
given a slight camber or upward crowning in the 

257 


level above the wall plate or foot of the truss ; 
as, for example, in buildings whose upper story 
extends into the roof, the ceiling being carried 
by the collar beam. The collar beam is thus 
usually a tie taking the place of the more com- 
mon tie beam. It might, however, become a 
strut if the horizontal thrusts of the rafters were 
otherwise overcome as in some forms of truss. 
Common Beam. A beam to which the floor- 
ing is nailed, as distinguished from a binding 
258 


BEAM 


joist or ceiling joist. Common joists in Ameri- 
can practice are 2 to 3 inches thick and 
8 to 12 inches deep, according to the length 
orspan. They are ordinarily set 16 inches on cen- 
tres, or 12 inches for heavy or very strong floors. 

Compound Beam. Same as Built Beam. 
(See subtitle above.) 

Deck Beam. Any beam to support a deck ; 
specifically, same as Bulb Beam. (See sub- 
title above.) 

Dragging Beam; Dragon Beam. (See 
Dragging.) 

Flitch Beam. (See under Flitch.) 

Ground Beam. A. Same as Sleeper. 

B. Same as Ground Plate. 

Hammer Beam. In some kinds of framing, 
especially for steep roofs, a short beam securing 
the foot of the principal rafter to the brace, 
strut, or tie, and in a sense replacing the tie 
beam. The hammer beam is usually horizontal 
and forms part of at least two of the triangles 
of construction, namely, one above connected 
with the principal rafter, and the other below 
and connected with a wall piece. The object 
sought in replacing the tie beam by hammer 
beams is usually interior decorative effect. 

Heading Beam. Same as Header. 

IBeam. A beam whose section approaches 
the form of the capital letter I in the Roman 
alphabet, having a web which connects the 
upper and lower flanges at their centre lines. 
Those of the smaller dimensions are commonly 
called I Bars. (See Iron Construction.) 

Joggle Beam. (See Joggle.) 

Kerfed Beam. (See Kerf.) 

Laced Beam. More often Lattice Beam 
(which see below). 

Laminated Beam. Same as Flitch Beam. 

Lattice Beam. A beam having its top and 


BEAM 


where the local or structural conditions are such _ 


as to make the latter unavailable or insufficient 
for the service. Such beams are built with 
vertical plates called webs with angle bars 
riveted to them on both sides at top and 
bottom, forming flanges, and are further strength- 
ened where necessary by one or more horizontal 
plates of the total width of the flanges at top 
and bottom. When, for greater strength, or to 
provide a width of top flange sufficient to per- 
mit a given wall or other superincumbent weight 
to be conveniently built or imposed thereon, two 
or three of such plate beams are used together, 
they are said to form a box beam or girder. 
Such girders are seldom made of greater span 
than 60 feet or of greater height than 5, 
The various forms of plate beams and girders 
are shown under Iron Construction. 

Sandwich Beam. One made with a Flitch 
Plate. 

Straining Beam. In a truss, a horizontal 
strut above the tie beam or above a line joining 
the feet of the rafters ; especially, in a queen- 
post truss, the strut between the upper ends of 
the two queen-posts. | 

Strut Beam. In a trussed structure, a 


horizontal member acting as a strut; a strain- 


ing beam or a collar beam. 

Summer Beam, Same as Summer. 

T Beam. A beam whose section approaches. 
the form of the capital letter T in the Roman 
alphabet. 

Tie Beam. (See Tie.) 

Top Beam. Same as Collar Beam. (See: 
subtitle above.) | 

Trimmer Beam; Trimming Beam. Same 
as Trimmer. 

Truss Beam; -ed Beam. Any beam built. 
up of members, as a truss. The term is, how- 


TRUSSED BEAM. 


The beam (in the centre) is stiffened by two pairs of struts, secured on either side by scarfing and by bolts; the beam itself acting 
asatie. The whole acts as a simple truss and is a common form of Built Beam. 


bottom flanges connected by diagonal members 
forming a lattice in place of a solid web; form- 
ing, in fact, a simple truss. The term is 
extended to include such members when con- 
structed with what is more specifically known 
as Lacing. 

Plate Beam. A beam or girder built with 
plates of rolled iron. It is used instead of 
standard rolled iron or steel I beams in cases 

259 


ever, usually restricted to mean a simple beam 
which is strengthened by the addition of two or 


more subordinate members as by means of a. 


bent tension rod secured to the two ends of the 
beam and connecting one or more vertical struts. 
beneath its under side. 

Z Beam. A beam whose section is nearly 
that of the letter Z of the Roman alphabet, 
having a web perpendicular to two flanges. 

260 


- BEAM FILLING 


which it connects by their opposite edges. 
ose of the smaller dimensions are commonly 
Be —D.N. B.S. 
_ BEAM FILLING. Masonry built in 
~ tb between the ends of beams where they rest in a 
by, 3 ‘BEARD. The sharp edge of a board. (CSD: 
_ BEARER. Any small subordinate horizon- 
tal member, generally one of a series, to support 
another member or structure, as one of several 
small beams to carry a gutter. 
x BEARING. A. That part ofa lintel, beam, 
‘or similar horizontal weight-carrying member 
hich rests upon a column, pier, or wall, Thus, 
it may be required that a beam of a certain 
_ size, and with a certain span, should have at 
ie each end an 8-inch bearing. 
_ B. The whole length or span of a lintel, 
girder, or similar structure between the two 
points of support, that is the whole distance 
_ between the two bearings, in sense A. 
- Of these two meanings, the second is the one 


.e word Span is used for the distance between 
the two points. — R. S. 

_ BEARING (adj.). Supporting, sustaining. 
Said ey of a wall or partition as distin- 


es a BEARING PLATES. 48 pin-connected 
_ framing, reénforcing plates riveted to the web 
of a beam or a chord at a joint, to thicken the 
_ web and give greater bearing surface to the pin 
which connects the post or brace to the beam 
or chord. — W. R. H. 

'  BEAUCH. (See Texier, Jean le.) 

_ BEAUCHAMP, RICHARD; bishop and 
architect ; d. 1481. 

ae). Beauchamp, Bishop of Hereford, and after- 
ward of Salisbury, England, was made master 
and supervisor of the works of 8. George’s 
Chapel, Windsor. The designs for this build- 
ing were probably made by him, or under his 
direction. After his death, Sir Reginald Bray 
_ (see Bray, Sir R.) succeeded to this office. 
Beauchamp built the great hall of his episcopal 
palace, and a handsome chapel at Salisbury 
Cathedral to contain his monument. 


Britton, Architectural Antiquities ; 
Cathedral Antiquities. 


BEAUFILS, JACQUES; architect (macon); 
b. 1487. 

In 1505 he was associated with Pellevoisin 
(see Pellevoisin) in the superintendence of the 
construction of the cathedral of Bourges, France. 


Lance, Dictionnaire ; 

BEAUJEU, JACQUES DE; architect. 

He was maitre d’euvre (architect) of the 
cathedral of Lyons, France. In 1389 he built 
261 


Britton, 


Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 


se — 
(ee 


v4 


BEAZLEY 
the portal of the Pont du Rhéne at Lyons. 
Feb. 24, 1392, he contracted to build the 
great rose window of the facade of the cathedral. 

Begule-Guigue, Monographie de la cathédrale de 
Lyon; Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 

BEAUJEU, JEAN DE; architect ; d. 1568. 

In 1547 Beaujeu succeeded Méric Boldoytre 
as architect of the cathedral of Auch (Gers 
France). He designed and built the western 
part of the church, especially the three main 
portals with the lower story of the porch. This 
work bears his signature, with the dates 1560 
and 1567. 

Caneto, Sainte-Marie d’ Auch ; Lance, Diction- 
naire. 


BEAUNEVEU 


(BEAUNEPVED), 
ANDRE; sculptor, 


painter, and architect ; 


d. before 1413. 


Called Faiseur des Thombes, or tomb builder. 
A contemporary of Claux Sluter (see Sluter), 
and one of the greatest sculptors of the four- 
teenth century in France. He was formerly 
known only in a passage of Froissart’s Chronicle 
describing painting and sculpture done by him 
about 1390 for the chateau of the Duc de 
Berry (b. 1340; d. 1416) at Mehun-sur-Yévre. 
He is mentioned in the records as André de 
Valenciennes. Oct. 24, 1364, he was attached 
to the court of the king, Charles V. 

Beauneveu directed the construction of the 
tombs of the kings Philippe VI. (d. 1350) and 
Jean II. (d. 1364) and that of Charles V. 
(d. 1380) himself, and his queen, Jeanne de 
Bourbon. These~- monuments have been de- 
stroyed, but much of the sculpture still remains 
at the church of 8. Denis. It is remarkable 
for extreme realism and vigour of execution. 
The fine statue of Philippe VI. at the Louvre 
is probably by Beauneveu. 

Gonse, Sculpture francaise ; Deshaisnes, His- 
toire de Vart dans la Flandre; Delisle, Cabinet 
des manuscrits; Champeaux, Dictionnaire des 
fondeurs; Paul Leprieur, Beauneveu in La 
Grande Encyclopédie. 

BEAUSSE. (See Texier, Jean le.) 

BEHAZLEY, SAMUEL ; architect 
dramatist; b. 1786; d. Oct. 12, [851. 

Samuel Beazley was a nephew of Charles 
Beazley, also an architect of note. In 1816 he 
rebuilt the Royal Lyceum Theatre, London. 
This building was destroyed by fire, and again 
rebuilt by him in 1831-1838. He remodelled 
Drury Lane Theatre, London, in 1822, and 
added the portico in 1831. Before Aug. 14, 
1820, he rebuilt the Theatre Royal, Birming- 
ham, retaining the facade designed by George 
Saunders in 1780. Beazley designed the Theatre 
Royal, Dublin, in 1821, the facade of the 
Adelphi Theatre, London, in 1841, the Soho 
Theatre, London, in 1834, the 8. James Theatre, 
London, in 1836-1837, a theatre in Brazil, and 
another in Belgium. He made additions to 

262 


and 


BEC 


the University of Bonn, Germany. 
successful dramatist and author. 

Obituary in Builder, Vol. IX. (1851), p. 694; 
Britton and Pugin, Jllustrations of London. 

BEC, BERNARD DU. (See Bernard du 
Bee. 

She sates (MECCHERINO), DO- 
MENICO ; painter, mosaicist, engraver, and 
sculptor ; b. about 1486; d. 1551. 

A painter of the Umbrian school, he was 
influenced especially by Raphael (see Santi, R.), 
Michelangelo (see Buonarroti), and Il Sodoma. 
He is best known by his superb compositions in 
the pavement of the cathedral of Siena, the 
cartoons for which are now in the academy of 
Siena, and certain studies at the “cole des 
Beaux Arts in Paris. This great pavement, 
covering the entire floor of the cathedral of 
Siena, was begun about 1369, and was finished 
(by Beccafumi) in 1531. Among the many 
artists employed upon it, Paolo di Martino made 
the Moses (1426), Pietro di Minella the History 
of Absalom (1477), Benvenuto di Giovanni the 
Sacrifice of Jephthah (1485), and Antonio 
Federighi (see Federighi) four important com- 
positions. 

Miintz, Renaissance; Vasari, Milanesi ed. ; 
Waring, The Arts Connected with Architecture ; 
Sidney Colvin, The History of a Pavement; Di- 
dron Ainé, Le dallage de la cathédrale de Sienne. 

BECERRA, GASPAR ; architect, sculptor, 
and painter; b. (at Baeza, Spain) 1520; 
d. 1570. 

Becerra spent a large part of his life in Rome, 
and assisted Vasari at the Cancelleria and else- 
where. He devoted himself to anatomy and 
the study of the works of Michelangelo and 
Raphael. Sometime after 1556 he returned to 
Spain, and was employed at Zaragoza and 
Valladolid. From Valladolid he was invited 
by Philip II. to Madrid, and decorated the 
Alcazar and the palace of the Pardo in that 
city. These decorations have been destroyed, 
and only a few of his pictures remain in the 
Museums. In 1569 he received a commission 
to design and build a tabernacle for the cathe- 
dral of Astorga (Leon, Spain). In 1563 he 
was appointed painter to the court. 

Carl Justi, Diego Velasquez ; Stirling-Maxwell, 
Artists of Spain ; Bermudez, Diccionario historico. 

BECHERER, FRIEDRICH; architect ; 
b. 1747; d. 1823. 

Becherer came to Potsdam, near Berlin, 
Prussia, as a boy, and was associated with 
Biring, Hildebrand, Manger, and Gontard (see 
Gontard) in the work of that place. In 1767 
he went to Berlin and built the colonnade of the 
Konigsbriicke from designs by Gontard. His 
most important independent work is the Alte 
Borse in Berlin. 

Nicolai, Beschreibung der Koniglichen Resi- 


denzstadte Berlin und Potsdam; Allgemeine 
Deutsche Biographie. 


263 


He was a 


BED PLACE 


BECQUET, ROBERT ; architect ; d. 1554. 


The old wooden spire of the cathedral of 


Rouen was burned in 1514. A new one was — 
begun soon after by Martin Desperroys, maitre — 


charpentier of the cathedral. The work was 
long delayed, and at the death of Desperroys 
was assumed by his assistant, Robert Becquet. 
He was directed to present a new plan (“‘powr- 
traict”). The spire was completed in 1544. 
This splendid spire of wood upon a stone base 
was destroyed by lightning Sept. 15, 1822. 
It has been replaced by an iron structure de- 
signed by J. A. Alavoine (see Alavoine). Bec- 
quet executed the carpentry of the choir of the 
cathedral. 
1545 won the prize of the ‘‘ Rose” on the Con- 
cours des Palinods. 


Deville, Les architects de la cathédrale de 


Rouen; Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 


BED. A. The prepared soil or layer of 
cement or mortar on, or in, which a piece of 
material is laid, especially in masonry. 

B. That face, more or less horizontal, of a 
stone, brick, or the like, which is in contact 
with a bed in the sense A, or prepared for that 
purpose, whether beneath or on top. Such 


faces are known respectively as the upper and — 


lower bed. By extension, and where no mortar 
is used, the upper or under flat surface of a 
stone prepared for building. Also the under 


surface of a shingle, tile, or similar piece of — 


roofing material. 

Natural Bed; Quarry Bed. That face of 
a building stone which is approximately parallel 
with the strata or veins ; the face or bed which 
is more or less readily formed when stone is 
shaped by splitting at the quarry. It is gener- 
ally considered best, in masonry, to lay a stone 
on the quarry bed. 

BED (v.). A. To give a bed to, as a 
stone. 

B. To lay or set on a bed, as when a stone 
is said to be ‘well bedded,” 7.e. fixed solidly 
upon the substructure. 

BEDCHAMBER. Same as Bedroom. 

BEDEHOUSE. An almshouse where the 
prayers of the inmates were expected for the 
soul of the benefactor. 

BEDFORD STONE. Bedford Odlite; a 
light-coloured odlitic limestone from Lawrence 
County, Indiana. One of the best of American 
limestones for general structural purposes. 

—G. P. M. 

BED PLACE. Thespace, when permanent, 

reserved for a bed, including all its fittings. 


The term “standing bed place” is often applied — 


to a bunk on shipboard. In old houses, espe- 

cially in the rural districts of Germany, of Scot- 

land, and of other Northern countries of Europe, 

the bed place is an enclosed box with sliding or 

swinging door, or doors, forming a permanent 

fixture, generally built like a cabinet, of hard 
264 


He was a poet of ability, and in 


eee re ee 


SS 


sn 
il i oa sy 


i . 
ny 


BEDROOM 


ill 
=| SS 


‘ 


ld 


ri 


carean (f i 


Brep PLACES: PERMANENT; IN RICH PEASANT’S HousE, MODERN FRANCE. 


wood, and, in the better houses, made somewhat 
decorative. 

BEDROOM. A sleeping room; a chamber 
designed to accommodate one or more beds and 


‘the necessary accompanying furniture. 
| The bedroom of antiquity is not fully under- 


stood, because the cubiculum of the Roman 
house, without windows, small, and evidently a 
mere sleeping closet, can hardly be supposed 
the sleeping room of a Roman patrician of the 
earlier time, and still less of a Roman noble of 
the Empire, or of the emperor himself and his 
great ministers. A bed or couch occupied by 


_two persons can hardly be conceived of as placed 


in one of those cubicula. Luxury and splendour 
would have followed the Roman prince into his 
sleeping apartment as well as into his dining 
room ; nor are there wanting passages in Mar- 
tial and other writers which indicate the general 
truthfulness of this assumption. The bedrooms 
of the Greeks are even less understood, and it 


_ cannot be said that we know anything of the 


sleeping arrangements of the Asiatic and Egyp- 
tian of early time. In the early Middle Ages, 
the extreme rudeness of manners allowed of the 
sleeping of nearly all the members of a great 
household on the floor of a hall with such 
arrangement of straw and rushes as might be 
convenient, or in barns, outhouses, and the like ; 
much as at the present day the negroes con- 
nected with a West Indian dwelling will sleep 
in the corridors and verandas, and can hardly 
be said to have bedrooms at all. The Bower 
and Solar were the means of giving some privacy 
to the family of the lord; and this single private 
room would be bedroom for two or even for 
265 


more persons, and often the only sitting room 
which was separate from the general gathering 
place shared with servants and retainers. In a 
medizval castle or town house we are not to 
look for separate bedrooms appropriated to 
others than the principal members of a family — 
at least, until the fifteenth century was well 
advanced. At about the beginning of the 
sixteenth century, the hall became less exclu- 
sively the place of gathering, and separate rooms 
were built often above the hall, which was then 
no longer a separate structure with open timber 
roof or vaulted. 

The use of the bedroom as sitting room has 
left its mark upon the bedroom of the Continent 
of Europe, which is very commonly built with 
an alcove to contain the bed, which, with the 
necessary toilet apparatus, is thus separated 
and concealed during the day. The bedroom 
treated, as is common in England and America, 
as a room requiring especial care in its lighting, 
ventilating, and disposition, is very modern 
indeed, and the English dispositions have been 
largely copied on the Continent of Europe during 
the last half century. 

A properly planned bedroom should have the 
doorway of entrance so placed and the door so 
hung that the bed itself shall not be immedi- 
ately visible to a person entering the room. 
The placing of the windows, the fireplace, and 
the doors to closets or adjoining rooms will be 
a matter of choice with the occupant ; but if 
the bedroom is to serve also for the dressing 
room for at least one person, the case is still 
more complicated, and the placing of the windows 
has much to do with the placing and proper 

266 


ee o>? “ 


ee OA, Oe en a ergs 


7 
sa = eal Ce Lie eg ly Nie La 
‘. WAP ae ee oe eae 


BEDSTEAD 


lighting of the dressing table. In all these 
respects the bedroom with alcove has peculiar 
advantages, such as the frequent introduction 
of a vestibule corresponding with the depth of 
the alcove and allowing the entrance door to be 
in a place which, least of all, commands a view 
of the bed. No general rule can be given for 
the planning of bedrooms of any form or size ; 
the room which seems ideally good to one person 


BrEe¥FFROI: Mons, BELGIumM. 


has been found to be positively disliked by 
others of equal good taste and perceptions. 

BEDSTEAD. The wooden or metal frame 
serving to support a bed and raise it above the 
floor, as to escape from draughts or the invasion 
of noxious animals. In modern usage, the bed- 
stead is generally movable. (For a standing or 
permanent bedstead, see Bed Place; Berth ; 
Box Bed ; Bunk.) 

267 


a 
pe 
5 


(Compare Alveated.) 
BEER CELLAR. 
storage of beer. 


B. A drinking place (Bier Stube or Kneipe), 
usually partly underground and intended pri- 


BEEHIVE (n. used attributively). xe) nica Nat 
with curved sides, having a shape such as that 
ee 
a - 


of the tomb known as the Treasury of Atreus. — 
. i: 
A, A cellar for the 


+ a 


‘aay 
me 


J 


marily for the sale and the drinking of beer. 


The idea is made attractive by association with 
the numerous Rathskellers of Germany (see 


Rathskeller). 
BEFFROI., 
supporting a heavy bell. Hence, — 


B. In Franee and neighbouring countries, a ; 


A. In French, a framework for a 


communal or civil bell tower as distinguished — . 
from the clocher or steeple of a church. The 


beffrois, which first appear at the close of the 
twelfth century in France, are in some cases 
isolated, in others attached to the town hall. 
Those of the manufacturing towns of Belgium 
are particularly interesting. The name is 
applied also to a movable tower of wood used 
in sieges. (Compare Belfry ; Bell Tower ; Town 


Hall, under Hall.) i 


BEHAIM (or BEHAM); mason (Stein- 
metz); d. Aug. 27, 1538. 


Hans Behaim built the Kornhaus at Nirn- — a 


berg and the portal of the old Rathhaus. His 

son, Hans the Younger, succeeded him. 

‘ Neudorfer, Kiinstler und Werkleute von Niirn- 
erg. 

BELFRY. A. Originally, a tower, used in 
besieging a fortified place, of wood and movable. 
The term connected with beffroi, the French 
word of the same meaning, has no reference to 
bell. Later, a shelter for cattle, a watch tower, 
and the like ; obsolete in all these senses. . The 
form ‘‘ belfraye” appears as early as the fifteenth 
century, though even then there is no reference 
to the use of bells. : ) 

B. In modern use, a structure arranged for 
carrying large bells, and allowing of their proper 
service, in different applications, viz. : — 

(1) A Bell Tower. (2) That chamber in a 
bell tower where the bells are placed, the Bell 
Chamber. (3) A Bell Cage. (4) The place 
occupied by the bell ringers. This is sometimes 
far below the bells, and in some churches !is on 
the floor of the tower, level with the floor of the 
church itself. Holes in the vault above the 
porch may yet be seen in many churches, through 
which holes the bell ropes came down and were 
coiled and hung up on hooks in the walls when 
not in use. 


Bells may be either struck by hammeronthe _ 


outside of the soundbow or part where the metal 


is thickest near the mouth, or by the clapper — 


at nearly the same point, in each case without 

moving the bell; or they may be swung so that 

the clapper strikes on the lower side of the 

soundbow only, or swung still further until the 
268 


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mouth ‘uppermost and the clapper strikes on 
both sides. It is only when bells are “swung” 
that they can properly be said to ring or to be 
rung. The striking of the bell while still by 
hammer or clapper is called chiming; although 
_ here there is confusion between the more regular 


sath 


BELFRY oF CHURCH oF S. CHARLES BORROMEO AT 


ANTWERP, C. 1620 A.D. 


___ and deliberately musical chiming and the tech- 
nical expression here given. When the bell is 
not moved, the condition is nearly that of the 
Carillon. Various ingenious devices have been 

269 


_ BELFRY 
introduced for striking the bells in this way, and 
a great deal of inconvenience and great wear 
and strain upon the tower are saved by this 
means ; but lovers of bell ringing adhere to the 
old practice, and to the belief that bells must be 
swung with their mouths uppermost and in peals 


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BELFRY OF THE CATHOLIC CouRT CHURCH (HOF- 
KIRCHE) AT DRESDEN. 


of six or eight bells, managed by as many ringers 

acting in harmony under a leader, in order to 

give this kind of music its full interest and value. 

For the purpose of swinging bells an apparatus 
270 


BELFRY 


is provided consisting of a “half wheel,” or, in 
modern times, a wheel forming a complete circle, 
which wheel is secured to a “stock” or “head- 
stock” at its axle, and consisting of a very solid 
short beam of wood supporting the bell and 
moving with the wheel. The bell is cast with 
what are called canons at the top, which canons 
form a kind of staple and allow of holding the 
bells by screw bolts closely to the stock. In 
some modern bells a mushroom-shaped button 


aot 


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BELGIUM 


of the wheel’s axis. 
in this way of very heavy bells is extremely 
difficult ; and the swinging of bells, even of ten 
hundred weight, requires very carefully adjusted 
apparatus kept in perfect order. 

(See Bibliographies of Church ; Tower ; Gothic 
Architecture; and the Geographical terms.) 

—R. $8. 

BELFRY CHAMBER. Same as Belfry, 
B, (3). 
eee GABLE ; BELFRY TOWER. 
Same as Bell Gable; Bell Tower. . 

BELFRY TURRET. A. Same as Bell 
Turret. 

B. A turret leading to a belfry, as by 
means of a winding stair within the turret, 
and having often a separate door opening 
from the churchyard or the like. 

BELGIUM, ARCHITECTURE OF. 
That of the modern kingdom, established in 
1831 and including the ancient countships, 
bishoprics, etc., of Hainault, Namur, Bra- 
bant, Limburg, Hennegau, with the north- 
ern half of Flanders and the western half 
of Luxemburg. . 7 

The most important buildings of Belgium 
can be seen by following a route zigzagging 
irregularly across the country, taking the: 
various cities in an order beginning with 
Antwerp on the north, and then successively 
through Mechlin, Louvain, Brussels, Alost, 
Audenarde, Ghent, Bruges, Ypres, Cour- 
tray, Tournay, Mons, Namur, Huy, and 
Liege. This embraces all of the architectu- 
ral interest of the kingdom, with the excep- 
tion of a few small examples which are in 
the suburbs of some of the larger cities. 

The architecture of Belgium is essentially 
Germanic in spirit, the style of detail, the 
disposition and the character of buildings 
of all the periods showimg the Teutonic 
origin of the people; though much of the 


In either case, the handling 


medizeval work is inspired directly from 
France, while the Renaissance reflects the 


aepioreen 
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WW 

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le 

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Re = PEI 


BELFRY: INTERIOR OF WEST TOWER OF CHURCH AT 


BERNIERES, NEAR CAEN (CALVADOS). 


The bell ropes pass through holes in the vaulting to the church floor. 


has been substituted. The rope is secured to 
one spoke or brace of the wheel and follows its 
grooved circumference for perhaps one quarter 
of the circle ; it then falls through the floor of 
the bell chamber to the belfry in sense, B, (4). 
The pull of the rope turns the wheel, revolves 
the stock upon the pivot of the axle, and lifts 
the mouth of the bell. - It is held by many 
antiquaries that the medizeval half wheel was 
better than the modern wheel, because the bell 
need never be swung above the horizontal line 
271 


oe rr tl f | 


influence of the Spanish domination and the 
modern buildings are almost wholly French 
by derivation. The most characteristic. 
phase of the national architecture is that 
afforded by its civic buildings, which are in 
many respects unrivalled anywhere in the 
world. 
The earlier work is found mostly in the east 
and south towards the Rhenish provinces. At 
Soignies, twenty-two miles southwest of Brussels, 
is the church of 8. Vincent, the oldest religious 
edifice existing in the country, dating from 965, 
and still retaining the complete features of a 
tenth century church. At Liege there are ex- 
amples of Romanesque and early Gothic afforded 
by the churches of S. Croix, 8. Barthelemy, S. 
Jean, and by the west front of 8. Jacques. 
These churches show the peculiar arrangement. 
272 


“ 
a 


PLATE: Vit 


BELGIUM, ARCHITECTURE OF 


ders, and other potentates are in the uppermost 
row, and in the lowermost row are the townsmen : 
the second tier of niches is filled with persons 
celebrated in the history of the country, warriors 


Town Hall of Louvain ; built between 1450 and 
1465. The designer was Matthew of Layens. 
The building was restored early in the present 
century, but has suffered less in its general char- 
acter than have many of the Gothic buildings of 
Belgium. The arrangement of the statues is curi- 
ous, for the Dukes of Burgundy, Counts of Flan- 


and statesmen. The corbels which support these 
statues are filled with very elaborate sculpture, 


+ 


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:, 


in its external architecture. 


BELGIUM 


of the Rhenish Romanesque in which the west 
front becomes a mere frontispiece marked with 
two towers, without a central doorway, the main 
entrance being on the side. At Villers, twenty- 
five miles south of Louvain, not far from the 
site of the battle of Waterloo, are the imposing 
ruins of a Romanesge abbey church dating from 
the early part of the thirteenth century. 

One of the early and very interesting build- 
ings is the Chapelle du Saint Sang (Chapel 
of the Holy Blood), adjoining the town hall at 
Bruges, a two-storied structure dating from 1150 
and showing a curious mixture of Oriental traces 
The church of 
Notre Dame in the same city, dating in its 
present form from about the thirteenth century, 
has an interesting late Gothic north portal, 
giving access to the baptistery; and the 
cathedral of Bruges, dedicated to 8S. Sauveur, 
is an early Gothic brick structure, the oldest 
example of medieval Flemish brickwork, with a 


nicely proportioned interior and a curious west 


tower, the lower part of which dates of the 
twelfth century, the upper portion being a 
nineteenth century addition. 

The most notable example of the early work 


is afforded by the cathedral of Tournay, a very 


complete structure and of special interest in that 
it offers a complete epitome of the development 
of the Flemish Romanesque and Gothic styles. 


| The nave, dating from 1066, is bold, round- 
arched Romanesque in style, with a double row 
of pier arches, slightly horseshoe in shape, a 


species of triforium and a clerestory. The 
carved capitals of the nave, two hundred or 
more, are remarkable for their beauty and 
variety. The original vaulting covers the side 
aisles, the present vaulting of the central aisle 
dating from 1777. The transepts are terminated 


by a circular Romanesque apsis treatment, the 


side portals being on one side of the transverse 
axis. The choir dates from 1338, is fully 


developed Gothic in style, and of construction so 


daring and slender that the original columns 
have had to be reénforced. The jubé dates from 
1566. The exterior shows a square pyramidal 
roofed tower rising over the intersection, flanked 
by smaller square towers at the angles of the 
transept, and a modern west front preserving 
only the general lines of the Romanesque work. 
This is by far the best example of Flemish early 
medieval work. 

The cathedral of Liege has a handsome, very 
complete Gothic choir dating from 1280, with 
nave and additions of the early Renaissance 
period, 1528. There is also a very interesting 
Gothic church at Tongres, ten miles north of 
Liege, dating from 1240. The Romanesque 
cloisters of this church are worthy of note. At 
Lierre, a small town nine miles southeast from 
Antwerp, is the church of 8. Gommaire, dating 
from 1445. The church of S. Martin, at Ypres, 

273 


BELGIUM 


built about 1220, has been cited as one of the 
purest examples of thirteenth century Flemish 
Gothic, showing strong French influence. It 
has a large single tower on the west front over 
the portal, and an exterior treatment of flying 
buttresses on the sides, which is rare in Belgium. 
An extremely interesting church of the Gothic 
period is the cathedral of 8. Rombaut, at 
Mechlin, the greater part of which dates from 
the fourteenth century, with choir of the fifteenth 
century and a huge west tower of the same 
period, carried to a height of 324 feet. An- 
other noteworthy church is 8. Pierre, at Lou- 
vain, dating from 1425, which is quite similar 
to 8S. Rombaut. 

In Brussels there are only a few medizval 
structures of any special note. Notre Dame de 
la Chapelle dates from the early part of the 
thirteenth century, the nave and west towers 
having been completed in 1483. The high 
altar, in a characteristic Rococo style, was ex- 
ecuted from a design by Rubens. The church 
of Notre Dame des Victoires, dating from 1304, 
has been lately carefully restored. The only 
Gothic church in Brussels of any merit, however, 
is 8. Gudule, the cathedral, an imposing struc- 
ture begun in 1220 on the site of an earlier 
Romanesque chapel, traces of which remain in 
the choir. In a purely artistic sense the greatest 
treasure of the church is its stained glass, of an 
early Renaissance character, the best of which 
was painted by Bernard van Orley. 

At Ghent there are three interesting examples 
of medizeval architecture. S. Jacques is said 
to have been founded in 1100, but the only 
early portion of the building remaining is pos- 
sibly the towers, the remainder of the present 
edifice dating from a later period. The church 
of 8S. Michel is a Gothic structure of the early 
part of the fifteenth century, which has a strik- 
ing exterior. The church of S. Nicholas is the 
oldest in Ghent, was founded in the tenth cen- 
tury, and is Romanesque in mass though it has 
been altered to such an extent in detail that it 
has lost its original character. ‘There is an 


‘interesting treatment of the west front compris- 


ing a high gable almost entirely occupied by a 
broad window and flanked by two turrets ; and 
over the intersection there is a tall, square 
tower of a type which suggests some of the 
Norman work, crowned by a pyramidal roof. 
This edifice in some respects is one of the most 
interesting of its kind, though less often com- 
mented upon than the cathedral church of 
S. Bavon in the same city, a building which 
could be perhaps considered as most truly the 
type of the Belgian Gothic. The west front is 
almost entirely occupied by an enormous tower, 
wider than the central aisle of the nave, carried 
up with square buttresses below, merging into 
corner turrets about the central octagon upon 
which the evident intention was to build a tall 
274 


so 
~ 
N 


VIEW OF SOUTH TRANSEPT. 


FESS 


CATHEDRAL OF TOURNAY. 


276 


BELGIUM 


4 aoe ie 
pees BELGIUM 
spire. 
__-well-proportioned nave, but more particularly 
a for the treasures of the early Flemish school of 
painters, especially the paintings in the choir by 

the brothers Van Eyck. 

The style of the 8. Bavon tower was devel- 
oped in the Antwerp cathedral into a richness 
of design which marks one of the most interest- 
ing buildings in Europe. The main structure 
dates from 1352 to 1411, while the choir and 
zi the lower part of the rare were not completed 
until 1449, and the upper part of the north 
tower dates from the early part of the sixteenth 
century. In plan, the nave is seven-aisled, and 
the proportions are very impressive. It is 
undoubtedly the most dignified design as a 

whole that Belgian architecture ever produced. 
The west front includes two towers of which 
a. one is completed, enclosing an elaborate 
portal and rose window. The completed tower 
is often compared in its delicacy of design to 
lace work, a simile which only indefinitely 
‘expresses the beautiful character of the work. 
In style it is very late Gothic with all the 
~ Flamboyant qualities which mark the Flemish 
work ; but coming as this rich work does at 
the top of the tower it seems to grow naturally 
- out of the relatively simple base. 
The late Gothic church of 8. Jacques, at 
_ Antwerp, dating from 1491, is the principal 
~ ehureh in Antwerp after the cathedral. 
ae There remain of the medieval period a num- 
i ber of lesser churches, all of which, however, 
are worthy of study. S. Waudru, at Mons, 
dating from 1450, is a late Gothic structure, 
the exterior of which i is only partially completed, 
_ with a very bold interior construction. At 
Louvain, the church of 8. Gertrude is a Flam- 

_boyant structure containing some elaborate choir 

stalls, considered the most notable of their kind 

in the country. At Tournay, the twelfth cen- 
tury church of S. Brice and the church of 
 §. Quentin are both worthy of a visit. And 
then of lesser value are the churches of Notre 
Dame at Ypres, S. Martin at Hal, and 8. Loup 
at Namur. 

The Cloth Hall at Ypres, built about 1200, 
was the largest civic building erected in Europe 
during the thirteenth century, being over 400 
feet long, of noble, striking proportion, the 
centre marked by a majestically designed tower. 
In its simple, dignified design, its size, and the 
purity of its detail it is probably the most suc- 
cessful building of its kind in Europe. The 
secular architecture of Belgium was, however, 
at its best during a later Gothic period, when 
the power of the Communes was at its height. 
The town hall of Bruges, built in 1376, is of 
se: relatively simple and quiet design, with very 
ain choice details, and is, perhaps, the purest exam- 
} ple of Flemish civic architecture, though less 
interesting in mass and composition than the 
277 


at: a 
ae 


_ The interior is interesting for its simple, 


BELGIUM 


Brussels town hall, dating from 1401, which is 
marked at the centre by a very elaborate tower 
and a spire ranking in design with the north 
tower of Antwerp cathedral. The town hall of 
Louvain, erected in 1448-1463, is one of the 
most elaborately decorated pieces of Gothic archi- 
tecture in existence, and is repeated on a similar 
scale with slight variations in the town hall at 
Audenarde. The town hall at Alost is a very 
picturesque treatment of the same problem ; and 
that at Ghent is an elaborate structure on a 
smaller scale in a later A toveD style dating 
from 1481. 

Nearly all the Belgian aie have their bel- 
fries and markets, many of which offer points 
of interest. The belfry at Bruges, erected at 
the end of the fourteenth century, is the best 
known and one of the most successful, consist- 
ing of an enormous tower attached to the mar- 
kets, rising to a height of considerably over 
300 feet. The belfry at Ghent, dating in 
part from the fourteenth century, is also of con- 
siderable interest, a rectangular tower crowned 
by a polygonal belfry in two stories. The 
thirteenth century bell tower at Tournay is very 
picturesque, and there are belfries of lesser 
architectural value at Mons, Courtray, Louvain, 
and Mechlin. 

Of the Renaissance work there is not a great 
deal in Belgium. The Hotel des Biscayas at 
Bruges, dating from 1495, is the earliest exam- 
ple. The bishop’s palace at Liege, dating from 
1508, is a structure often cited, a bastard early 
Renaissance design, in detail picturesque rather 
than architectural. The Palais de Justice of 
Bruges has a remarkable Renaissance chimney- 
piece dating from 1529, and in the same city, 
the Ancien Greffe or Court of Record is an in- 
teresting Renaissance edifice of 1534, recently 
restored. The modern Exchange at Antwerp is 
assumed to be in the same style as its prede- 
cessor, which was erected in 1531 and burned 
down during the present century, the only 
change having been made in the dimensions. 
The Antwerp town hall is an early Renaissance 
structure dating from 1554, the only one of the 
notable Flemish town halls which departs from 
the Flamboyant Gothic style. The Plantin 
Moretus mansion at Antwerp dates from the 
sixteenth century and is now used as a museum, 
preserved in many respects as it was when 
serving as a habitation. About the town hall 
at Antwerp are a number of guild houses 
dating from the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- 
turies, and all in excellent preservation. Simi- 
larly, there is a row of exceedingly interesting 
houses adjoining the town hall at Brussels. At 
Mechlin the Hotel du Grand Saumon is worth 
a visit. The late Flemish Renaissance and 
Rococo buildings of merit are few. The church 
of S. Charles Borromeo at Antwerp, built in 
1620, cited as the handsomest Jesuit church in 

278 


@ 


BELGIUM 


Europe, has an interesting tower ; and the west 
front of the church of S. Michel at Louvain 
presents a most typical Jesuit design, dating 
from 1650. ‘The late Renaissance and Rococo 
work is, however, chiefly exemplified in portions 


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BELGIUM: CHURCH oF S. MicHEL, Louvain, BELGIUM, 
1650-1660 A.D. 


of, or additions to, earlier work. Several of the 

churches have some most elaborate Rococo 

interior details, such as the high altar of 8. Rom- 

baut, Mechlin, and the jubés of 8. Waudru at 

Mons, and of Tournay cathedral. The Renais- 

sance organ fronts also deserve study, notably 
279 


aa 


BELL 


those of 8. Michel, Louvain, 8S. Jacques, Liége, 
and Notre Dame du Sablon, Brussels. 
The nineteenth century work 6f Belgium com- 
pares favourably in many respects with that of 
other European countries. 


The most notable 
building is the Palais de Justice at 
Brussels, begun in 1866, and one 
of the largest architectural works of 
the present century. In dignity of 
composition and masterly handling 
of mass it is perhaps the most strik- 
ing modern building of Europe. Also 
in Brussels is the Column of the 
Constitution, by the architect who 
designed the Palais de Justice, the 
Hotel de la Banque, the Palais des 
Beaux Arts, and the Bourse, all of 
them in the modern French taste 
which seems to have found most 
favour in Belgium. There is a group 
of very interesting houses on the 
Boulevard du Nord, built as a result 
of a competition instituted by the 
municipality for the twenty best 
facades. Building No. 1 received 
the first prize. 

There is a small history of the 
architecture of Belgium, published 
forty years ago, and too often quoted 
as if of authority. Otherwise, the 
subject is treated only in connection 
with larger fields of inquiry. 


Van Ysendyck’s great collection of 
plates (Documents Classés de UV’ art dans 
les Pays bas) contains a vast amount 
of material. Rudde, Monuments de 
Bruges, 1824 ; Verschelde, The Ancient 
Domestic Edifices of Bruges, 1875; 
Stappaert’s Belgique Monumentale ; 
Nash, Architecture of the Middle Ages, 
1838 ; and plates and notices in miscel- 
laneous works such as King’s Study 
Book of Medieval Architecture and 
Art; Gailhabaud, Monuments; Gail- 
habaud, L’ Architecture du V au X VII 
Siécle et les Arts qui en dependent. 


— Cy HS BrACK ATE. 


BELL. A hollow instrument, gen- 
erally of metal, used to produce a 
musical sound when struck by a 
hammer, or the like. The usual 
form is that of an inverted cup, or 
bowl, with a flaring rim. Bells are 
of great antiquity, and were exten- 
sively employed by the ancients, — 
but not in connection with architec- 
ture, — merely as means of call, as 


instruments of music, as trophies, and for per- 
sonal ornaments; the Christians, however, in 
using them in accordance with the requirements 
of their religion, were ultimately led to the in- 
vention of new forms in architecture, viz., the 
Campanile, Bell Tower, Belfry, Bell Turret, 


280 


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a Bell Gable, and Bell Cot (which see). There is 
eo a tradition that church bells were invented by 
Paulinus, Bishop of Nola in Campania, about 
the year 400. They were in use in France as 
early as 550, and Saint Benedict introduced 
them into England in 680. The first church 
bells were made of wrought iron plates, lapping 
one over the other, and riveted at the point of 
juncture ; a bell of this kind, made in the sixth 
century, is now in the church of 8. Cecilia at 
Cologne. It is said that bells were cast in 
copper in the eighth century, but the oldest ex- 
ting example bears the date 1159, and hangs 
in the campanile of the cathedral of Siena. 
Church bells, like all tnstrumenta ecclesiastica, 
are consecrated to their use by a regular form 
of benediction, and in this dedication rite each 
bell receives a name, a custom which, it is said, 
originated with Pope John XIII. (965- —97 2). 
(For the placing and ringing of large bells, see 


= Belfry.) 
—- The celebrated bells of the world : — 


Great Bell, Moscow 198 T., 2 ewt., 1 qrs. 0 lb. 
0 


Second Bell, Moscow _ 80 * Ost O- +s 

_-‘ Third Bell, Moscow Geet cd © 4s 16. 
Great Bell, Peking Dove eee 1 * 20) 66 
Great Bell, Nanking See oh 20) * 

- Bell Notre ‘Dame, Pate oe Os tS 
Sor Mriurt, Erfurt 18 15 “ Oo * 0% 
Big Ben, Westminster eur ete **, 16 S* 
Merrtcaucter, York § 10% 15.“ QO * Qé¢ 


_ The literature of bells is very voluminous ; 
_ the older works on the subject are: Eggers, De 
- Origine et Nomine Campanarum, Jena, 1684; 
_ Chrysander, Hist. Nachricht von Kirchen-Glocken, 
- Rinteln, 1755 ; and the later ones, Gatty, The Bell, 
mts- Origin, History, and Use; Didron, 
Annals Archéol., XV1., 325 ; or. 104 ; 
-and many articles in the Revue de Vart 
Chrétien. There are books on the bells 
of almost every county in England, 
mostly historical, but of very 
little use to the architect; there 
are also a few remarks on the 
subject in Poole’s History of 
Ecclesiastical Architecture in 
England. 


— CaryYL CoLEMAN. 


Electric Bell. (See Electri- 
cal Appliances.) 

BELLANO (VELLANO), 
BARTOLOMMEDO ; architect, 
sculptor, and goldsmith; b. 
about 1437; d. after 1491. 

The principal pupil of Donatello in 
Padua. The monuments of Antonio 
Roselli (d. 1466), and Raffaele Folgoso 
in the church of S. Antonio at Padua 
(il Santo) are attributed to him. His 
will, dated Sept. 7, 1479, states that 
in that year he was sent to Constanti- 
nople with the painter, Gentile Bellini, 
by the Venetian Senate, at the invita- 
tion of the Sultan Mahomet II. In 
1491 he began the monument of Pietro 

281 


BELL CANOPY 


Roccabonella in the church of 8S. Francesco at 
Padua, finished by Andrea Briosco. (See Bri- 
0800. ) 


Bode, Wilhelm, Lo Scultore Bartolommeo Bel- 
lano; Paoletti, Rinascimento in Venezia, Vol. II. 


BELL CAGE. The timber framework which 
supports the bells in a belfry or steeple. It is 
designed with the object of absorbing as much 
as possible of the vibration of the swinging 
bells, so as to transmit to the tower walls a 
minimum of jarring. (See Belfry, B; Bell 
Hanging.) (Cuts, cols. 283, 284, 285.) 

BELL CANOPY. A. Same as Bell Gable. 

B. An open structure with a small roof in- 
tended to carry and shelter a bell, and either 
standing independently, as at the gate of a 


i 
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i 

Te am 
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—— 
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Be._ut CacEe: CHurcnH oF S. JEAN BAPTISTE DE BELLEVILLE. 
282 


BELL CARRIAGE | BELL CRA NK 
churchyard, or resting upon the wall of a | ings are sometimes filled with Tver Board 
church, chapel, or other structure. or Abat-Sons, to exclude the rain without inte 
BELL CARRIAGE. The structure which | rupting the sound. (See Bell Carriage.) } 
carries a bell, or bells, in a belfry ; either the BELL COT; COTE. A small structure to 
whole Bell Cage, or the stock and wheel taken | carry and shelter one or more bells, and carried __ 
together, or the stock alone. The term does | upon brackets projecting from a wall, or built Ne 
not seem to be used with technical accuracy. upon a roof or spire. (Cut, col. 286.) i 


! 


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ri 
intuit 


mn 
n ll I} —— 


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ih / Nh 


BELL CAGE: CHURCH OF S. JEAN BAPTISTE DE BELLEVILLE. 


= 


iw i 


| fl Se er ae 


BELL CHAMBER. That portion of the BELL CRANK. A bent or angular lever 
interior of a belfry, steeple, or campanile, in | for changing the direction of a to-and-fro move- 4 
which the bells are hung. It contains the | ment, so called from its use in changing the — 
bell carriage, and has large openings to permit | direction of bell wires of mechanical door bells 
the wide diffusion of the sound. These open- | or call bells. 
| 283 284 


$a 7 i 


- +BELL GABLE 


% BELL Cace: CHuRcH oF S. JEAN BAPTISTE DE 
Be BELLEVILLE. 


’ 


BELL GABLE. A gable having an open- 
ing in which a bell is hung; in particular, an 
upward prolongation of a portion of a wall above 
the roof, terminating in a small gable, and hav- 
ing one or more openings for bells. 


BELL GABLE: CHURCH OF LITTLE CASTERTON, 
RUTLAND. 


285 


a eee 
\- 


BELL HOUSE 


BELL HANGING. dA. The trade or oper- 
ation of putting in place in a building the bells 
and their appurtenances. Originally, this work 
was confined to such bells as were sounded by 
wires connected with levers or handles pulled 
by the operator, and other simple mechanical 
devices, and the 
trade of placing 
or hanging the 
apparatus was 
one requiring 
considerable 
skill and experi- 
ence, owing to 
the necessity of 
nice and accu- 
rate adjustment 
of the long, 
strained wires 
which transmit- 
ted the power, 
changing direc- 
tion where neces- 


sary by means 
Ge BELL Cote: LITTLE COoxwELL, 
of levers and BERKSHIRE, C. 1200. 


bell cranks. In 
modern times, the trade also includes the placing 
of electric bells, which are, in fact, rapidly tak- 
ing the place of the old appliances. (See Elec- 
trical Appliances. ) 
B. Same as Bell Carriage. — D. N. B. 8S. 
BELL HOUSE. A building, usually tower- 
like, intended for the housing and proper sound- 
ing of a bell, or bells, 1 especially, — 


BELL CoTE AT MITTOIS, NEAR CAEN (CALVADOS). 


The light 13th century gable has been stayed by added masonry 
which is covered and roofed with tiles. 


286 


he 


BELL PULL 


A Round Tower, like those of Ireland, the 
term having been applied to these by modern 
archeologists because of the ancient Celtic term 
having that significance which is used for such 
buildings in early manuscripts. 

BELL PULL. A knob, or handle, and its 
appurtenances, connected with a bell by any 
mechanical contrivance, and by which the bell 
is rung by pulling. 

BELL TOWER. A tower fitted and pre- 
pared for containing one or more large bells, 
and for allowing their sound to be heard prop- 
erly near at hand, and also at a considerable 
distance. Nothing of the kind seems to have 
existed in antiquity. (For the earliest use of 
bells, see Bell.) Towers were erected in con- 
nection with churches ; sometimes for defence 


Sesh 
= 


me 
baa 


§ 


e 


BELL TOWER OF THE SIMPLEST FORM; CHURCH AT 
TIERCEVILLE, NEAR CAEN (CALVADOS), FRANCE. 


The tower has a saddle-back roof. 


(see Tower); sometimes as watch towers, in 
which case the municipality might join with the 
builders of the church in erecting a tower; the 
church itself serving, in early days, many of 
the purposes of a place of popular assembly. In 
any case, the obvious need of raising large bells 
well above the roofs of the church and other 
structures, and the superiority of the tower over 
the Bell Gable, or the like, as a means of sup- 
port, would be obvious. The church towers of 
Italy took from the first, and have always re- 
tained, their character of isolated, or nearly iso- 
lated, plain vertical shafts. (See Campanile.) 
Those of the North were, from the first, more 
commonly designed as inseparable parts of the 
287 


Lee EEN ce Aha eee 


BELL TOWER 


church building. In all, the same conditions 


obtained with regard to the placing of the bells, 
the openings of the bell chamber needing to be 
raised well above the ridges of the neighbouring 
roofs, and the bells placed with their mouths 
well above the sills of those openings. 


AIM 
| ( . o 


| 


iy 


eye 


eee 


BELL TOWER OF OLD CATHEDRAL AT ZARAGOZA, 
SPAIN, C. 1685 a.pD. 


Municipal bell towers existed as early as the 
eleventh century, in Italy, and also in the North. 
They were at first used also as towers of de- 
fence, as in the case of disorders within the 
town. Later, they became ornamental features, 

288 


3 
o 
* > 
. 
» i. 


zs 


» 


eye 


+ 


aoc 


ue 


may 


Sele: 
ae 


BELL TURRET 


usually attached to, or standing near, the Town 
Hall (which see under Hall), and the bell, or 
bells, served for alarms of fire, or of attack, and 
for calling the citizens together on any occasion. 
The chimes of bells, which are so attractive a 
feature in the historic towns of Belgium, were 
generally located in these municipal towers. 
(See Carillon and Chime.) It is noticeable 
that these towers would not have seemed to a 
citizen of Florence, or Brussels, in the fourteenth 
century, essentially bell towers; they have taken 
that association in modern times in consequence 
of the absence from our recent associations of 


any use for a tower apart from that of carrying 


bells. (Compare Beffroi; Belfry.) —R. S. 


Seay / 


mn mi AN 
i en 
\ mrs 


aire 


Hi 

i 
HIT 
Mh 


spend 


StL) 


A 
| 


in = 


BELL TuRRET AT HARESCOMB, GLOUCESTERSHIRE. 


BELL TURRET. A small tower, usually 
topped with a spire or pinnacle, and containing 
one or more bells. 

BELLY. A convex swelling portion of any 


~ surface, member, or piece, as the under side of a 


beam which has sagged ; the rounded portion of 
a vase-shaped baluster. 

BELT COURSE. Same as String Course. 

BELVEDERE. A building commanding or 
supposed to command an interesting view ; but 
the name may be given to the whole of a large 
structure of which a part only is so favoured. 
Two buildings of special importance are known 
by this name: first, that in the Vatican, where 
a square court with the corners taken off, mak- 
ing an irregular octagon, is called the Court of 
the Belvedere, and the loggie and galleries 
which open upon it share in the appellation. 
Several important antique sculptures receive 

289 


BENDING MOMENT 


their common names from the fact of their 
standing in this part of the palace. Second, at 
Vienna, a palace in the immediate neighbourhood 
of the city; built in 1724 by Hildebrand for 
Prince Eugene of Savoy, and for many years 
containing the chief gallery of paintings belong- 
ing to the Austrian crown. These paintings 
have now been moved to the museum built 
upon the new Ringstrasse.— R. 8. 

BEMA. Originally, a raised platform ; 
hence, the sanctuary of a Greek, Byzantine, or 
Armenian church, which is always raised one or 
more steps above the nave. In the Greek 
church the sanctuary is entirely screened from 
sight, leaving only a narrow strip of the plat- 
form visible in front. In the earlier churches 
it was left open, and contained seats for the 
clergy and sometimes for an episcopal throne in 
addition to the altar. 

BENCH. A. A long seat, most often of 
wood, differing from a stool in its greater size 
and importance, and, frequently, in being fixed 
and in having a back and arms. Specifically, 
the seat for persons in some official capacity, 
especially in a court of justice, hence, — 

B. The place occupied by such a bench; the 
room especially prepared for the placing of such 
a bench ; a court of justice. 

C’.. A narrow terrace or shelf in an earthwork 
or the like (see especially its use in Excavation). 

BENCH MARK. A fixed reference mark 
from which heights and levels are reckoned in 
surveying or in laying out grounds and _ build- 
ings. It is usually indicated by a notch or 
mark on a stone or stake firmly set at a given 
point of the plan. 

BENCH TABLE. A projecting benchlike 
course of masonry on the inside of a church, 
near the floor; it corresponds to the Water 
Table on the outside. 

BENCI, ANTONIO DI JACOPO (ANTO- 
NIO DEL POLLAJUOLO); sculptor and 
painter ; b. 1429; d. 1498. 

Known more as a painter and anatomical 
draughtsman of celebrity than as a decorative 
artist ; but there is embossed work of his in the 
baptistery of Florence. 

Bode, Italienische Bildhauer der Renaissance ; 
Miintz, Renaissance ; Perkins, Tuscan Sculptors ; 
Vasari. 

BENCI DI CIONE of Como; architect; 
d. 1388. 

About 1350 Cione built the Capella di 
S. Anna at Or 8. Michele in Florence. He was 
associated with Francesco Talenti (see Talenti, 
F.) at the Duomo, and with Simone Talenti 
(see Talenti, 8.) as capomaestro of the Duomo 
and Loggia dei Lanzi. 

Frey, Loggia det Lanzi; Castelazzi, Or San 
Michele. 

BENDING MOMENT. 
ment.) 


(See under Mo- 


290 


fo = ho eee Ue. Lae A Sia ake ad Ld a a iy 
- ‘ . a by 4 ie a) r} ia a of r. 


BENEDETTO DA MAIANO 


BENEDETTO DA MAIANO; sculptor 
and architect ; b. 1442; d. May 24, 1497. 

A younger brother of Giuliano da Maiano (see 
Giuliano da Maiano) and, according to Perkins, a 
pupil of Luca della Robbia (see Robbia, L. della) 
in sculpture. Benedetto was associated with 
Giuliano in their botega (atelier) in Florence, 
and the architectural portion of the works 
attributed to him probably belongs to Giuliano. 
He made the altar of S. Savino in the cathe- 
dral of Faenza about 1471 (Bode). Before 
1481 he made the marble doorway at the 
Palazzo Vecchio, Florence. His sculpture at 
Loreto, including the fountain of the sanctuary, 
dates from 1484-1487 (Gianuizzi). For Pietro 
Mellini he made the fine pulpit in the church 
of 8. Croce, Florence. About 1488 he appears 
to have visited the court of Matthias Corvinus, 
king of Hungary. Benedetto’s reputation as 
an architect rests mainly upon the assertion of 
Vasari that he designed and built the first story 
of the Palazzo Strozzi in Florence (begun 1489). 
The documents indicate, however, that Giuliano 
da Sangallo was the actual designer of the 
building (see Sangallo, Giuliano da). The 
extremely delicate portico of the church of 
the Madonna delle Grazie at Arezzo is ascribed 
to Benedetto by Vasari. About 1490 he 
made the bust of Antonio Squarcialupi in the 
Florentine cathedral. After the death of 
Giuliano da Maiano in 1490, Benedetto entered 
the service of Alfonso, Duke of Calabria, after- 
wards King Alfonso II., for whom he made, in 
the church of Mont Olivetto, Naples, a retable 
with a bas-relief of the Annunciation and other 
works. The black marble monument of Filippo 
Strozzi in the church of 8. Maria Novella, Flor- 
ence, was made by himabout 1493. Probably after 
this date, he made, at San Gimignano, near Flor- 
ence, the altar of S. Fina in the Duomo, and the 
altar of S. Bartolo at the church of 8. Agostino. 

Miintz, Renaissance, Vol. IL, pp. 400 and 482; 
Vasari, Milanesi ed., Vol. IIL, p. 3833; Bode, Z. 
Bildhauer der Renaissance ; Gianuizzi, Benedetto 
da Maiano (in Archivio Storico dell’ Arte, Vol. 1.). 

BENEDETTO DA ROVEZZANO (GUA- 
RINI or GUALOTTYI) ; architect and sculptor ; 
b. 1478; d. after 1552. 

Benedetto is especially known as an orna- 
mentist. His best preserved work is the fire- 
place of the Palazzo Rosselli del Turco now in 
the Museo Nazionale, Florence. He designed 
the monument of the Gonfaloniere Piero Sode- 
rini in the church of the Carmine, Florence, and 
that of Oddo Altoviti in the church of SS. 
Apostoli, Florence. In 1524 he went to England 
and made for Cardinal Wolsey the sarcophagus 
which was finally used for the tomb of Admiral 
Nelson in 8. Paul’s cathedral, London. 


Hans Stegmann in Geymiiller-Stegmann, Die 
Architektur der Renaissance in Toscana; H. Sem- 
per, Hervorragen de Bildhauerarchitekten der Re- 
naissance. 


291 


We a tay tea! 
Aare ea ads! 
Aa i 2 


Peo ea ee . eel econ 


* ae 3 vis ee 
2 : Seana ae oe SL ‘ a 
ee ; ao 
.. | Lees 


—e 


BENJAMIN Bs 
BENEDIKT (BENESCH); architect; d._ 


1537. z ' 
Benesch, an architect of Laun, Bohemia, 


built for Wladislaw II., king of Bohemia 


(d. 1516), the Residenz on the Hradschin in 
Prague. 


important work, is still in existence. He built 
also the church of S. Barbara at Kuttenberg 
near Laun. SBenesch was essentially a con- 
structor, building on Gothic lines. In the dec- 
oration of his buildings, Renaissance details 
appear. 


Liibke, Geschichte der Renaissance in Deutsch- 
land. 


BENESCH. (See Benedikt.) 

BENEZET (BENOIT), SAINT; architect 
and engineer, ‘patron des ingénieurs.” 

According to the Chronicle of Frére Robert 
d’Auxerre, Benoit came to Avignon in 1177, 
Le disant envoyé de Dieu pour construire un 
pont sur le Rhéne. He collected the neces- 


sary money as alms in various parts of France, _ 
and built the bridge of Avignon on the model — 


of the Pont du Gard, built by Hadrian in the 
second century A.D. near Nimes, France. Of 
his structure only the chapel, in which he is 
buried, and por- | 
tions of the piers Hi Tl 
remain. The | 
rest has been re- ith 
built at different | ! : 
periods. He > il 
founded the 
order of fréres 
pontifs who 
built many med- 
iveval bridges in 
France. 

Massillon- 
Rouvet, Le pont 
d Avignon; De Via( | { WA 
Giradot, Des oe 4 7 iil 
ponts au XIIL Hew D | 
siécle. 

BENITIER. i | 
In French, a holy | Ai 
water basin, usu- 
ally set at the 
entrance to a 
church. The 
bénitier may be supported on a shaft or pedestal, 
or corbelled out from the wall. (Compare Pila ; 
Stoup.) 

BENJAMIN, ASHER ; architect. 

He published Town and Country Builder’s 
Assistant (1797), The Practical House Car- 
penter (4th ed., 1835) and Elements of Archi- 
tecture, books much used by early American 
architects. He built numerous residences in 
western Massachusetts. . 

American Architect, Vol. XLVIL., p. 40. 

292 


BENITIER: CHURCH OF S. MARK, 
VENICE. EARLY CINQUECEN- 
TO WoRK. i 


One wing of this palace with the — 
great vaulted hall, Arénungssaal, his most — 


a mo ob ‘BENOIT 


- BENOIT. (See Bénezet,) 
BENT (n.). In the United States, a part 
of a framed structure consisting of two opposite 
Shocks or nearly upright struts connected by a 
beam or by braces. In former times it was 
Bistruicted on the ground and then raised to 
its position. 

a _BENVENUTO DI GIOVANNI. (See Bec- 
- cafumi, Domenico.) © 

r ve ‘BERAIN, JEAN ; decorator, painter, and 
“Y engraver; b. 1638 or 1639, at Saint Mihiel, 
France; d. Jan. 24, 1711. 

He was probably a pupil of Gissey, whom he 
succeeded in 1674 as dessinateur du cabinet 
ag du rot. He was the chief assistant of Charles 
ee (see Lebrun), and executed under his 

ee direction the decoration of the Galerie d’ Apol- 
lon at the Louvre, and of the chateaux of 
Versailles, Saint Germain, Sceaux, etc. He 
oe also” designed tapestries at the Gobelins. At 
the death of Lebrun, in 1690, Bérain succeeded 
him in much of the decoration of the royal 
palaces. In 1677 he was granted lodgings in 
the Louvre, where he died. As an engraver he 
first appears in the illustration of Diverses 
pieces de serrurerie inventées par Hugues 
-Brisville (see Brisville), Paris, 1663, 4to. 
y) The Cfuvres de J. Bérain content it cles 
 ornements d’architecture was published in 
= a 1711 (Paris, folio). A reprint, 100 planches 
fens principales de Voeuvre complet de Jean Bérain, 
Se been published by Quentin. His brother, 
Claude Bérain, was an engraver of note, and his 
co son Jean Bacdeeded him in his work. 
_ ~——-«~*‘Vailabrégue, ‘Jean Bérain’’ in Revue des Arts, 
Déc., Vol. VI.; Mariette, Abecedario; Genevay, 
— Style Louis XIV; Guilmard, Les Maitres orne- 
mentistes. 
BERCKMANS, FERDINAND ; architect ; 
- b. Aug. 3, 1808. 
%) In 1834 Berckmans was appointed architect 
of the province of Antwerp, Belgium, and in 
_. 1841 professor at the Académie in that city. 

In 1838 he made a tour through the principal 
countries of Kurope. Berckmans designed vari- 
ous monuments, and built the Gemeenehuis in 
the Gothic style at Duffel, Belgium. 

Immerzeel, Hollandsche en Vilaamsche Kuns- 
tenaars. _ 

BEREH, RICHARD ; 
d. Jan. 20, 1584. 

Bere was installed as Abbot of Glastonbury, 
Somerset, England, in 1493. He built King 
Edgar’s chapel at the eastern end of the church 
of that abbey, which was finished by Abbot 
Whiting. Bere strengthened with arches both 
sides of the east end of the abbey, which was 
beginning to “cast out.” In 1503 he was sent 
on an embassy to Rome, and on his return built 
a chapel to Our Lady of Loretto on the north 
ba side of the abbey church. He built also the 
te, Chapel of the Sepulchre in the south aisle, in 
293 


abbot and architect ; 


he aw 
el ‘ fi 
‘ : 


Pie ts 5h 3 


: 2 tah ie 
BERNARDO DI LORENZO 


which he was buried. His initials and cogni- 
zance, a cross between two beer mugs, may be 
seen in 8. Benedict’s church in Glastonbury. 

Leland, Itinerary; Willis, Architectural His- 
tory of Glastonbury Cathedral; Leslie Stephen, 
Dictionary of National Biography. 

BEREA GRIT. Berea sandstone; a fine- 
grained, light-coloured sandstone from the Berea 
grit (Waverly) formations in Ohio, Much used 
for building. —G. P. M 

BERHAM, HELYAS DE. 
Derham.) 

BERNABEI. (See Domenico da Cortona.) 

BERNARD DE SOISSONS; § architect ; 
d. about 1382. 

The name of Bernard de Soissons was in- 
scribed with those of Gauthier de Reims, Jean 
dOrbais, and Jean Loup in the labyrinth 
(mosaic pavement) of the cathedral of Rheims. 
They are supposed to have been architects of 


(See Elias de 


the church in the fourteenth century. The 
labyrinth itself has disappeared. 
Gonse, L’ Art gothique; Joanne, Itinéraire, 


Champagne et lV’ Ardennes ; 
Reims. 

BERNARD DU BEC. 

A monk of the Abbey of Bee who was abbot 
of the monastery of Mont Saint Michel, Manche, 
France, from 1139 to 1149. At Mont Saint 
Michel he finished the nave of the church and 
built the tower and the two transepts with their 
semicircular chapels. His choir was destroyed 
in 1421. He built a Church of the Virgin on 
the rock of Tombelaine near Mont Saint Michel. 

Corroyer, L’ Abbaye du Mont-Saint-Michel. 


BERNARDO DA VENBEZIA ; 
and sculptor. ° 

He is described as tagliatore e magistro a 
lignamine, and was the favourite architect of 
Gian Galeazzo Sforza (d. 1402), Duke of Milan. 
Bernardo was the first architect of the Certosa 
at Pavia, his name appearing in a document 
dated a month before the first stone of that 
building was laid (Aug. 27, 1396). He was 
frequently consulted during the construction of 
the cathedral of Milan (begun at the close of 
1396). He built the castle of Pavia and the 
church of the Madonna del Carmine in Milan 
(1400). 

Calvi, 
tizie ; Boito, Duomo di Milano ; 
di Pavia. 

BERNARDO DI LORENZO, of Florence ; 
architect. 

An important architect, muratore, who 
appears frequently in the accounts of the build- 
ings of Nicholas V. (Pope, 1447-1455) and 
Pius II. (Pope, 1458-1464) in Rome. He 
was admitted to the guild of stonecutters (Arte 
dei Maestri di Pietra) in 1447, and first ap- 
pears in the pontifical records of Nicholas V., 
Dec. 31, 1451. He is easily confounded with 

294 


Cerf, Cathédrale de 


architect 


Fondazione della Certosa; Calvi, No- 
Durelli, Certosa 


BERNEVAL 


Bernardo Rossellino (see Gambarelli, B.), as 
they both appear under the same name, Ber- 
nardus Fiorentinus. 

Miintz, Les arts & la cour des papes; Milanesi, 
Sulla Storia dell’ Arte Toscana. 

BERNEVAL, ALEXANDRE DE; archi- 
tect ; d. 1440. 

The third, and one of the chief, architects of 
the church of §. Ouen at Rouen. His tomb 
at S. Ouen bears the date 1440. Alexandre 
built the southern portal and its rose window. 
He was succeeded by his son, Colin de Berneval 
(see Berneval, Colin de). 

De Jolimont, Les principaux édifices de Rouen. 


BERNEVAL, COLIN DE; architect. 

A son of Alexandre de Berneval (see Berne- 
val, A. de), who, in 1440, succeeded his father 
as architect of the church of 8. Ouen at Rouen. 
His effigy on the Berneval tomb in S. Ouen 
holds a tablet inscribed with a plan of the nave 
and main portal of the church, and indicates 
the portions with which he was mainly occupied. 

De Jolimont, Les principaux édifices de Rouen. 


BERNINI, GIOVANNI LORENZO; 
sculptor and architect; b. Dec. 7, 1598; 
d. Nov. 28, 1680. 

Bernini was the son of a Tuscan sculptor, 
working in Naples. His talent developed 
early. While still a youth, he made the beau- 
tiful group of ‘‘ Apollo and Daphne” at the Villa 
Borghese, Rome, and the ‘‘ Rape of Proserpina ” 
at the Villa lLudovisi. In the reign of 
Urban VIII. (Pope, 1623-1644) he made his 
earliest important work of architecture, the 
Baldacchino of 8S. Peter’s in Rome. After the 
death of Carlo Maderna in 1629, Bernini suc- 
ceeded him as architect of S. Peter's (see 
Maderna, C.). He continued the construction 
of the Palazzo Barberini, Rome, begun by 
Maderna. The facade and the staircase are 
ascribed to him. In 1642 he began the monu- 
ment of Urban VIII. at S. Peter’s. During 
the reign of Innocent X. (Pope, 1644-1655), 
Bernini appears to have suffered from the in- 
trigues of his pupil Boromini (see Boromini), 
who superseded him as architect of S. Peter’s. 
At this time he built the Capella Cornaro at 
the church of 8. Maria della Vittoria, Rome, 
and the fountains of the Piazza Navona, of the 
Piazza Barberini, and of the Piazza di Spagna, 
Rome. Bernini’s most appreciative patron was 
Alexander VII. (Pope, 1655-1667), who made 
him architetto alla camera apostolica, a 
position which he held for the rest of his life. 
For him he built his most famous work, and 
one of the most successful monuments of 
modern architecture, the great colonnade of the 
Piazza of 8. Peter’s, Rome, and the Scala Regia 
at the Vatican. Bernini built the Palazzo 
Ludovisi and many other public and private 
buildings in Rome. He was requested by Col- 

295 


<a bas het PLR aay eae phe ma “ Pet 
f Sa ~~ ¥ ale), 


BERRUGUETE | 
bert to make designs for the completion of the _ 
Louvre, and by letter of Louis XIV., dated 
April 11, 1665, was invited to Paris. Bernini 
was treated like a prince in France, but his 
design for the Louvre being inferior to that of 
Claude Perrault (see Perrault, Claude) it was 
not executed, and he returned to Rome in the 
autumn. He made the monument of Pope 
Alexander VII. in 8. Peter’s. 

Dohme, Lorenzo Bernini; Milizia, Memorie ; 
Falda, Le Fontane di Roma; Letarouilly, Le 
Vatican. 

BERNW ARD ; bishop, painter, and archi- 
tect ; d. 1022. 

Bernward was from 993 to 1022 Bishop of 
Hildesheim (Rhenish Prussia), and is credited 
with the erection of the Michaelis kloster and 
the Kapelle des heiligen Kreuzes at Hildesheim. 
He was also painter and metal worker, and had 
great influence upon the artistic development 
of his time. 


Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie; Schultz, 
Bernward, in Dohme Series. 
BERRETINI, PIETRO (PIETRO DA 


CORTONA) ; painter, decorator, and archi- — 
tect ; b. (at Cortona) 1596; d. 1669. 

He is best known by his work as a decorator, ae 
which is. to be found in Rome, Florence, and = 
many other Italian cities. To him is largely 
due the fully developed style of the late Renais- 
sance. His most important works are the 
decoration of the great hall of the Palazzo Bar- = 
berini, Rome, and of the galleries of the Pitti Pe? 
Palace, Florence. He also decorated the Chiesa B ‘ 
Nuova, built the altar of 8S. Xaverius in Vi- . 
gnola’s church of the Gest, and decorated the = 
church of 8. Carlo al Corso, all in Rome. Ex- 7 
amples of his purely architectural work are the = 
church of SS. Luca e Martina in Rome, the Se 
beautiful facade of the church of 8. Maria della . * 
Pace, Rome, before 1659. The facade of S. 
Maria in Via Lata, Rome, was built from his 
designs about 1680. Many of his drawings are 
in the Uffizi. 

Gurlitt, Geschichte des Barockstiles in Italien ; 


Ebe, Spdat-Renaissance; Strack, Baudenkmdler 
toms. 
BERRUGUETE, ALONSO; - sculptor, 


painter, and architect; b. 1480; d. 1561. 
Alonso was the son of Pedro Berruguete, a 
Spanish painter, who flourished in Castile 
toward the end of the fifteenth century. He 
studied with his father, and as early as 1503 
was in Florence. Berruguete was one of the 
young men who formed themselves on Michel- 
angelo’s cartoon of ‘Soldiers Bathing,” and 
appears to have been employed by Michelangelo 
(see Buonarroti) at the Vatican. He returned 
to Spain in 1520. Berruguete lived for some 
time at Zaragoza, and in 1526 established him- _ 
self at Valladolid. Between 1526 and 1532 
he made the great wooden retable of the con- 
296 


BERTH 


vent of S. Benedict in that city. About the 
same time he executed the marble monument 
of Alonzo de Burgos, confessor of Queen Isabella 
the Catholic, in the chapel of the College of 
S. Gregorio at Valladolid (now destroyed). 
The Emperor Charles V. made Berruguete 
painter and sculptor of the ‘‘Camara,” and 
intrusted him with the decoration of his pro- 
jected palace at the Alhambra. He was em- 
ployed at the Alcazar and Episcopal Palace at 
Toledo. Berruguete died while engaged upon 
the fine monument of the Cardinal Talavera at 
the Hospital de Afuera at Toledo. 


Bermudez, Diccionario historico; Vifianza, 


_ Addiciones al Diccionario historico ; Stirling-Max- 


well, Annals of the Artists of Spain; Junghandel- 
Gurlitt, Baukunst Spaniens. 

BERTH. Originally, the lodging provided 
for any one on shipboard, including the total 
space allowed. Later, a bunk of the kind put 
up in passengers’ cabins, the word being appar- 
ently used as having a somewhat more elegant 


~ sound than the more exact term. 


BERTY, ADOLPHE ; historian and arche- 
ologist ; b. Jan. 11, 1812; d. Sept., 1867. 
Berty was associated with Alexandre Albert 


Lenoir (see Lenoir, A. A.) in his work on the 


Statistique Monumentale de Paris. He was 
chief collaborator of the Histoire Générale de 
Paris, undertaken with the approval of the 


_Emperor Napoleon III., by Baron Haussmann 
_ (see Haussmann). 
- was the Topographie Historique du Vieux 


Berty’s share of this work 


Paris, of which he lived to publish only one 
volume on the Région du Louvre et des Tut- 
leries (Paris, 1866). The publication of the 
Topographie was continued by H. Legrand 
and L. M. Tisserand, and completed in five 
volumes in 1887. Berty published also La 


_ Renaissance Monumentale en France (1864), 


Les Grands Architectes Francais de la Re- 
naissance (1860), and the Dictionnaire de 
V Architecture du Moyen Age (1845). 

Notice nécrologique in Revue Générale d’ Archi- 
tecture, Vol. XXV., 1867; Lance, Dictionnaire. 

BERW ART, BLASIUS ; architect. 

He was employed on the court of the old 
palace at Stuttgart (Wiirtemberg, Germany), 
which was begun in 1553. Sept. 26, 1563, he 
was sent by the Duke Christoph of Wiirtemberg 
to Georg Friedrich, Markgraf of Oberfranken, 
to build the palace at Plassenburg. 


Liibke, Geschichte der Renaissance in Deutsch- 
land. 


BESSEMER PROCESS ;—STEEL. (See 
under Steel.) 

BETON. In French, concrete ; especially a 
concrete made with hydraulic lime, for setting 
rapidly under water. The term has been used 
in English to denote this sort of concrete as 
distinguished from other kinds, but its use is 
not very common. 

297 


an Sita ati —— ba 
\ ia a a 


BEARD = 


BETTI. (See Juste.) 

BEVEL (n.). -A. The inclination of one face 
to another ; the divergence of one part or face 
from the plane of another, or from a perpen- 
dicular to that plane. Thus, if a strut is to 
be inclined to the plate on which it is to stand, 
its lower end must be bevelled in order to have 
an even, uniform bearing; door saddles have, 
usually, their edges bevelled ; parts of masonry 
may be bevelled so as to form a splay about a 
window opening. 

B. A face making a bevel in sense A. 
(Compare Chamfer ; Mitre ; Splay.) 

C. An instrument consisting of two flat: 
straight-edged legs (one or both being usually 
slotted), and a clamping screw by which they 
are set at any desired angle. Used chiefly to 
lay off or measure a bevel, as defined above. 

BEYAERT, HENRI; architect; b. 1823. 
(at Courtrai, Belgium) ; d. Jan. 23, 1894. 

A Belgian architect of importance. Among 
his most notable works are the Banque Natio- 
nale in Brussels, the Banque Nationale in Ant- 
werp, the Caisse d’Epargne at Brussels, the 
hospital at Tournay. 


Nécrologie in Hmulation, 1894, p. 28. 


BEZANT. An ornament occurring in French 
Romanesque and Anglo-Norman architecture, 
consisting of a flat disk repeated in close suc- 
cession, usually upon the flat face of an archi- 
volt. The bezant was a medizval Byzantine 
coin ; hence, in heraldry, a circular disk, or spot, 
of gold, and in architecture, the coinlike orna- 
ment above described. Written also besant. 

BIANCO, BARTOLOMMEDO ; § architect ; 
d. 1656. 

An architect of Como in Lombardy who es- 
tablished himself in Genoa, Italy, where he 
erected three palaces for the Balbi family. One 
of the best of these, built for Paolo Balbi in 
1623, became the Palazzo dell’ Universita in 
1812. 


Milizia, Memorie ; Reinhardt, Genoa. 


BIANCO SECCO. Fine white plastering, 
or pigment ; an Italian term used in connection 
with mural painting. 

BIARD (BIART), NICOLAS (COLIN), 
the Collin Byart of the Comptes; architect and 
builder (maitre-macon) ; b. 1460 (at Amboise, 
Indre et Loire, France). 

Biard is said to have directed the construc- 
tion of the chateau of Amboise, France, after 
March 3, 1499. In association with Jean de 
Doyac, Didier de Felin, and André de Saint 
Martin, he worked on the Pont Notre Dame, 
Paris, begun March 28, 1499. Soon after this 
he was charged by Louis XII. with the erection 
of that part of the chateau of Blois which was 
built during his reign. While occupied with 
this building he was invited, in 1504, by the 
Cardinal Georges d’Amboise, the minister of 

298 


BO re ee ee es | hte a 
=e Re Peter ee en, Nee 
~ v us 


BIARD | 
Louis XII., to inspect the works at the chateau 
of Gaillon near Rouen. He visited Gaillon in 
1505 and 1506, and seems to have been a gen- 
eral inspector, or supervisor, of the constructions 
there (see Fain, Pierre; Delorme, Pierre; and 
Senault, Guillaume). Dec. 14, 1506, he was 


called to Rouen to advise concerning the com- 
pletion of the Tour de Beurre at the cathedral. 


BIARD, PIERRE (I.); architect, painter, and 


sculptor ; b. 1559 (Paris); d. Sept. 17, 1609. | 


He was probably the son of Noél Biard, a 


woodworker, employed at the Louvre under _ 
Pierre Lescot (see Lescot, Pierre). He studied 


in Italy, and on his return was commissioned to 
make the beautiful choir screen (jubé) of the 
church of 8. Etienne du Mont, Paris. Sept. 
18, 1590, he was made swrintendant 
des bdtiments du roi.. Oct. 4, 1605, 
he contracted to make the equestrian 
statue of Henri IV. over the portal of 
the old Hétel de Ville, Paris. In 1608 

he made the northern fireplace of 
the great hall of the old Hétel de 
Ville. Of the splendid monument 
of Marguerite de Foix, which he 
made in the church of 8. Blaise at 
Cardillac-sur-Garonne, destroyed in 


rh 
a 
VY 


i i 7 


Hh 


THE BIGALLO, OR LoOGGIA DEL BIGALLO, FLORENCE, 


Dec. 4, 1507, he was consulted concerning the 
dangerous condition of the tower of the cathe- 
dral of Bourges which fell Dec. 31. He be- 
gan the reconstruction of this tower Oct. 19, 
1508. 


Deville, Comptes de Gaillon; Palustre, Renais- 
sance en France; Leroux de Lincy, Pont Notre 
Dame. 


299 


November, 1792, only the statue of Fame 
(Renommée) in the Louvre remains. 


Berty, Topographie, Louvre et Tuileries; Pa- 
lustre, La Renaissance en France ; Gonse, Sculp- 
ture Francaise; Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 


BIARD, PIERRE (II.) ; sculptor and archi- 
tect; b. 15925 °d. 1661; 
500 


BIBBIENA 
A son of Pierre Biard (I.) (see Biard, P. (I.)). 
_ He was the preferred sculptor of Louis ol: 
and was employed by the queen dowager, Marie 
de’ Medici. He made two figures of rivers for 
the fountain in the Gardens of the Luxembourg, 
Paris. Biard made the figure of Louis XIII. for 
the bronze equestrian statue which stood in the 
Place Royal, Paris, until 1792. The horse was 
modelled by Danielo da Volterra (see Ricciarelli). 
Gonse, Sculpture Francaise ; Bauchal, Diction- 


naire ; Montaiglon, Sur Dancienne statue équestre. 


BIBBIENA (BIBIENA). 
Bibiena. ) 

BIBLIOTHEQUE DE S. GENEVIEVE. 
In Paris; a public library south of the Seine, 
occupying an interesting building designed by 
Henri Labrouste about 1850. 

BIBLIOTHEQUE NATIONALE. The 
national library of France, and the richest and 
most extensive in the world, occupying a series 


(See Galli da 


__ of buildings in the heart of Paris, north of the 


Palais Royal and the Louvre. The buildings 


are of many epochs, and there is much that is 


of architectural value, not only in the exterior, 
but also in the very beautiful fittings of some 
of the older rooms. The great reading room is 


an interesting modern structure vaulted in iron 


and ceramic tiles. 


: called sometimes Kkneipe. 


BIER STUBE. In German inns and eat- 
ing houses, the room where beer and other 
drinks, and some few simple eatables, are served ; 
(See Beer Cellar ; 
Rathskeller.) 

BIGALLO. (Properly, Hospital of, or Loggia 
of, the Bigallo; a name having no _ historical 
meaning, but referring to a white cock, bianco 
gallo, the badge of a fraternity.) In Florence, 
a very beautiful fragment of a fifteenth century 
structure fronting on the piazza where stands 


the cathedral and baptistery. 


BILHAMER, JOOST JANSZON ; archi- 
tect, sculptor, and engineer. 
_ Bilhamer was one of the most important 
artists of the latter half of the sixteenth cen- 
tury in Amsterdam. He built the western 
tower of the Oudenkerke in that city. 

Galland, Geschichte der Holldndischen Bau- 
kunst. 

-BILLART, CHARLES. 
“Charles. 


BILLET. Properly, one of a series of short, 


(See Baillard, 


_ eylindrical, projecting members in, or forming, 


a moulding, its 
axis being paral- 
lel with the gen- 
eral surface and 
_with the. direc- 
tion of the series. 
Hence, by ex- 


BILLET Movuipine at BINHAM 
Priory, NORFOLKSHIRE. 


ilar projecting member of whatever section. 
(See Billet Moulding, under Moulding.) 
301 


tension, any sim- | 


BILL OF QUANTITIES 


BILLIARD ROOM. Any room intended 
primarily for playing the game of billiards, and 
designed of the proper size to accommodate one 
or more billiard tables with sufficient surround- 
ing space for the players, and generally for ob- 
servers as well. Previous to 1865, in America, 
as in Great Britain, the standard table was 
6 by 12 feet, and the billiard room to accom- 
modate one table was made 18 by 24 feet, 
wherever possible; the tables are now smaller 
and the cues shorter. 

BILLINGS, ROBERT WILLIAM ; archi- 
tect, author, and descriptive draughtsman ; b. 
1813; d. 1874, 

He was a pupil of John Britton (see Britton). 
His chief published works are a History and 
Description of S. Paul’s Cathedral, Churches 
of London, Illustration of the Temple Church 
in London, Carlisle Cathedral, and Durham 
Cathedral, quarto volumes, published in 1840— 
1843, and especially the Baronial and Ecclesi- 
astical Antiquities of Scotland, in four vol- 
umes. The accuracy of his drawings has never 
been seriously impugned, and their intelligibil- 
ity and beauty are remarkable. They are far 
more valuable to the student than those of his 
master, Britton. 

BILL OF QUANTITIES. 

A tabulated statement of the quantities of 
material and the labour thereon required for the 
construction of a proposed building. It is de- 
rived from the drawings and specifications which 
have been prepared by the architect by a process 
of minute and detailed measurement on the 
scale of the drawings, aided by the figures 
thereon, anticipating, as far as possible, the 
various operations needed, and collecting them 
into their various trades, and finally, into a 
general summary, with blank spaces left for the 
insertion by the builder of his prices and the re- 
sulting totals. The purpose of a bill of quanti- 
ties is to afford to a builder in customary form 
all the purely mechanical and clerical prelimi- 
naries for deducing from the drawings the value 
of the structure, to which may be added the 
further advantage (in usual regular practice) of 
this work being done only once, for all the 
builders about to estimate in competition. 

The person who performs these duties is 
known as a quantity surveyor. He is usually 
trained for this branch of surveying and the 
closely allied one of ‘‘ measuring up” work exe- 
cuted, to the exclusion of all others. He is 
appointed by the architect, and paid, either by 
the client, or by the successful bidder who has, 
of course, added the necessary amount in the 
blank space left for that purpose in the sum- 
mary of the estimates. 

The above outline is descriptive of British 
practice, which is settled and considered indis- 
pensable. American contractors usually pre- 
pare, each for himself, or by his clerks, the 

302 


BILL OF QUANTITIES 


necessary bills and tables according to his own 
preferred system and method (or sometimes 
lack of both system and method), the whole 
number thus doing the work many times over. 
At first glance it appears strange that such a 
waste of labour should prevail ; yet there are rea- 
sons for it which have influenced the leading 
builders themselves to discourage any change of 
their customs. The chief one is that they con- 
sider that their experience gives them an ad- 
vantage in preparing estimates which would 
disappear if a large part of the work were done 
for them. In this case, they say, the builder 
of small attainments would dare, and would be 
enabled, to tender proposals for works which, 
under the present system, he is unable to ap- 
proach. And consequently, this lower class of 
contractors would enter the field of high-class 
work, and, by greater competition, destroy its 
profits and degrade its quality. Let this argu- 
ment be correct, or otherwise, it is the chief 
factor in the situation. 

A few attempts have been made to introduce 
the English system into American practice, and 
failure has been, in part, due to lack of adapta- 
tion to local requirements. The bills prepared 
by surveyors have not placed before the bidder 
the items he is accustomed to value and price. 
This is what the use of the bill of quantities 
does in England, but by the builder in America 
the items are differently separated, the work is 
differently analyzed, and the builder’s knowledge 
is not served by a table following the forms of 
English practice instead of the spirit. It is 
interesting to describe comparatively the details 
of the two systems. The English is minute 
and analytic to the verge of triviality. It 
seems to aim at complete presentation of the 
work without the aid of the drawings, or with 
only a preliminary observation of them ; per- 
haps this was natural when the reproduction of 
drawings was tedious and expensive. The 
American builder’s treatment is broad and sweep- 
ing; the items include the details in the de- 
scriptive titles, and rely upon the use of the 
accompanying drawings to explain them, as is 
natural when the plans can be so cheaply re- 
produced that every bidder can have a copy. 
For example, a street facade of freestone would, 
in the first case, be itemized as follows: cubic 
feet of stone; superficial feet of beds and 
joints ; superficial feet of back joints ; super- 
ficial feet of plain face; superficial feet sunk 
face in panels; of rusticated face; vermicu- 
lated face, etc. ; labour, hoisting and setting n 
feet from ground ; lineal feet, labour in cornice 
moulding, inches girth ; labour only cutting de- 
tails n inches by 7 inches ; lineal feet labour on 
architrave mouldings n inches by n inches girth ; 
labour only carving members as per sketch,—and 
so on for several pages, most of the items being 
repeated in numerous variations for similar fea- 

303 


BINDESBOLL 


tures, and in a separate series for all curved _ 


and other “extra” priced works. In the Ameri- 


can builder’s estimate this work would be taken > 


off in a few broad items, thus: (a) superficial 
feet of ashlar inches thick, including setting ; 
(b) cubic feet of stone cut in “ trim,” including 
cornices, bands, architraves, quoins, and all fea- 
tures not plain ashlar; (c) carving, a single 
sum based usually upon a foot superficial meas- 
urement ; (d) any special feature, such as pol- 
ished columns. 

In other trades, notably in “carpenter and 
joiner,” the detail is even more intricate, and 
the contrast more marked, as, for example, when 
one system analyzes all the processes of making 
a door in twenty items with five more for hard- 
ware, while the other simply describes the super- 
ficial feet of door, and the hardware, and prices 
them in two items only. Many of the tedious 
details in old style bills of quantities are, in 
fact, ignored by users, and their value included 
in the price of the items to which they pertain. 

It will be seen that different kinds of ability 
in estimating are called for, and that bills of 
quantities to be acceptable to American builders 
must be framed in the spirit of their established 
custom. 


It is only in accord with other experience ~ 


with labour-saving devices to suppose that the 
reduction of the present repetition of clerical 
operations to a single process will become cus- 
tomary as soon as it is made acceptable in form. 

(See Builder ; Contract ; Cost of Building ; 
Estimating ; Proposal ; Tender.) 

— Rosert W. Grsson. 

BILTMORE HOUSE. An American coun- 
try house and estate near Asheville, North 
Carolina. The house was built from the 
designs of Richard Morris Hunt about 1891. 

BIN. A box or boxlike compartment, with 
or without a cover, for the storage of coal, 
grain, and the like. Hence any subdivision or 
alcove wholly, or partly, enclosed for such a 
purpose. 

BINDER. Material, or a member, used to 
bind ; specifically : — 

A, A binding beam or binding joist ; a girder 
to support floor joists. 

B. Loose material used to bind together 
other pieces or materials ; thus, sand or earth 
may be used as a binder for the crushed stone 
in road building. 

C.. In masonry, a header ; a bond stone. 

BINDER, BASTIAN ; architect. 

Bastian Binder finished the western front of 


the cathedral of Magdeburg, Germany, early in ~ 


the sixteenth century. 
Dohme, Geschichte der Deutschen Baukunst. 
BINDESBOLL, MICHAEL GOTTLIEB ; 
architect ; b. Sept. 5, 1800; d. July 14, 1856. 
A Danish architect. In 1822-1823 Bindes- 
boll studied in Germany and France. Having 
304 


ae RC ee Oe 
7 Rr ‘ um aa iy S yi s 


BINDING PIECH 


won the travelling stipend at the Academy of 
Copenhagen, he went in 1835 to Italy and 
Greece. In August, 1835, he presented his 
design for the projected Thorwaldsen Museum 
at Copenhagen, which was finished in 1847. 
In March, 1856, he was made professor at the 
Academy in Copenhagen. 
Weilbach, Nyt Dansk Kunstner-lexikon. 


BINDING PIECE. Any piece, especially 
in framing, for use as a binder; specifically, a 
piece framed between two beams or the like 
to prevent lateral deflection (C. D.). (Compare, 
for other methods, Bridging.) 

BIRDE, WILLIAM ; ecclesiastic and archi- 


tect ; d. 1525. 


Birde continued the construction of the 
abbey church of Bath, Somerset, England, and 
built a monumental chapel in the choir. 

Britton, History of Bath Abbey Church. 


BIRD’S MOUTH. An angular notch cut 


in the end of a timber to fit the arris or corner 


of a transverse timber upon which it is to abut ; 
as the notch at the foot of a rafter engaging the 


roof plate. 


BIRS NIMROUD. A great mound on a 


marshy plain near the Euphrates ; the modern 


Arabic name signifying “Palace of Nimrod.” 
It was in this mound that many of the earliest 
discoveries of Ninevite monuments were made 
by Austen Henry Layard, about 1848, the 
mound consisting mainly of the unburnt bricks 
of which the platform and palaces had been 
composed. (See Mesopotamia. 

BISCHOFF, PETER (VON ANGEL- 
SHEIM); architect. 

April 25, 1473, Peter attended the reunion of 
architects and builders at Regensburg, Bavaria, 
Germany, of which Jost Dotzinger (see Dot- 
zinger, J.) was the leading spirit. He appears 
as architect of the cathedral and city of Stras- 
burg (Werckmeister des Mauerhoffes) in a 
document (Hiittenbrief) dated May 1, 1473, 
which bears his name and seal. His work 
included the supervision of the streets, pave- 
ments, bridges, and all public works of the 
city. 

Gérard, Les Artistes de l’ Alsace ; Schneegans, 


' Les Architectes de Strasbourg. 


BISHOP’ CHAIR. 
Throne. 

BISHOP’S PALACE. 
ace. ) 

BISHOP’S THRONE. The chair of state 
in a cathedral church intended for the bishop 
when presiding at a solemn function. In early 
times the bishop’s throne was erected in the 
apse, and commonly on the middle or central 
axis of the church, with seats for the inferior 
clergy on either side. In later times this was 
shifted to the choir, and the throne forms a part 
of the elaborate arrangement of Choir Stalls. 

305 


Same as Bishop’s 


(See Episcopal Pal- 


BLACKBURN 


In such a case it is commonly the easternmost 
stall on the south side, or the one nearest the 
central door on the south side and within the 
jubé ; the place not being absolutely fixed, but 
the throne having always a marked difference 
from the other stalls and being alone, that is, 
having no other stall in front of it. Some 
ancient episcopal thrones remain in the treas- 
uries of churches or in the churches themselves, 
but admittedly not in the ancient place; these 
are looked upon as relics of the past, with a 
certain sanctity about them, rather than as 
chairs intended to be used in the church ser- 
vice. — R. 8. 


BisHop’s CHAIR IN CATHEDRAL AT AQUILEJA. 


BLACHERNAL PALACE (or Palace of 
Blacherne). An ancient residence of the 
emperors at Constantinople, on the. extreme 
northern point of the city, on the harbour. 
Only a few traces of it are known, so far as 
European research has yet gone. 

BLACK AND WHITE WORK (I). 
Building with a frame of timber and with 
filling between the frames of rough masonry of 
any kind or even with double plastering on oak 
laths. The common appearance of houses built 
in this way throughout England during five or 
six centuries was nearly always that of black or 
gray bands alternating with white spaces, the 
total amount of walling being nearly equally 
divided between the two tints. 

BLACK AND WHITE WORK (II.). 
Same as Serafitto. A name given, perhaps, by 
those who first wrote of it in English. 

BLACKBURN, WILLIAM; architect and 
surveyor; b. Dec. 20, 1750; d. Dec. 28, 1790. 

He studied first with a surveyor and after- 
ward entered the Royal Academy, London. 
He was intimately associated with John How- 
ard, and assisted him much in his prison 
reform. Howard considered him the only archi- 
tect capable of realizing his conception of an 
ideal prison. In 1782 he won a 100 guinea 

306 


re Pe Sie oy Sr a Bee, i oe ay Meosreniy na) ae 
Le . 7 ben _' m4, oe! = 
ie 
= ‘ ¥ eat} 


+ 
BLANK 


prize for the best design for a penitentiary. 
He built the county jail at Oxford, improved 
the jail of Newgate in Dublin, Ireland, designed 
the jail at Limerick, and was engaged in numer- 
ous similar undertakings when he died.. Black- 
burn had also a considerable general practice as 
an architect. 

Redgrave, Dictionary of Artists ; Leslie Stephen, 
Dictionary of National Biography. 

BLANK (adj.). Bare; without important 
features, especially without openings. Said of 
the wall of a building having no doors or 
windows ; or of a more or less deceptive repre- 
sentation of a door, window, or the like, having 
no opening. Usually in combination, as blank 
wall; blank window. 

BLAZONRY. In heraldry, originally and 
properly, the explanation of a coat of arms, or 
of any arrangement of heraldic bearings; by 
extension, the bearings themselves, and espe- 
cially the display of colours, gilding, mantling, 
plumes, and the like, by means of which heraldic 
bearings are made decorative. 

BLEACHING BOARD. One of the seats 
provided for spectators at a race course, a ground 
for athletic exercises, or the like, but not coy- 
ered by a roof as are the seats of a grand 
stand ; any rough or temporary seats put up 
for such a purpose. Usually in the plural. 
(Popular, United States.) 

BLIND (n.). A device for partially or 
wholly preventing light passing through an 
opening ; specifically : — 

A. In the United States, a movable screen, 
generally of wood, so attached to the door or 
window as to be readily opened or closed, as by 
hinges at the sides or top, or by sliding. The 
term is usually confined to such screens when 
composed of fixed or movable slats which 
obstruct the light, while allowing ample open- 
ings for the admission of air; the word Shut- 
ter being applied to such as are solid or nearly 
so, aS when consisting of sheet iron, or panelled 
wood; but no absolute distinction can be made. 
(Compare Louver Shutter, under Shutter.) 

B. In Great Britain, a piece of flexible mate- 
rial, fitting the window opening and attached 
at the top or bottom to a roller by which it is 
wound or unwound ; in the United States, called 
a shade. 

Rolling Blind. A. Any blind of partially 
flexible structure, as of small strips of bamboo 
or the like, arranged to roll up, usually at the 
top of a window. 

B. Sometimes, by extension from rolling 
slat or slats, one in which the slats are not 
fixed but free to rotate each on its own axis, the 
whole set being held together by a strip secured 
to each by a loop of wire. 

Venetian Blind. A blind of which the slats 
are made to open and close ; especially, a hang- 
ing blind, of which the slats are held together 

307 


| both. They are of two kinds, those actuated 


by strips of webbing and controlled by sore 
that they may be opened or closed at will, and — 
so that they may be drawn together and packed a 
closely above the window. ae 

BLIND (adj.). 4. Having no windows; __ 
said of a building or part of a building which 
usually has them. Thus, a blind clerestory or 
a blind nave is one where the aisles rise so high 
on either side as to prevent the opening of 
windows above the aisle roofs. 

B. Same as Blank, as in the compound ~ 
terms Blind Arch; Blind Window. (See also 
the term Blind Alley, in which the significance 
of the adjective is stretched beyond its more 
usual meaning.) call 

BLIND ADJUSTER. A. In the United 
States, an apparatus for holding window shut- 
ters in place at a required angle ; especially for 
holding them bowed or nearly shut. 

B. A contrivance for holding the slats of a 
Venetian or louvered shutter at any given angle ; 
usually by means of a spring which presses 
upon the end of one slat of a connected series. 

BLIND ALLEY. A narrow pastese whose 
end is closed ; a cul de sac. 

BLIND AREA. (See under Area.) 

BLIND FAST. A catch for securing a blind 
or shutter either when closed or wide open, or 


by a spring, which automatically catch upon a 
pin, hook, or other projection; and those which . 
are set by hand — usually in the form of a long 
bar or hook to be engaged in a socket or screw- 
eye. They are usually made of galvanized 
iron. 

BLIND LIFT. A handle or knob upon a 
vertically sliding blind or inside shutter, by 
which it is lifted to open it, as in a railway car, 4 
or to close it, as commonly in a street car. ‘oa 

BLIND PULL. A device fordrawing toward — 
one a blind, in the sense of a hinged shutter, 
and either closing it, or holding it closed while — 
it is being secured, or for opening it. 

BLIND STORY. A story, or important 
exterior horizontal division, having no windows i 
nor other openings of consequence ; especially, a 
in medizval church architecture, a triforium —_ 
assumed to be without exterior windows; as * 
opposed to clerestory, which lighted the interior = — 
by means of windows above the roof of the 4 
triforium. i 

BLISTER. A defect in the form of a slight s 
projection of a surface detached from the body ae 
of the material, caused in manufacturing or by 
weather or other agencies, as the protuberance ry 
sometimes formed on the face of a casting, due 
to the presence of an air bubble just below the i 
surface ; or the loose, slightly raised portions . 
of a coat of paint which have become detached 22 
from the material to which the paint has been 
applied, due to defective workmanship or other 
causes, 

308 


Eee ras VIET, 


Se 3 BLIND STORY 


= The second and third story of the National 
- Academy of Design, in New York; built about 
- 1865 from the designs of P. B. Wight. The third 


story is occupied by top-lighted galleries, and the 
circular openings are for ventilation only. 


BLOCK HOUSE 


_ “The Middle Block House’? at Cascades, on the upper waters of the Columbia River, State of Wash- 
ington. 


BLOCAGE 


BLOCAGE. Masonry composed of small 
irregularly shaped stones laid in a mass of mor- 
tar. The great body of walls and vaults in 
Roman imperial buildings were composed of 
blocage, with a facing of thin bricks or of 
dressed stone, large or small. The term is 
French, and is adopted into English because 
of the lack of a term carrying exactly the same 
signification. It differs from Concrete and Béton 
in that the stones and mortar are not mixed 
together and thrown into the place which they 
are to occupy, but are built up much as bricks 


are laid, but with less regularity. — R. S. 


BLOCK. A. A piece of stone or terra cotta 
prepared, or partly prepared, for building. 

B. A mass projecting from a larger piece of 
stone, as in some unfinished masonry of the 
Greeks. (See Boss (I.); Handle Block.) 

C. In carpentry or joiner’s work any small, 
more or less symmetrical, piece of wood, used 
for whatever purpose, as behind a wainscot, or 
other work which is to stand out from a wall ; 
under any horizontal member to give it a proper 
level; in the angle between the sides of a box ; 
the top and front rail of a chest of drawers or 
cabinet, or the like; a traditional means of 
giving stiffness or support where there is no 
room for braced framing. 

D. A row or mass of buildings closely con- 
nected together, or a single structure which — 
perhaps divided by party walls—contains a 
number of stores or shops with dwellings above 
them, or dwellings only, or small apartment 
houses. (In this sense, peculiarly American.) 

HE, In a city or the like, where streets are 
near together, the whole space within and en- 
closed by three or four streets so as to present 
a front of houses upon each of those streets. 
Hence, by extension, the length of such a block 
upon any one street; thus, we say that in the 
upper part of New York City twenty blocks, 
taken with the streets between them, make up 
a mile. (In this sense, English as well as 
American; see Masson’s Memoir of Milton, 
Chapter 1647-1649, and the quotations in 
New English Dictionary.) The city block is 
capable of refined treatment, first in a strictly 
architectural sense, as when the exterior fronts 
are treated either according to a common de- 
sign, elaborated in advance, or when succeeding 
builders of separate narrow fronts are careful 
to conform one to the other, not necessarily by 
strict imitation of style, height, or the like, but 
by intelligent adaptation of the newer to the 
older fronts. This is very rare, except when, 
as in Paris, under the authority of the munici- 
pality, the heights are kept severely limited, 
and the regulations as to windows and the like 
are enforced; or when, as in Nuremberg, an 


. authoritative commission regulates the style to 


be observed in all designs. On the other hand, 
the interior of a block is capable of a great deal 
309 


BLOCK HOUSE 


of skilful treatment, rather in the way of land- 
scape architecture than of architecture in the 
usual sense. Thus, in certain blocks of London, 
and a few in the United States, the whole space 
enclosed by the rear walls of the houses is 
opened into a kind of garden with trees planted 
with some reference to general effect, and the 
divisions between the back yards are to a certain 
extent effaced, at least to all appearance. The 
custom, very general in England, of sending out 
washing to laundries in the country aids this 
plan, whereas the more common American cus- 
tom, of doing the washing in the house, however 
good in a hygienic sense, has for a result the 
destruction of the back yards considered as open 
places of some attractiveness. Lots are often 
sold with strict limits as to the front line of the 
house, so as to leave a small courtyard or open 
area for the whole length of the block ; but the 
same regulation must be extended to the inte- 
rior if it is desired to prevent libraries, dining 
rooms, and the like, from being built to the very 
extreme end of each separate lot, thereby de- 
stroying the interior garden. — R. S, 

Hollow Block. A terra cotta slab or 
large brick made with an opening or several 
openings in its body; usually for purposes of 
ventilation, or for lightness or economy where 
great strength is not needed: in those used for 
ventilation there are two general sorts — those 
which when put together form a continuous tube 
for the passage of a current of air, and those 
which are intended merely to provide an air 
space to prevent the passage of moisture from 
the outside to the inside of a wall, or as a 
means of insulation in fireproofing. The term 
“block” is commonly used instead of brick to 
describe such building material made of baked 
clay, and considerably larger than the usual 
bricks. 

BLOCK (v.) To set or provide with a block 
or blocks in sense of Block, C; to secure or 
place in position by means of such blocks; to 
perform the operation of blocking. Commonly 
used with the adverb, as block up, block out. 

BLOCK AND CROSS BOND. (See un- 
der Bond.) 

BLOCK BOND. (See under Bond.) 

BLOCK HOUSE. In military architecture, 
a structure of informal character, frequently of 
wood, built to protect a small party who may 
have to defend a pass, a ford, or the like. The 
mere extension of the temporary intrenchment 
which would be thrown up at such a point. In 
the United States, a log structure with many 
loopholes; used in various parts of the country 
for defence against Indians—a kind of fort. 
It was built like a log cabin, but with an upper 
story projecting several feet beyond the lower 
one on every side, for the purpose of bringing 
the exterior at the ground within range of the 
defender’s weapons through loopholes in the 

310 


hs ae ” Liane eS an! Ls ’ een! 
r ath he Caen ery ee Pie oe ‘ aA 
X Ph i i” aye fi 


BLOCKING 


floor, and preventing the enemy from forcing 
the door or applying the torch. (Compare 
Machicolation.) A form of block house com- 
mon in some Spanish American settlements, as 
in Cuba, has been constructed with double walls 


Zs SS ee 
——) 


— 


Biock HousE NEAR KUERDSCHEKOI, ASIA MINOR. 


Described by Petersen and y. Luschan as very carefully built 
of squared timbers and planks, showing, at the corners, the 
interlocking construction characteristic of Lycia. The 
building is raised on a mound of earth. 


of planking, the space between the planks being 
filled with rough stone. Such walls approached 
two feet in thickness, and were almost impreg- 
nable to rifle fire. 

BLOCKING. Blocks considered collectively 
in the sense of Block, C’; the operation of fur- 
nishing with, or setting, such blocks. 

BLOEMAART, CORNELIS ; 
painter, and engineer ; b. about 1525. 

Architect and engineer in Holland in the six- 
teenth century. According to Van Mander (op. 
cit.) he was born at Dortrecht, Holland. He 
migrated later to Gorinchem, where his more 
famous son, the painter Abraham Bloemaart, 
was born. He afterward appears at Herto- 
genbosch (1566), and in 1576 was entered in 
the guild of saddlers at Utrecht as architect 
and military engineer. In 1591 he became 
engineer to the city of Amsterdam. 


architect, 


Galland, Cornelis Bloemaart in Kunstchronik 
(1888, p. 654) ; Van Mander, Het Leven der door- 
luchtige Nederlandsche en eenige Hoogduitsche 
Schilders. 


BLOET, ROBERT; bishop; d. 1123. 

Robert Bloet, Bishop of Lincoln, England, 
finished the construction of the first (Norman) 
cathedral of Lincoln, which had been begun by 
Bishop Remigius (d. 1094). (See Remigius. ) 


King, Handbook of the Cathedrals of England. 


BLONDEL, FRANCOIS; architect; b. 
1617 or 1618 (at Ribemont, Picardie, France) ; 
d. Jan. 21, 1686. 

In 1652 Blondel was appointed tutor of the 

311 


BLONDEL : 
son of Henri Auguste de Loménie, Secretary of 
State to Louis XIV., and travelled with him in 
Germany and Italy. He was afterward em- 
ployed in several negotiations with foreign gov- 
ernments, notably at Constantinople. On his 
return he received a brevet as counsellor of 
state. He was also made tutor of the Dauphin 
and professor of mathematics at the Collége Roy- 
ale. His knowledge of architecture was acquired 
during his travels. Blondel’s first practical 
work was the reconstruction of the bridge at 
Saintes (Charente Inférieure, France). In 1670 
he built the triumphal arch of the Porte 8. 
Bernard, Paris, which was destroyed in the 
Revolution. In 1673 he rebuilt the arch of 
the Porte 8. Antoine, Paris. Blondel’s greatest 
monument is the triumphal arch in Paris called 
the Porte 8. Denis, which was begun in 1674. 
The sculpture was begun by Girardon (see 
Girardon), and finished by Michel Anguier 
(see Anguier). In 1672 he was made director 
of the Académie de l Architecture, established 
in 1671. 
tifications he was made maréchal-de-camp in 
1675. His published works are Cours d’ Archi- 
tecture enseigné dans lV Académie Royale 
(Paris, 2 vols., 4to, 1675-1683), Cours de 
Mathématique pour le Dauphin (1683), Dart 
de jeter les bombes et nouvelle maniére de 
fortifier les places; Une Histoire du Calen- 
drier roman (1682). 

Quatremére de Quincy, Histoire de la vie des 
plus célébres architectes; Guiffrey, Comptes des 


batiments sous Louis XIV.; Lance, Diction- 
naire ; Hoffbauer, Paris a travers les Ages. 


BLONDEL, JACQUES FRANCOIS ; archi- 
tect; b. Jan. 8, 1705; d. 1774. 

He is supposed to have been the son of Jean 
Francois Blondel (see Blondel, J. F.). May 6, 
1743, with the approval of the Académie de 
’ Architecture, he opened one of the earliest of 
the French private schools of architecture. The 
success of this school won for him the position 
of architecte du roi and, in 1756, a member- 
ship in the Académie de lV Architecture. In 
1762 he was made professor at the Louvre. 
In 1773 he presented a plan for the improve- 
ment of the city of Metz. In 1768 he planned 
the Hotel de Ville and Salle de Spectacle at — 
Strasburg, Elsass, Germany. He planned the 
reconstruction of the abbey of S. Armand near 
Valenciennes, Nord, France, and the restoration 
of the cathedral of Chalons-sur-Marne. In 
1765 he was a member of the commission 
charged with the conservation of the cathedral 
of Strasburg. Blondel was an accomplished en- 
graver. He completed the Architecture Fran- 
caise begun by Jean Marot (see Marot, J.) and 
published, 1737-1738, De la distribution des 
maisons de plaisance et de la décoration des 
édifices en général, and after 1771 the Cours 
dW’ Architecture, Paris, 1771-1777, 6 vols., 8vo., 

312 


On account of his knowledge of for- © 


—_ de Rome in 1876. 


tect; b. Oct. 6, 1795; d. May 17, 1853. 


‘Delespine. 


BLONDEL 


which was continued after his death by Pierre 
Patte (see Patte). 

Arch. Pub. Soc. ja see ; Milizia, Memorie ; 
Lance, Dictionnaire. 

BLONDEL, JEAN FRANCOIS; §archi- 
tect ; b. 1683 (at Rouen, France) ; d. 1756. 

He is not supposed to have belonged to the 
family of the great Francois Blondel (see Blon- 
del, F.). He was architecte du roi and tré- 
sorier-général des bdtiments du roi, and in 
1728 was admitted to the Académie de 
Vv Architecture. A number of unimportant 
buildings are attributed to him (see Blondel, 


_ Jacques F.). 


Jacques Frangois Blondel, Cours d’ Architecture, 
Vol. VI., p. 468; Arch. Pub. Soc. Dictionary ; 
Lance, Dictionnaire ; Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 

BLONDEL, PAUL; architect; b. Jan. 6, 
1847 ; d. April 18, 1897. 

He entered the Ecole des Beaux Arts in 
1864. He won the Premier Grand Prix 
After his return from 
Rome he was appointed inspecteur des bati- 
ments civils and architect of the Cour de 
Oassation. He succeeded Edmond Guillaume 
(see Guillaume) as architect of the Louvre and 
the Tuileries. 

e Ch. Lucas, in Construction Moderne, May 1, 

o7. 


BLOUET, GUILLAUME ABEL ; archi- 
In 1814 Blouet entered the atelier of Jules 
In 1821 he won the Premier 
Grand Prix de Rome. His fourth envoi de 
Rome was a restoration of the baths of Cara- 
calla which was published by the French gov- 
ernment in 1826. In 1827 he was appointed 
architect in charge of the baths of Julian (les 
thermes) in Paris. In 1828 Blouet was made 


- director of the section of architecture and sculp- 


ture of the expedition to the Morea, the results 
of which he published in the Expédition scien- 


_ tifique de la Morée, ordonnée par le gouvern- 


ment francais (3 vols., folio, Paris, 1831). In 
1831 Blouet replaced Huyot (see Huyot) as 
architect of the Are de l’Etoile, Paris. He 
built the attic completing the arch in 1836. 


(See Chalgrin.) In 1836 he was sent to the 


United States to study reforms in prison con- 
struction. In 1846 he replaced Louis Pierre 
Baltard (see Baltard, L. P.) as professor of the 
theory of architecture at the Hcole des Beaux 
Arts, Paris. In 1847 he published a supplement 
to Art de bdtir of Rondelet. (See Rondelet.) 
In 1848 he was appointed architect in charge 
of the chateau of Fontainebleau. 

Lance, Dictionnaire ; Bellier de la Chavignerie, 
Dictionnaire ; Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 

BLUE PRINT; BLUE PROCESS. Same 
as Cyanotype, in both senses. 

BLUE STONE. A term of no lithological 
significance, and usually applied to rocks of a 

313 


BOASTER 


gray or blue-gray colour. In Maryland, a gray 
gneiss; in New York and Ohio, a blue-gray 
sandstone. (See next term.) —G. P. M. 

BLUESTONE. Specifically, a compact and 
durable sandstone quarried in the foothills of 
the Catskill Mountains in New York State. 
The sidewalks of New York City are generally 
composed of flags of this material; and it is 
largely exported for the same purpose to other 
parts of the United States. A quality superior 
as to colour and uniformity of grain is used in 
decorative architecture, and is of singular value. 
The great basin of the Bethesda fountain in 
Central Park, and the elaborate pedestal and 
exedra of the Farragut monument in Madi- 
son Square, both in New York City, are entirely 
composed of this material. (See preceding 
term.) — R. 8. 

BOARD. A slab of wood cut to a more or 
less uniform shape, and thin as compared. to 
its width and length. Specifically, such a 
piece of lumber not more than about 1+ inches 
thick. (See Lumber.) 

BOARD (yv.). To cover or sheath with 
boards. In housebuilding in the United States, 
a frame structure is said to be boarded when 
the frame has been covered in with the sheath- 
ing boards, previous to the addition of clap- 
boards or shingles. 

BOARD AND BRACE WORK. A 
method of construction, for partitions and the 
like, consisting of boards with grooved edges 
into which thinner boards are inserted like 
panels, forming alternating projections and 
recesses. 

BOARDING. A. Boards in general, or a 
quantity of boards taken together. 

B. The act of covering a surface with boards, 
usually by nailing to a frame of wood. 

C. The covering or thickness of boards 
applied, as in B. Thus, the boarding of the 
exterior of a frame house in the United States 
is commonly double, first the Sheathing and 
then the Siding. 

BOARD MEASURE. The standard sys- 
tem for the measurement of lumber. <A board 
foot is a square foot one inch thick, and hence 
the equivalent of 144 cubic inches. <A 3" x 4!’ 
stud measures one board foot per foot of length ; 
a 6x12! beam measures 6 board feet per 
foot of length. No allowance is made for loss by 
sawing, planing, or other dressing ; ¢-inch planed 
boards are reckoned as 1 inch thick. Lumber 
is sold by the M or thousand board feet. The 
board foot, the ‘“‘ hundred,” and the “M” or 
thousand are the only units in common use. 

BOAST (v.). To shape stone roughly in 
preparation for subsequent finer dressing ; more 
specifically, to dress with the Boaster or Drove. 
(See Stone Dressing.) 

BOASTER. Same as Drove; 
stone dressing. 


a tool for 


314 


ro pe te 


or ree ee ae 


BOAT HOUSE 


BOAT HOUSE. A. A structure built at the 
water’s edge to receive boats when not in use. 
This may be a light structure covering a water 
slip, or small wet dock, and so enclosing and 
protecting the boat; or it may be larger and 
contain machinery for raising boats from the 
water and the storing of them above. 

B. A house at the water’s edge with a plat- 
form serving as a quay for embarkation and 
disembarkation. 

BOB. Sameas Plumb Bob ; abbreviated form. 

BOBLINGEN, MATHIAS VON. (See 
Mathias von Béblingen.) 

BOCCADOR. (See Domenico da Cortona.) 

BOCCANEGRA (BOCCANERA), MA- 
RINO (or MARTINO) ; engineer and archi- 
tect. 

Boccanegra, a member of the great Genoese 
family of that name, began about 1275 the 
arsenal at Genoa, Italy. In 1276-1278 he 
built the mandracchio, or harbour for small 
vessels, and in 1283 commenced the old mole, 
Genoa. He finished the aqueduct from Tre- 
sasco in 1295. 

Arch. Pub. Soc. Dictionary. 


BODEGA. In Spain and in Spanish- 
America, and hence in parts of the United 
States, generally, a wine vault or cellar; a 
wine shop where liquors are drawn from the 
cask ; a storeroom, a warehouse. 

BODT, JOHANN VON (JEAN DE 
BODT) ; architect ; b. 1670 (in Paris) ; d. 1745 
(in Dresden). 

Von Bodt was the son of a Mecklenburger who 
went with William III. to England. He came 
under the influence of Daniel Marot (see Marot, 
D.), and in 1700 went to Berlin where he built 
the stairway and the main portal of the Zeughaus. 
He built. also the portal of the Stadt Schloss at 
Potsdam near Berlin (1701), which shows the 
influence of Daniel Marot. He was also 


~ employed in the erection of fortifications. With 


Zacharias Longuelune (see Longuelune) he re- 
built the MHollandische, afterward called the 
Japanische, Palast in Dresden. 

Schumann, Barock und Rococo ; Dohme, Barock 
und Rococo Architektur ; ; Ebe, Die Schmuckfor men 
der Monumentalbauten. 

BODY. A. The larger, or more central mass 
of a building having varied parts, as a church. 

B. The shaft, or plain upright part, of a 
pillar or pier of any sort. 

C.. Solidity, mass, thickness, and the like, 
taken in the abstract; thus, it may be said 
that such a paint lacks body. 

BODY COLOUR. A colour or paint hay- 
ing body, 7z.e., rendered heavy and opaque ; 
especially, in water colour work, a paint mixed 
with white. 

BODY RANGE; BODY VAULT. Ina 
groined or ribbed vault, the larger and higher 
vault which the smaller ones intersect. 

315 


Peds 


As sia. Sith gi mt 
BOHEMIA, BS) _ oe 

BOESWILLWALD, ee 
b. March 2, 1815 (at peste. ; 
1896. 

Boeswillwald was apprenticed to a mason and a 
studied architecture in the atelier of Labrouste a... 
(see Labrouste). In 1845 he was appointed 
inspector of the works of restoration of the — 
cathedral of Paris under Viollet-le-Duc (see 
Viollet-le-Duc) and Lassus (see Lassus). He a 
assisted Duban (see Duban) and Lassus in the — = 
restoration of the Sainte Chapelle, Paris. In 
1849 he was appointed diocesan architect of 
Lucon, Soissons, Bayonne, Orléans, and later of 
Chartres, and restored many of the cathedrals — 
and churches of France. He organized the ser- — 
vice of the Monuments Historiques 1 in Algeria — 
and Tunisia. 

Construction Moderne, March 28, 1896. 

BOFFRAND, GERMAIN; architect and 
decorator; b. May 7, 1667; d. March 18, 
1754. 

The son of Germain Boffrand, an architect and 
sculptor of Nantes, France. He went to Paris © 
quite early and studied architecture, probably 
under Jules Hardouin-Mansart (see Hardouin- 
Mansart, Jules). In 1690 he was made cus- 
todian of the drawings in the cabinet du rot. — 
In 1706 he assisted in the decoration of the 
Hotel Soubise, Paris. In 1708 he was admitted 
to the Académie de l’Architecture. Between 
1715 and 1718 Boffrand rebuilt a great part of 
the Arsenal, Paris, where he decorated a salon. 
Between 1725 and 1727 he repaired the south- 
ern portal of the church of Notre Dame, Paris, 
with the rose window. Noy..*29 aire 
he was made chief architect of the Duke of 
Lorraine at Nancy, where he built the great 
altar of the cathedral and the Hdtel de la 
Monnaie. He was architect of the Duke of 
Bavaria, for whom he erected a hunting lodge, 
and worked also on the episcopal palace at 
Wiirzburg, Germany. In France, Boffrand held 
the position of architecte du rot and premier 
ingénieur et inspecteur général des ponts et 
chaussées du royaume. In 1745 he published 
the Livre d’ Architecture contenant les prin- 
cipes généraux de cet art, ete. 

Jean Francois Blondel, Cours d’ Architecture ; 
Guilmard, Les Maittres ornamentistes ; Mariette, 
Abécédario ; Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 

BOGHEM, LOUIS VAN ; architect. 

Architect of Margaret of Austria, aunt of 
Charles V. [1500-1558] and gouvernante of 
the Netherlands. There exists a contract dated 
March 3, 1524, between Van Boghem and 
André Nounton, quarry master of Dinant, for 
the erection of the monument of Franciscus, 
Archduke of Austria, in the church of Couden- 
berg in Brussels, Belgium. 

Messager des Sciences historiques, 1858, p. 105. 

BOHEMIA, ARCHITECTURE OF. A 
casual glimpse at the history of Bohemia will 
316 


an) 

Pads _ 

? | al 
a 


architect ; 
d. March 20 oh 


ee is " wd eed 
. i;! 7 


ye haves 


a BOHEMIA 


lead one to expect to find little but ruins of its 
-_ medizeval buildings, because, in addition to the 
__ misfortunes which assailed the eastern states of 
Germany, it was involved in those religious dis- 
sensions which commenced here nearly a century 
earlier than in other parts of Europe, and at- 
tained to a more acute form than anywhere else 
except, perhaps, Scotland. Thus, what Gothic 
churches still exist are for the most part muti- 
lated fragments of ancient buildings patched up 

and modernized in later times. 
us The medizval architecture of Bohemia was, 
however, extremely rich and, especially during 
the reign of Karl IV., great works were under- 
taken chiefly at Prague and Kuttenberg, and 
what remains of them gives us some faint idea 
of their former magnificence. 

The views of Prague from the Moldau, or look- 
ing down upon the city from the Volks-Garten 
or “The Belvedere” present a vision of singu- 
iar beauty. The great rocky platform of the 
__- Hradschin to the west with its immense palace 
capped by the graceful apse and lofty tower of 
the cathedral, together with the Romanesque 
spires of the Benedictine Abbey of S. George 
- and the huge round tower of Dalliborka with its 
grim associations, rising sheer out of the valley, 
z in the foreground. The great river with its 
noble old bridge and Gothic towers in the centre, 
and the countless spires, domes, and towers of 
the Altstadt to the east, the craggy rock of the 
_ Wisserhad to the south, cannot fail to raise in 
_ the mind expectations of a rich architectural 
treat. When, however, one comes to examine 
the city more in detail, disappointment is inev- 
itable. The cathedral, though interesting and 
beautiful, is only the choir and tower of what 
would, if completed, have been a noble church, 


_ _ but at present is but a fragment, mutilated and 
---— injured. The noble spire which once crowned 
ane g its tower (in its day the loftiest building in all 
a Europe) was destroyed about the middle of the 
a ‘sixteenth century and replaced by the present 
a not unpicturesque bulb-shaped structure. The 
oN internal fittings and stained glass were destroyed 


by the Hussites and the nave was never built.’ 
The aisles and chapel of the choir were the works 

_.of Mathias of Arras (1344) and are purely 
French in character. The lofty clerestory with 
its rich profusion of tracery and flying buttresses 
was completed in 1385 by Peter Arler of Gmiind, 
and the noble tower some years later. 

The Wenzel’s Kapelle, 1347, forms a lower 
portion of an unfinished transept; its walls are 
adorned externally with mosaic evidently Italian, 
and internally with a series of small frescoes with 
borders of cut crystals. The work is said to be 
by a Russian artist, and if so it forms a curious 
link between Eastern and Western art. 

There are many interesting monuments and 
some good old pictures, but no furniture or 
1 It is now, however, being erected. 

317 


Le a ~ ry Po 7? A A 4A A eke i a ed ~~ te 
ee ey y * he ota Mu 4 ; 7 ‘. 


BOHEMIA 


stained glass, such as one usually finds in Ger- 
man churches. 

The abbey church of 8. George, close to the 
cathedral, is a strange-looking Romanesque 
building considerably modernized, but contain- 
ing interesting monuments of early Bohemian 
kings. 

The noble old bridge over the Moldau has 
graceful Gothic towers at either end, adorned 
with niches and panelling. It was commenced 
by Peter Arler in 1357, who is also supposed to 
have built the town hall, with its stately tower 
and graceful chapel. 

Few of the churches in Prague are worthy of 
notice. The Teyn church (1407-1460) is a large, 
lofty building with two picturesque western 


BoHEMIA: TEYNKIRCHE AT PRAGUE, 15TH CEN- 
TURY. THE WEST FRONT. 


spires. The finest work about it is the great 
bronze bas-relief over the south door, represent- 
ing the Resurrection. The vaulting internally is 
modernized, but there is an interesting baldachino 
over a side altar, somewhat similar to those at 
Ratisbon. 

The Karlshofer Kirche (1377) is a very inter- 
esting work, though much modernized externally ; 
the nave consists of a great octagon unsupported 
by pillars, with an elaborate network vault. The 
choir is apsidal. 

The old thirteenth century synagogue is an 
elegant building with a row of columns down 
the centre. 

Many of the older houses in Prague are built 
over vaulted arcades, and often exhibit remains 
of graceful Gothic architecture. 

018 


a ere 


>) 4 eee a eee” dey: ve 
ar aly oT ee ree 


Wei * 


BOHEMIA 


BoHEMIA: KARLSBRUCKE AT PRAGUE. WEST END WITH TOWERS. 


The palaces are stately buildings. That of 
the Hradschin possesses a magnificent late Gothic 
hall said to be the largest stone vaulted hall in 
existence, unsupported by columns. It dates 
from the close of the fifteenth century. The 
Renaissance portion of the palace seems to have 

319 


oe 


BOHEMIA 


been commenced by Scamozzi (1607-1614). The 

gateway is certainly handsome. ‘The palaces in 

the town itself are of neoclassic architecture and, 

like those of Vienna, are treated in a stately man- 

ner; the most striking are the Kinsky palace, 

the Clamgallas palace in the Karlsgasse (1707— 
320 


sists alone of a very 


- cathedral of Prague. 


BOHME 


1712), the archbishop’s palace, the 
Thun palace, and the Wallenstein 
palace with a magnificent open 
hall or garden refectory. In the 
king’s garden is a still more 
beautiful hall called the Belve- 
dere of Ferdinand I. dating 
from the year 1543. | 

After Prague the most beau- 
tiful town in Bohemia is Kut- 
tenberg, In a very charming 
situation. The great church of & 
S. Barbara, with 
its lofty apse and 
chevet, stands up- 
on a great rock 
overlooking the 
river. Like most 
of the Bohemian 
churches, it is un- 
finished, and con- 


stately choir com- 
menced in the year 
1380 and carried on 
until 1541. The apse 
follows the French 
plan, but the rest of the choir is a ‘‘ Hallenbau” 
with galleries round it; if completed it would 
probably have been the most magnificent church 


in the Austrian dominions. 


There are several other interesting churches in 
Kuttenberg, and a particularly beautiful ‘‘ foun- 
tain house” something like the Schénbrunnen 
in Nuremberg. Very fine churches are also to 
be seen at Pilsen and Kollin. 

There are several interesting castles in Bohe- 
mia; that of Karlstein is the finest, it was 


erected by Karl IV. from the designs of Mathias 


of Arras in 1348, and is well preserved. The 
chapels are adorned with the same combination 
of paintings and mosaic that we see in the 
There are also curious 
castles at Eger, Falkenau, Krummau, and else- 
where. The chapel in the castle of Eger is 
built in two stories, with an opening in the cen- 
tre uniting them. It is said to have been built 


by Frederic Barbarossa about 1180, but the 


upper chapel is a century later. 


Mittelalterliche Kunstdenkmale des  Oéester- 
reichischen Kaiserstaates; Ernst und Oescher, 
Baudenkmdle des Mittelalters in Erzherzog- 
thum Oesterreich ; Brewer, H. W., Papers upon 
the Medieval Architecture of Central Germany, 
Bavaria, and Bohemia, published in The Builder, 
London, 1866 to 1890 ; Schmitt, Abbildungen der 
Baualterthumer in Bomen ; Algemeine Bauzeitung 
{about 30 vols.); (and see Bibliography, Ger- 
many, Architecture of). 


-—-H. W. BREWER. 


BOHME, MARTIN HEINRICH; archi- 
tect ; d. 1725. 
Bohme was a pupil of Andreas Schliiter, and 
321 


BoHEMIA: TOWER AT PRAGUE IN THE ROSSMARKT. 


BOLOGNE 


worked with Schliiter and Eosander 
on the Schloss at Berlin. (See Schlii- 

ter and Eosander.) He is sup- 
posed to have designed or built 
the four portals of the first 
court of that building. 

Gurlitt, Geschichte des Barock- 
stiles in Deutschland. 

BOILER. In a general sense, 
a utensil in which water is 
heated. In plumbing, a strong 

, closed vessel or 
reservoir of copper 
or galvanized iron, 
generally set in the 
kitchen, intended to 
store water heated 
by the Water Back 
in the range, until 
same is drawn at 
the plumbing fix- 
tures. Properly 
speaking, the water 
back is the boiler, 
and what is called 
boiler is merely a 
“ reservoir for hot 
water. (For boilers as used for household warm- 
ing, see Ventilation ; Warming.) — W. P. G. 

BOILER ROOM. The space provided for 
the boilers used for heating and ventilation, or 
for the generation of electrical or other power. 
In architectural practice this is commonly com- 
bined with Engine Room. 

BOIS COMPRIME; BOIS DURCI. Wood 
which, after lying long in the water, either by 
accident or design, is then pressed by hydraulic 
pressure into moulds of steel or other hard 
material. This has been used for decorative 
purposes. 

BOLE. A fine soft clay, yellow or dark, 
coloured by iron oxide; formerly used as a 
pigment. 

BOLLARD. A solid post on a quay or pier 
intended to receive the loops of hawsers or in 
other ways to serve for mooring vessels. The 
term is generally confined to stone posts or 
others of enduring materials. (Compare Pile.) 

BOLOGNE (BOULOGNE), JEAN (GIO- 
VANNI BOLOGNA, FIAMMINGO); sculp- 
tor and architect: b. 1524; d. Aug. 13, 1608. 

Jean was the son of a sculptor (entailleur) 
of Douai in French Flanders. Bologne is his 
family name, and has no connection with the 
city of Bologna in Italy. In 1540 he entered 
the atelier of the sculptor Jacques Dubroeucq 
(see Dubroeucq) at Antwerp. He spent several 
years in Rome, and about 1553 was invited to 
settle in Florence by Bernardo Vecchietti, at 
whose villa, 7 Riposo, he lived for several 
years. The Grand Duke Francesco I. de’ Medici 
became his principal patron. April 28, 1563, 
322 


BOLOGNE 


Bologne was commissioned by Pius IV. (Pope 
1559-1565) to make the famous fountain of 
Neptune at Bologna (finished 1567). His Fly- 
ing Mercury, made in 1574, was first placed 


BOLSTER IN Swiss Woopwork, 18TH CENTURY. 


in the Acciajuoli gardens in Florence, and it 
was transferred to the Villa Medici, Rome, 
before 1598. When the Villa Medici was 
sold to the French government about 1769 the 
statue was brought back to Florence. About 
1577-1581 Bologne made the colossal statue 
called L’Appenino (25 metres high) at the villa 
of Pratolino near Florence. He was also em- 
ployed in the decoration of the Boboli gardens, 
Florence, his most important works there being 
the fountain of the Jsoletto and the fountain of 
the Grotticella. There is a charming fountain 
‘by him at the villa of Petraia, near Florence. 
His equestrian statue of Cosimo I. was placed 
in the Piazza della Signoria, Florence, in 1594. 
His group of Hercules and the centaur in the 
Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence, was made between 
1594 and 1599. In 1596 he began the three 
bronze doors of the facade of the cathedral of 
Pisa to replace those by Bonano da Pisa (see 
Bonano da Pisa) which had been destroyed by 
fire Oct. 24, 1595. He was assisted by Pierre 
Franqueville, his favourite bronze-caster, Fra 
Domenico Portigiani, and others. The fine 
statue of 8. Luke at Or 8. Michele, Florence, 
dates from 1602. In 1604 he began the eques- 
trian statue of Henri IV., which, completed by 
Pietro Tacca, was placed in position at the Pont 
323 


Oe a EO 
Veal ce ps 7 Bets " si 

BOLT aes 

Neuf, Paris, Aug. 23, 1614 (destroyed Aug. 11, 
1792). His figurines and smaller works are 
especially fine, among the best being the cru- 
cifix in the new sacristy of 8. Lorenzo, Florence. 


Desjardins, La vie et l'euvre de Jean Bologne; — EB 
Duthilleul, Lloge de Jean Bologne; Vasari, Milanesi 


ed., Vol. III.; Miintz, Renaissance; Baldinucci, _ 
Notizie de’ Professori del Disegno. ee: 


BOLSTER. A. Same as Cushion. 


B. A short piece of timber set horizontally a. 


across the top of a post, either to afford a greater 


bearing surface for a girder or girders, or to allow — 4 z 
a post above to set between the ends of instead _ 


of upon the girders, or to shorten the span of a a 


girder or girders. ae 


C. A crosspiece connecting the ribs of a 
arch centring. 

BOLSTER WORK. A form of rusticated 
masonry in which the rounded projecting blocks 


or rustications bear a fancied resemblance to 


bolsters. (Rare.) 7 
BOLT. A pin or rod used either to secure 


two or more parts or members permanently ~ 


together ; or movable, as for a temporary fast- 
ening; or fixed, to afford a more or less tempo- 
rary support or means of attachment. 
specifically : — 

A, A pin or bar, generally of wrought iron 
or steel, to secure parts or members together, 
having a head worked on one end and a screw 
thread and nut at the other, or sometimes nuts — 
at both ends. Distinguished from a rod as 
connecting two or more members in immediate 
contact, and, therefore, as being shorter. : 

B. A movable bar, rod, or similar piece for 
securing a door, window, or the like; whether 
made to slide horizontally or vertically ; either 
in a case or sheath, or in three or more supports” 
such as rings, or in a lock of which it forms the 
securing member. Distinguished from a bar as 


being smaller or of more elaborate and finished 
construction. 
with its case. 


Hence, such a member together 


Bout: WITH RINGS AND DOOR-PULL, ALL OF WOOD, 
Swiss, 17TH CENTURY. 


C’. A pin, hook, or large screw driven or let 
into a wall, or the like, as a means — generally 
temporary —of support or suspension. Hardly 
to be distinguished from a spike or screw in the 
ordinary sense, except as being larger or of more 
elaborate form. 

324 


More — 


| A  & 


grillage. — (F. E. K.) 


BOLT 


_ Barb Bolt. A bolt in sense A, of which 
the shaft is provided with barbs or sharp projec- 
tions pointed toward the head of the bolt ; thus 
permitting of ready insertion and, when driven, 
resisting an outward pull. 

Barrel Bolt. A cylindrical bolt in sense B, 
made to slide in a case which is secured to the 
face of a door or sash by flanges. When shot, 
the end enters a corresponding case or a socket. 

Carriage Bolt. A small bolt in sense A, 
having a domical or somewhat conical head, the 
other end being threaded for a nut. 

Chain Bolt. A contrivance to secure a door, 
or the like, when ajar ; consisting of a short chain 


_ permanently secured to the frame, its outer end 


being attached at will in a slot on the door so 
arranged that the chain cannot be detached from 
the outside by access through the opening. 
Clevis Bolt. Same as Lewis Bolt (see sub- 
title below). 
Dead Bolt. A simple form of lock consist- 


ing of a bolt shot or withdrawn by turning a 


knob, as distinguished from the commoner form 
of lock in which the bolt is actuated by a spring. 
Double Ended Bolt. One having a thread 
and nut at each end. | 
Drift Bolt. A bolt in sense A, round or 


‘square, and about an inch thick, to secure to- 


gether the successive layers of timbers in a 


Expansion Bolt. A bolt in sense <A, ar- 


ranged to screw into a shell divided longitudi- 
nally into two parts which spread laterally when 


the bolt is screwed into it, thus making a very 
close connection with the sides of the hole pro- 
vided for it. 

Eye Bolt. A bolt whose head is a fixed ring. 
(Compare Ring Bolt below.) 

Fish Bolt. Any bolt to secure a fish or fishes. 

Flush Bolt. A bolt in sense B, arranged to 
be sunk into the face of a door or sash so that 
the face of its case is flush with the surface. 

Fox Bolt. A bolt secured by a Foxtail 
Wedge, which is forced into its inner end. (See 
under Wedge.) 

Hook Bolt. One whose head forms a hook. 

Lewis Bolt. One having a dovetail shank 
or shaft, flaring at its inner end, to be inserted 


~ in a hole of similar shape in stone or metal and 


secured by lead calking. 
part of a Lewis. 

Mortise Bolt. A bolt in sense B, arranged 
to be sunk in a mortise in the edge of a door or 
sash, so that the face of its case is flush with 
the surface of the edge. 


Sometimes forming 


Rag Bolt. Same as Barb Bolt (see subtitle 
above). 
Ring Bolt. An Eye Bolt having a loose ring 


held by the eye. (Compare Eye Bolt above.) 
Screw Bolt. A bolt with tapering point, 
having a screw thread, differing only by its 
larger size from a screw in the ordinary sense. 
325 


BONAVENTURI 


Sprig Bolt. Same as Barb Bolt (see sub- 
title above). 

Spring Bolt.* A bolt in sense B, which 
is shot, and retained in that position by a spring, 
which must be compressed, as by a knob, to 
allow the bolt to be withdrawn. 

Stud Bolt. A bolt with a screw thread at 
each end — one for screwing into any fixed sur- 
face, the other having a stud or nut. — D.N.B.S. 

BOLTEL. A. In medieval architecture, a 
convex rounded moulding. 

B. By extension from the above meaning, 
the coping of a convex rounded portion of the 
wall of a gable, generally forming a quadrant. 
In this sense also Bottle. — (A. P. 8.) 

BOLTON, WILLIAM; _ ecclesiastic 
architect ; d. 1532. 

The prior of S. Bartholomew, London, is 
mentioned in the will of King Henry VII. as 
““Maister of the Works” of the chapel of the 
Virgin Mary, now called Henry the Seventh’s 
Chapel, at Westminster Abbey, London. The 
actual prior at this time was William Bolton. 
It is extremely probable that he designed the 
chapel, although it has usually been credited to 
Sir Reginald Bray (see Bray, Sir R.). The first 
stone of the building was laid Jan. 24, 1503. 
The greater part of it was built in the reign of 
Henry VIII. (1491-1547). Stow calls Bolton 
a “great builder.” 

Brayley, Historical and Architectural Account 
of Henry the Seventh’s Chapel; Stow, Survey of 
London. 

BON. (See Bono.) 

BONAFE, MACIAS (MATHIAS); archi- 
tect and sculptor. 

Bonafé constructed the lower stalls of the 
choir of the cathedral of Barcelona, Spain, in 
1457. 


Vifiaza, Adiciones. 

BONANNO (BONANNUS) of Pisa; ar- 
chitect and sculptor. 

The great bronze doors of the cathedral of 
Monreale aresigned “‘ Bonannus civis Pisanus,” 
with the date 1186. The doors which were 
made for the cathedral of Pisa in the latter 
part of the twelfth century are ascribed to him. 
Those of the front were destroyed in 1596 (see 
Bologne, J.). That of the transept remains. 
An inscription found in excavating at the base 
of the Leaning Tower of Pisa gives the name of 
‘¢ Bonannus,” who is supposed to have been the 
architect of the building. His work appears to 
have been suspended at the third gallery on ac- 
count of the increasing inclination. 

Gravina, Duomo di Monreale; Miintz, Florence 
et la Toscane; Rohault de Fleury, Monuments 
de Pise; Perkins, Tuscan Sculptors; Vasari, 
Milanesi ed., Vol. I., p. 274. 

BONAVENTURI, NICOLO DB’ ; architect. 

Nicol6 came from Paris, and was the first 
foreign architect employed on the cathedral of 

326 


and 


BOND 


Milan (begun 1386). He joined the works 
May 7, 1389. July 6 he was appointed in- 
gegnere generale. He was chiefly occupied 
with the construction of the great piers, which 
were probably begun before he came to Milan. 
Boito, Duomo di Milano ; Annali del Duomo. 
BOND (n.). The connection of two or 
more parts or members which overlap and are 


rif 


i 
4 i Me aia 


OTT 


ll 


u | 


wa’ 
I aa es 
\ 


8 


BonD AS USED IN EARLY STONE WORK OF SYRIA. 


The thin course of headers are through stones and form a heart 
bond with the stones, above and below, which meet at the 
centre of the wall. These also form running bonds as 
shown at the face of the wall. 


made to adhere more or less closely ; hence, a 
piece or pieces used for that purpose. Specifi- 
cally :— 

A. In carpentry, (1) the securing or framing 
of two or more timbers together by means of a 
third crossing them; (2) the timbers, con- 
sidered collectively, placed in or on the walls, 
and which act to stiffen and bind the parts of a 
building, as wall plates, templets. — (N. E. D.) 


BOND AS FORMED IN A WALL OF RouGH STONE; 
B,B BEING THROUGH STONES, AND A, A WHAT 
ARE SOMETIMES CALLED ‘ THREE - QUARTER ”’ 
Bonp STONES. (SEE HEART Bonp.) 


B. In masonry, (1) the tie or binding of the 
various parts or pieces made by laying one 
327 : 


rt 


BOND 


piece across two or more pieces or parts; (2) a 


piece of material used for that purpose ; hence, 
(3) the entire system of bonding or breaking 


) 


oe 
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ae 


Ve 


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ee Ae. 


ZZ 


LLL2 
ZLZ 
LP LF OP AF BEF 
LZ ZL ZZ 
eZ = 
7 i aa 
La 
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PAIS AF 


FSI EG 
FS ar 


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aoa 
aD 


52 


See 


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peepee 9555S 
SEZ ZI LLLE 
Sen aeeS eee 


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“= aa cay ae ay ee near a 


BOND FORMED AT THE JUNCTION OF A CROSS WALL 
WITH AN OUTER WALL, THE BOND STONES BEING 
DRESSED TO THE Exact THICKNESS OF THE 
WALLS, SO THAT THESE STRETCHERS SERVE ALSO 
AS PERPENDS. 


joints as used in a masonry structure, for ex- 
ample, a wall may be said to be built in. English 
bond. Incorrectly, the securing or holding to- 
gether the parts of a.masonry structure by the 
mortar or similar adhesive material. 

C. In roofing, (1) the amount by which 
one slate, tile, or shingle overlaps the sec- 
ond course below. (2) Sometimes the dis- 
tance from the nail of one to the lower 
edge of the course above. 

In bonding masonry, the following names 
are given to the various pieces of stone or 
brick : — Binder ; Header, one laid length- 
wise across a wall, generally perpendicular 
with the face. Perpend, in stonework, a 
binder extending entirely through, from 
face to face (French parpaing). Stretcher, 
one laid lengthwise parallel with the face. 
Through, same as perpend. The various 
systems of bonding are as given in the sub- 
titles, in the definitions of which cross ref- 
erences have not been thought essential. 
American Bond. In Brickwork, a course 
of headers to every five or six courses of stretch- 
ers. 

Block and Cross Bond. In Brickwork, 
that which leaves the wall with one face in 
Block Bond and the other in Cross Bond. 

Block Bond. Same as Flemish Bond. 

Block in Course Bond. In an arch built 
of otherwise unbonded concentric rings — 
as of rowlocks—a bond formed through the full 

328 


BOND 


depth of the archivolt by a block of bonded 
brick or by a voussoir inserted at intervals. 


Biock In CouRSE BOND, FORMED BY FIVE COURSES 
or BONDED Brick TO TIE TOGETHER THE FouR 
CoNCENTRIC RINGS OF ROWLOCKS. 


' Chain Bond. Formed by building in the 
wall, longitudinally, a bar or strap of metal, or 
a timber. 

Clip Bond. - In Brickwork, a bond formed 
by clipping off the inside corners of face 
bricks laid as stretchers so as to form notches 


Cure Bond, FORMED AT THE JUNCTION OF THE 


DIAGONAL HEADERS AND THE FACE BRICKS 
WHICH HAVE THEIR CORNERS ‘‘ CLIPPED.’’ 


These headers also form a diagonal bond. (See illustration of 
Plumb Bond.) 

for the insertion of diagonal headers ; used the 

same as Split Bond, where it is desired to have 

the face composed entirely of stretchers. 

Common Bond. In the United States, 
same as American. 

Cross Bond. (1) Courses of Flemish Bond 
alternating with courses of stretchers whose 
joints come opposite the centres of the stretch- 
ers in the second course above and below. (2) A 
modified English Bond, the successive stretch- 
ing courses breaking joints with each other. 

Diagonal Bond. Raking Bond, in which 
diagonal headers form continuous rows across 
the wall; and are therefore commonly joined to 
the face bricks by Clip Bond. 


ENGLISH BOND. 


English Bond. Alternate courses of headers 
and stretchers. 
English Cross Bond. Sameas Cross Bond (2). 
329 


BOND 


Flemish Bond. Headers and stretchers al- 
ternating horizontally and vertically, each header 
being centred with the stretchers above and below. 


FLEMISH BonpD. 


Flying Bond. Formed by occasional headers. 
at considerable intervals, in a wall formed 
mainly of stretchers. 

Garden or Garden Wall Bond. Sameas 
Flying Bond ; so called because commonly used 
in thin boundary walls eight or nine inches thick. 

Heading Bond. Formed by a course of 
headers, as in American or English. 

Heart Bond. The bond formed where two 
headers meet at the centre of a wall, the joint 
being covered by a header above and below. 

Herring Bone Bond. Raking Bond in 
which the rows of diagonal headers are laid at: 
right angles, forming in plan a series of zigzags. 

Hoop Iron Bond. Chain Bond formed by 
strap or hoop iron. 


3 ny 


aT {i as 


Te \ 
Sasi YM fib edo 
| 


WH 


/; 
WS 
ee (i) eae 


IN-AND-OUT BOND, FORMED BY A VERTICAL SERIES 
oF CuT STONES INSERTED IN A BRICK WALL. 


Here the headers are arranged to be incorporated in a cross- 
wall, which will thus be bonded to the wall shown. 


In-and-Out Bond. That formed by headers 
and stretchers alternating vertically, especially 
when formed at a corner, as by quoins. (See 
Inbond ; Outbond.) 

Plumb Bond. Same as Diagonal Bond. 


PLtumMB BoND: THE RESULT OF BONDING THE FACE 
BRIcK AS SHOWN IN THE ILLUSTRATION OF 
Cuie Bonp. 


The term is, however, used to describe the entire method, and 
hence, commonly, as synonymous with Diagonal Bond. 


330 


hat} FP eee Te ae i aut ie he et’ & 
= ( De Gwe it A> ; _ oe a ee eal eke 


BOND 
Raking Bond. Formed by diagonal headers. 
Ranging Bond: Chain Bond formed by small 
strips of wood at the face of the wall, commonly 
laid in the joints, and projecting slightly to 
afford nailing for battens, furring, and the like. 
Running Bond. Formed by two overlapping 
stretchers. American and English Bond are 
also frequently called Running Bond. 


Split Bond. The face composed entirely of 


stretchers which are split lengthwise so that 
headers behind may lap the stretchers above ana 
below, used in every fifth or sixth course to 
secure the face bricks ; accomplishing the same 
result as a Clip Bond. 

Timber Bond. Formed by a heavy timber, 
generally forming a Chain Bond. 

Yorkshire Bond. Same as Flying Bond. 

—D.N.B.S. 

BOND (v.). To secure together the pieces 
of material composing a structure by the forma- 
tion of one or more bonds, in whatever mate- 
rial. More commonly used of masonry. 


BOND COURSE. A course of bond stones 


or headers in masonry ; as the alternate courses of 
headers in English Bond. In ordinary Ameri- 
can brickwork every sixth or seventh course is a 
bond course. 

BONDER. A piece or member which bonds, 
especially in masonry. In stonework, more 
commonly called a Bond Stone. 

BONDING COURSE. Same as 
Course. 

BOND STONE. In stone masonry, a stone 
whose longest dimension is laid transversely to 
the length of the wall. It commonly serves to 
bind or bond the facing to the backing or filling. 

BOND TIMBER. A timber used in Timber 
Bond. (See Bond.) 

BONE (v.). To determine or test by eye 
the evenness or regularity of a line, or of a series 
of lines or points, or of a surface ; as, to sight 
along a series of rods which are adjusted so as 
to range, and on which a grade may be marked. 
Written also Born and Bourne. 

BONE HOUSE. Same as Ossuary. 

BONENSACE;; architect. 

April 20, 1207, a large part of the cathedral 
of Magdeburg, Germany, was destroyed by fire. 
The bishop, Albert II., a man of great culture 
and ability, began in 1208 the reconstruction of 


Bond 


his church in the pointed style which was then — 


replacing the round-arched or Romanesque 
style. The architect employed was one Bonen- 
sack, who is represented in a little figure which 


serves as a bracket supporting a three-quarters | 
column in the nave of the church. His work i is: 


probably confined to the choir. 

Brandt, Der Dom zu Magdeburg. 

BONING ROD; BONING STICK. A 
stick with a crosspiece forming a head like the 
letter T, used to, indicate a level (Knight). 
Spelled also Borning or Bourning (see Bone, v.). 

331 


the splendid monument of Cansignorio (d. 187 
near the Arche dei Scaligeri in Verona (1370 


The work bears the inscription ‘Hoc opus a 


sculpsit et fecit Boninus de Campiliono.” a 
He was also employed on the cathedral of Milan — Ss 
in 1388. ae 
Boito, Duomo di Milano. 
BONNET. Same as Hood. = 
BONNEUIL, ETIENNE or PIERRE ; aria oa 
chitect. — ‘- 


Bonneuil worked on the cathedral of N otre © x - 


Dame in Paris. In 1287 he went to Upsal in — 


Sweden to build the church of the Trinity (ca- a 


thedral) on the model of Notre Dame. 
Lance, Dictionnaire, mes 
BONO, BARTOLOMEO (BERGA- — 
MASCO); architect and sculptor ; 
15, 1529. 


‘Aug. 20, 1492, he was appointed Proto al , = 4 


Ufficio del Sale. As such he must have been 
concerned in many public buildings erected in 
Venice about that time. The earliest work | 


attributed to him is the great chapel or tribuna 


and two lateral chapels of the church of 8S. — 
Rocco, built about 1495. In 1510 he built the 
upper part of the campanile in the Piazza di 8. 
Marco (Miintz), He began the Scuola di 
S. Rocco in 1516, and had charge of the work — 
there until June 3, 1524. He laid the founda- 
tion and built the hall in the lower story. He 
began the Procuratie Vecchie which was con- — 
tinued by J. Sansovino (see Sansovino). He 
was succeeded in his office of proto by Jacopo 
Sansovino at the same salary, 80 ducats a year. 
All the buildings mentioned are in Venice. 
Paoletti, Rinascimento in Venezia, Vol. II., p. 
275; Abate G. Nicoletti, I/lustrazione della chiesa 
e scuola di 8. Rocco ; Miintz, Renaissance. ( 
BONO, BARTOLOMEO DI GIOVANNI; 
architect and sculptor. ( 
Bartolomeo Bono is the greatest of the — 


sculptor-architects of the later Gothic period in 


Venice. He assisted his father (see Bono, G.) 
in his work on the facade of the Ca’ d’ Oro, 
begun in 1421. Heis mentioned with him in 
the contract of Jan. 18, 1422, and elsewhere © 


in the records of the building. Healsoappears 


in the contract of Nov. 10, 1438, between 
his father and the Provveditori del Sale for the 
construction of the Porta della Carta between 
the Doges’ Palace and the church of 8. Marco, 
This portal was called ‘della Carta” from the 
carte or notices posted there and “ Porta 
dorata” from the gilding and colour employed 
upon it. It was finished in 1441. The relief 
of the tympanum of the great door of the Scuola 
di S. Marco is undoubtedly by Bartolomeo 
(Paoletti, Vol. II., p. 40). The Arco Foscari at 
the Doges’ Palace is attributed to Bartolomeo, 
although documentary proof is lacking. Its 
statues are among the finest in Venice, and the 
332 


d. March 
at 


~ 


o> aie ne 
7 i an) a ; ; 
5 Bey . ? ; 
\ a , 4 . 
BONO 
eae ‘ 


meee, & 


Porta della Carta between the Doges’ Palace and 


ae peculiar use of Renaissance motives with Gothic 


details is very interesting. 

Paoletti, Rinascimento in Venezia, Vol. L; 
Cecchetti, La Facciata della Ca’ d’ Oro; Giacomo 
Boni, La Ca @’ Oro e le sue Decorazioni Policrome. 

BONO (BUONO), GIOVANNI (“ZANE 
BON”); architect and sculptor. 

Giovanni was the founder of an important 
family of Venetian architects and sculptors of 
the fifteenth century. The customary attribu- 
tion to the Bono of the northwestern portion of 
the Doges’ Palace, on the Piazetta, is without 
foundation in the documents. The Domus 
Magna dei Conturini a S. Sofia, now called 
the Ca’ d’ Oro on the Canal Grande, was begun in 
1421. A copy of the contract, dated Jan. 18, 
1422, between Marino Contarini and “ Zane 
Bon taiapiera,” for work to.be done on this 
building still exists. Giovanni’s name appears 
frequently in the Contarini records and other 
contracts. The chief work of the Bono is the 
between Gio- 


S. Marco. The contract made 


I, p. 37). His will is dated March 25, 1442. 
Other works in Venice are ascribed to him con- 
jecturally. (See Bono, Bartolomeo). 


Paoletti, Rinascimento in Venezia, Vol. I.; 
Cecchetti, La Facciata della Ca’ @’ Oro; Giacomo 
Boni, La Ca’ @’ Oro e le sue Decorazioni Policrome. 


___ BONOMI, JOSEPH; architect ; b. 1739 (at 


Rome) ; d. March 9, 1808. 

Bonomi was Italian by birth and won consid- 
erable reputation in his own country. He 
was induced by the brothers Adam (see 
Adam, Robert) to come to England in 1767. 
He was a leader in the revival of Greek archi- 
tecture in England. A list of his works is given 
in the Arch. Pub. Soc. Dictionary. 

Leslie Stephen, Dictionary of National Biogra- 
phy; Gwilt, Encyclopedia of Architecture ; Arch. 
Pub. Soc. Dictionary. 

BONTEMPS, PIERRE; sculptor. 

In 1552 he contracted with Philibert de 
YOrme (see De lOrme, P.) to make for the 
mausoleum of Francois I., at 8. Denis, the bas- 
reliefs of the base and the kneeling statues of 

-the queen, the dauphin and the Duke Charles 
dOrléans. His reputation rests mainly on the 
brilliant execution of the bas-reliefs, which rep- 
resent the military expeditions of the king. In 
1556 payment was made to him for the beauti- 
ful marble vase with its pedestal, in the church 
at St. Denis, which was intended to contain 
the heart of Francois I. 

Marquet de Vaselot, Histoire des Sculpteurs 
Jrancais ; Palustre, La Renaissance en France ; 
eae de Laborde, Comptes des Batiments du 

oi. 

BONUSAMICUS (BUONAMICO) ; 
sculptor. 

An architrave with sculpture in the Campo 


333 


BORDER 


Santo at Pisa, Italy, is signed Bonvsamicvs 
Magister. The same name is found in an 
inscription at Mensano, near Siena. 

Da Morrona, Pisa Antica etc., p. 55; Vasari, 
Milanesi ed., Vol. I., p. 271. 

BOOKHOLDER. (See Lectern; Reading 
Desk.) 

BOOKSTACK. A fixed case fitted with a 
set of bookshelves, as for a library ; especially 
one of a large and elaborate system of such sets 
of shelves in the stack room of a public library. 

BOOKSTORE. A. In the United States, 
a place in which books are sold, usually at retail. 
In Great Britain, more commonly Bookseller’s 
Shop. 

B. In a large library, the room or rooms in 
which books are kept in quantity, and so ar- 
ranged as to be easily reached by the attend- 
ants. (Compare Stack.) 

BOOL WORK. Same as Boule Work. 

BOONE (BOENE), CORNELIS; sculptor. 

Boone was a Flemish sculptor who flourished 
in Ghent, Holland, in the middle of the fifteenth 
century. Ascribed to him are a costly tabernacle 
before the door of the 8. Michielskerke in Ghent 
(1443); figures of angels before an altar in the 
same church ; an altar-piece in the Predikheeren- 
kerke at Ghent ; and other work. 


Immerzeel, Hollandsche en Vlaamsche Kunsten- 
aars. 


BOOTH. A. A dwelling house or hut of 
small size and humble character. (Compare 
Bothie.) 

J. A temporary shelter, as of green boughs. 
(Compare Bower.) 

C. A stall or enclosed stand, permanent or 
temporary, but not wholly enclosed except by 
movable shutters, or the like, and roofed or not, 
according as it is in the open air or within a 
larger building. (1) Such a stand in a market 
house, a temporary exhibition, a charity fair, or 
bazaar. (2) At an election, such a stand used 
by the agent who has charge of distributing the 
ballots, etc., of the candidate or party. (3) Also, 
at an election, the closet into which each elector 
goes to prepare his ballot and mark it, as in the 
Australian method of voting, and certain modi- 
fications of it. — R. 8. 

BORDER. Primarily, the edge or outer 
boundary of any surface, as of a nation’s terri- 
tory, or a wall or boundary. By extension, a 
band, stripe, rim, or margin which marks the 
outer edge of anything. In this sense, the bor- 
ders of a flower garden are the strips of flower 
bed which are placed at its limits, as it is natural 
that such flower beds should be put under the 
shelter of the garden wall. In architectural use, 
the term is confined to mural decoration and 
chiefly to painted patterns. Thus, the paintings 
of Giotto and his assistants in the church of 8. 
Francis at Assisi are surrounded by borders 
from 5 to 8 inches wide filled with pat- 

334 


y, a a “wes Se Se to Pea 


a i 7 


BORDER STONE 


terns of extraordinary beauty and variety. In 
the external decoration of the cathedral of Flor- 


ence bands of inlaid marble are used with great — 


effect ; and such bands enclose and surround the 
surface of the gables which rise above the side 
doorways. The bands so used are borders, while 
those running horizontally and merely separating 
one part of the wall from another, are string 
courses or belt courses. —R. 8. 7 

BORDER STONE. Same as Curb Stone. 

BORDER TOWER. (See Pele Tower.) 

BORING. In preparations for building, a 
process of examining the soils or rocks beneath 
the surface where a building is to be erected. 
Boring is properly limited to the softer materials 
alone, such as sand, gravel, clay, and the like ; 
but when a rock is struck it is drilled, and this 
is included in the general term. For the purpose 
of boring, different augers are used, even a com- 
mon pump auger turned by a long bar screwed 
to its head and slowly moved by several men ; 
but for a proper examination of the materials 
beneath the surface it is customary to use an 
auger working through a pipe which retains a 
core of the excavated materials in their original 
relative positions. If careful note is taken of 
the exact depth to which the pipes had been 
sunk when each separate sample of the soil was 
collected, a fair notion of the soils beneath can be 
obtained. (See Excavation ; Foundation ; Pile.) 
When a larger and a smaller pipe may be used 
together, the smaller one is put within the larger, 
and water is forced into the space between the 
two pipes ; the materials below, if divisible and 
not too firmly indurated, are then washed up 
through the inner pipe and may be collected at 
the surface. — R. 8. 

BORN (v.). Same as Bone. 

BORNING ROD. (See Boning Rod ;— Stick.) 

BOROMINO (BOROMINI). (See Borro- 
mino. ) 

BORROMINO (BORROMINI), FRAN- 
CESCO (the family name was originally Cas- 
telli); architect and sculptor; b. Sept. 25, 
1599 sid) Aug le 1667) 

His father, Giovanni Domenico Castelli, after- 
ward called Borromino, was an architect in the 
service of the Visconti at Milan, Italy. Fran- 
cesco studied sculpture at Milan and was first 
employed at Rome asa sculptor. He afterward 
entered the service of Carlo Maderna (see Ma- 
derna) as draftsman. He was associated with 
Bernini (see Bernini) in his work at 8. Peter’s 
and at the Palazzo Barberini. During the reign 
of Innocent X. (Pope 1644-1655) he superseded 
Bernini as architect of S. Peter’s. His -earliest 
important building is the curious church of 5S. 
Carlo alle quattro fontane (1640-1667), a 
good example of the fully developed baroque 
style in Rome. He built also the cupola and 
other portions of the church of 8. Agnese in the 
Piazza Navona. About 1650 Borromino built 

335 


re ae eee Ket 
ad Het eo 

BOSS) —- 

the cloister and oratory of S. Filippo Neri. _ 


built the Palazzo Falconieri with the interesting — : 
He remodelled 


loggia overlooking the Tiber. 
the Palazzo Spada, where he designed the curious 
perspective corridor. All the works mentioned 
here are in Rome. 

Gurlitt, Geschichte des Barockstils in Italien; 


Ebe, Spéit-Renaissance ; Milizia, Memorie; Qua- __ 
tremére de Quincy, La Vie et les Ouvrages des 


plus célébres Architectes. 
BORSTLE. Same as Boltel. 


BOSBOOM, SYMON; architect ; b. about 2 , 


1614; d. about 1670. 


Symon Bosboom of Emden executed a great 
part of the sculptured decoration of the Hételde 


Ville at Amsterdam. (See Van Campen.) 


Van Campen, Stadthuis van Amsterdam ; Gal- 
land, Der Holldndischen Baukunst und Bildnerei. 


BOSIO, FRANCOIS JOSEPH (Baron); 
sculptor and painter ; b. Mar. 19, 1768 (at Mo- 


naco, France) ; d. July 29, 1845. 
Bosio was a pupil of Pajou in Paris. He is 
especially known as the sculptor of twenty bas- 


reliefs for the Colonne Vendéme and the bronze 


quadriga of the Arc du Carrousel, Paris. 


Dumont, Discours prononcés aux funérailles 


de M. le Baron Bosio. 4 


BOSKET; also BOSQUET. In _ landscape 
gardening, a clump or cluster of trees or shrubs. 
This, in the French form, signifies originally a 


grove of some magnitude—large enough to — 


contain a clear space within it which the foliage 
shelters from the wind and from the view of 
persons outside. Some of the French dictiona- 
ries limit its size to 30 or 40 metres. These 
dimensions are to be associated with the im- 
mense ornamental grounds of France; and in 
English use the term signifies rather a clump of 


three or four trees forming one of the elements =» 
The ‘23 


of the landscape architect’s composition. - 
form bosket is of the early eighteenth century. 
—R. S. 
BOSS (I.). A. A projecting mass of stone, 
usually not large and commonly intended to be 


Boss: CHURCH OF ELKSTONE, GLOUCESTERSHIRE. ~ 


cut away after the completion of the work. (See 
Bossage. ) 
B. A mass projecting, as in A, but intended 
as a permanent feature ; thus, in Gothic archi- 
336 


re 
‘ y, or 
, 


is 
- 
af 3 


Borromino died by suicide. 


a 


BOSS 


tecture, the moulded sill course of a window, or 
row of windows, is often terminated by sculp- 
tured projections of the sort. The most common 


use of the term is for the carved keystones of 


Boss: CHAPTER HousE, OxFORD CATHEDRAL, 
c. 1250 


Gothic vaults. Where the different ribs meet at 


_ the top of the vault such a piece of stone (called 


by the French clef’) is an almost essential fea- 


ture, and this, if treated in a decorative way, is 


Boss: St. ALBAN’s ABBEY CHURCH, HERTFORD- 
SHIRE. 


the boss. Those of the thirteenth century are 
sometimes of great richness. In later times they 
often took the form of the Pendant.—R. 8S. 


| 


. S Ss onl! ie tien 
N SS! LZ 


Boss: CHURCH OF NoTRE-DAME LA RICHE, TouRS, 
15TH CENTURY. 


BOSS (II). A small trough or box used for 
mortar, as in roofing. 

BOSS (III). Among builders, the master 
or employer. The word used alone has no other 


significance, but it is common to speak of the 


337 


BOTTICHER 


“boss of the job” in the sense of a workman 
who has the finer part of it in hand, or is tem- 
porarily in authority over other workmen and 
assistants. 

BOSSAGE. Projecting blocks of stone or 
stone bosses considered as a feature of stone 
walling, as ; — 

A. The projecting stones of rusticated ma- 
sonry ; or,— 

B. Masses or blocks left projecting in the 
rough during construction, to be afterward 
carved into their final decorative form. 

BOSSE, ABRAHAM; painter, architect, 
engraver and etcher; b. 1611, (at Tours, 
France) ; d. Feb. 14, 1678. 

Bosse was a pupil of the mathematician De- 
sargues. At the formation of the Académie 
Royale de Peinture in 1648, he was made pro- 
fessor of geometry and perspective. As engraver 
he was especially interested in the representation 
of manners and customs. He published many 
works on architectural subjects: Maniére Uni- 
verselle de Desargues pour la Perspective 
Pratique, Paris, 1698, 8vo; Moyen de prati- 
quer la Perspective sur les Tableaux et Sur- 
Jaces irreguliers, Paris, 1653, 8vo; Maniére 
de dessiner les Ordres d’ Architecture, Paris, 
1664, folio; Lecons de Géométrie et de Pers- 
pective, faites a V Académie, Paris, 1665, 8vo. 

Valabrégue, Abraham Bosse ; Bellier de la Cha- 
vignerie, Dictionnaire des Artistes de Il’Ecole 
Francaise. 

BOTEHGA. In Italian, a shop; in the his- 
tory of Italian art, the workshop in which an 
artist of reputation, having usually assistants, 
made and offered for sale, or made to order, 
decorative furniture, carvings, painted armorial 
shields, painted panels for chests, doors, shut- 
ters, tabernacles, shrines ; and, in short, art works 
of any sort from mural paintings of importance 
to toys, weapons, utensils, etc. Hach botega 
gained a reputation for a peculiar class of work. 

BOTERELL, JOHN;; architect. 

Between 1397 and 1398, Westminster Hall, 
London, was repaired by King Richard II. 
(b. 1367; d. 1400), John Boterell being then 
“clarke of the works” (Stow, op. cit.). 

Stow, Survey of London. 


BOTHIE; BOTHY. In Scotch Lowland 
dialect, a hut, the term being connected with 
the word Booth. In common use it applies to 
a dwelling house of somewhat more comfort than 
the hut properly so called ; it may be the dwell- 
ing of a Scottish farmer of some means (com- 
pare the similar change of meaning noted un- 
der Cottage). 

BOTTICHER, KARL; architect: b. May 
29, 1806; d. June 21, 1889. 

In 1832 he was appointed instructor in the 
Academy at Berlin, and in 1868 director of the 
sculpture gallery of the Berlin Museum. Bot- 
ticher published Die Holzarchitektur des Mit- 

338 


a ¢ _ eo x mao yi 2 4 " 
ball - , ‘= sad i alr ¥ ‘7 


BOTTLE 
telalters, Berlin, 1835-1840, and the Tektonik 


der Hellenen, 1844-1852, 2d ed. 1869, his 
most important work. 


Allgemeine Bauzeitung, 1889, p. 80. 


BOTTLE. (See Boltel.) 

BOTTOM (n.). The soil or other natural 
resisting material. on which a building is 
founded, as at the bottom of an excavation or 
on which piles may bear. 

BOTTOM STONE (n.). 
Stone. 

BOUCHARDON, EDME;; sculptor and ar- 
chitect; b. May 29, 1698 (at Chaumont en 
Bassigny, France) ; d. July 27, 1762. 

The son of Jean Baptiste Bouchardon, a sculp- 
tor and architect of Chaumont. Going to Paris, 
he entered the atelier of Guillaume Coustou 
(see Coustou, G.), and Sept. 18, 1723, won the 
Grand Prix de Rome. He spent ten years 
in Italy and returned to France in 1733. One 
of his best known works is the splendid fountain 
of the Rue de Grenelle, Paris. Bouchardon made 


Same as Footing 


the statue of Louis XV. which formerly stood 


where the obélisque now stands in the Place de 
la Concorde, then Place Louis XV., finished in 
1757. 

Mariette, Abecedario; Bellier de la Chavi- 
gnerie, Dictionnaire des Artistes de ’ Ecole Fran- 
caise; Musée de Sculpture du Trocadéro. 

BOUCHARDON, JEAN BAPTISTE. 
(See Bouchardon, Edmé.) 

BOUCHER, FRANCOIS; mural and dec- 
orative painter ; b. Sept. 99, 1703 ; d. May 30, 
L770; 

Edmond et Jules de Goncourt, LT’ Art de la dix- 
huitiéme siécle ; André Michel in La Grande En- 
cyclopédie ; and, in the general bibliography, 
Mariette, ’ Abecedario ; and the dictionaries of 
painters. 

BOUDOIR. In French, literally a pouting 
room. A private room attached to a lady’s bed- 
chamber ; hence, any small private sitting room 
or reception room for a lady. (Compare Den.) 

BOUDROT. (See Baudrot.) 

BOULDER. A large, loose, or isolated stone, 
especially one rounded by the action of water or 
ice. In England, the name is often applied to 
pebbles or loose flints such as are used in some 
parts of the British Islands in laying up or fac- 
ing walls. (See Cobble Stone.) 

BOULE. (See Boulle, André Charles.) 

BOULEUTERION. tid In Greek arche- 
ology, a place of assembly, especially for a pub- 
lic body. 

B. In modern Greek, a chamber for the sit- 
tings of a legislative body, and also the building 
in which such a chamber is situated, as in the 
city of Athens, the capital of the kingdom of the 
Hellenes. 

BOULEVARD. A. Originally, in French, 
a fortification ; especially part of a large for- 
tress, and usually the outwork. Hence, in later 

339 


me ole A oF 4 nok 
; s 


‘BOULLE 
French usage, a considerable portion of the or te 
fications, as of a town. These ramparts, havi 
been destroyed, either because the town had ou 


.) 2 


tions replace the ancient ramparts, or, finally, 2 
because the place was no longer to be a fortress, x 
were replaced by promenades planted with trees 
and the like. Hence,— 
B. In France, a wide avenue, especially one | a 
which has a general direction of former city : 
walls, as encircling or partly encircling a town, — 
as distinguished from one radiating from the — 
centre toward the exterior ; although this rule _ 
has by no means always ’ prevailed. In thes 
United States, a wide street or avenue of any 
sort, or, especially one planted with trees and 
intended to be an ornamental promenade. oat 
—R.8. 
BOULE WORK. A method and style of 
furniture decoration introduced by A.C. Boulle, 
in France, during the reign of Louis XIV., and — 
characterized chiefly by the use of inlays of © 
metal (usually brass) and tortoise shell upon the 
flat surfaces of the cabinet work. ; 
BOULLE (BOULE), ANDRE CHARLES; 
cabinet maker (menuisier), maker of inlaid | 
work (ébéniste), and collector; b. 1642; d. 
1732. a 
The earliest known Boulle was one Pierre, 
tourneur et menuisier du rot, who was lodged = 
at the Galerie du Louvre in 1619. André 
Charles himself was the son of one Jean Boulle, = 
marchand ébéniste, also established in the — 
Galerie du Louvre. André received a broad 
artistic education, and entered his father’s busi- = _— 
ness. May 20, 1672, he also was admitted to 
lodgings in the Louvre. (The privilege accorded 
to certain eminent artists of lodging in the 
palace of the Louvre at the expense of the king 
originated with letters patent of Henry IV., 
dated Dec. 22, 1608.) The name of André 
Charles Boulle first appears in the royal ac- 
counts in 1669. After 1672 he was employed 
on important work at Versailles, of which rec- 
ords are found in the numerous inventories of 
the period. The designs for his work were fre- 
quently furnished by Jean Bérain (see Bérain), — 
and sometimes by Charles Lebrun (see Lebrun). 
Of his creations, the most celebrated at the 
time were the decoration and furniture of the 
superb apartments of the Grand Dauphin, son 
of Louis XIV., at Versailles, finished in 1683. 
These pieces were dispersed soon after, and have 
disappeared. He was assisted and succeeded 
by his four sons, Jean Philippe, Pierre Benoit, 
Charles André, and Charles Joseph. (See 
Boule Work.) | 


Havard, Les Boulle; A. de Champeaux, Le 
meuble ; A. de Champeaux, Dictionnaire des Fon- 
deurs ; Havard, Dictionnaire de V’ Ameublement ; 
Pumesnil, Histoire des plus célébres Amateurs 
Frangais ; Williamsen, Les Meubles d’ Art; De 
Chenneviéres, Archives del’ Art Frangais. 


340 


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euL ‘Ie[Ayst1ed st Surpiinq eyy, ‘“yareurer jo Ay.IOM st ‘sysoduir oy], “Woryerojsoy oY} I9zZeV [IQUN posn you seVM YT “qaelUsUOIg 
wiory APQOOIIp Sursuiads sayoie sz YQ ‘pozyenore AT[OYM SuIplIng &@ Jo sUsIsep oy} Woy ‘ortdute 4Ys1y oY} JopuN Inq ‘ sluVg Jo YUL 


4 asdnodg 


if 


wa LV Id 


acer Te 


BOULLE 


BOULLE, PIERRE. (See Boulle, André 
Charles.) 

BOULOGNE, JEAN. (See Bologne, Jean.) 

BOULTEL; BOULTINE. Same as Boltel. 

BOUND MASONRY. Masonry which is 
properly bonded ; that is, which has bonds, as 
under Bond, B. 

BOUQUET. A. The floral or foliated orna- 
ment forming the extreme top of a Finial, Hip 
Knob, or the like. 

B. Same as Anthemion, B. 

BOURBON ARCHITECTURE. The ar- 
chitecture of the reigns of the Bourbon kings of 
France, 1590-1789. 

BOURGHOIS, JHHAN;; architect. 

One of the architects of the dukes of Bur- 
gundy. In 1387 he was employed on the 
portal of the Sainte Chapelle, at Dijon (Cote 
d’Or, France), under Jacques de Neuilly. Dee. 
9; 1404, he was made maitre général of the 
ducal constructions, and from that time to 1417 
worked on the fortifications of Dijon. 

Laborde, Les Ducs de Bourgogne; Lance, Dic- 
tionnaire. - 

BOURNE (v.). Same as Bone. 

BOURSE. In French, a building or room 
used for the meeting of persons who deal in 
merchandise of any sort ; a merchants’ exchange. 
In modern usage, more commonly limited to the 
business of buying and selling of public securi- 
ties, stocks, and bonds, and in this sense adopted 
by the Continental nations under the forms 
Boerse in German, Borsa in Italian, etc., or in 
the unaltered French form. The Bourse of 
Paris is a building of some architectural preten- 
sions, having a peristyle of sixty-four colunins 
in the outer rows. (See Plate IX.) It was 
built between 1809 and 1825 under the direc- 
tion of the architect Brongniart, followed by 
Labarre. That of Lyons, called also Palais du 
Commerce et de la Bourse, built by Dardel, 
about 1860, is a celebrated architectural com- 
position.—R. 8. 

BOUTHEILLER, JEAN LE; 
before 1370. 

In 1351 he finished the bas-reliefs of the choir 
of Notre Dame, Paris, begun by his uncle Jean 
Ravy (see Ravy). He probably also succeeded 
him as architect of the cathedral about 1345. 

Bauchal, Notre Dame et ses Premiers Archi- 
tectes. 

BOUTEL. Same as Boltel. 

Bow. A thin, flexible bar of wood or 
metal adjustable to any desired curvature by 
means of set screws, and designed for the laying 
out of large curves without having recourse to 
a centre. (See Curve.) 

BOW AND STRING. 
same as bowstring, in composition. 
string Beam, under Beam.) 

BOW CHURCH. 
le Bow.) 


architect ; d. 


In British usage, 
(See Bow- 


341 


(See Church of 8S. Mary . 


BOWLING ALLEY 


BOW COMPASS. (See under Compass.) 

BOWER. A. In the thirteenth century, 
and later, a chamber separated from the large 
room in which the members of the household 
commonly lived, and considered especially as the 
women’s room; either as the retreat of the 
mistress of the house, or as a Gyneceum in 
general. (Compare House.) In the sense of a 
sleeping room or sitting room for the mistress 
of the house, the term remained in use down 
to the sixteenth century, as appears from its 
frequency in the English and lowland Scot- 
tish ballads. In this sense it is still in use in 
modern poetry. 

B. By extension, and poetically, a small 
house, especially in the country ; also a place of 
abode of any sort, as in such phrases ‘the 
bowers of Paradise,” “ bowers of bliss,” and the 
like. 

C. A shelter of trees or shrubbery, as in a 
garden ; or simply a sheltered and quiet nook 
among trees and plants.—R.S8. 

BOWL. A. The surface of a sloping floor, 
as in an auditorium, constructed on a curve so 
that all points equidistant from a common 
centre are at the same level. It is commonly 
part of the surface of an inverted cone. 

B. Same as Basin, A. 

BOWL (v.t.). To construct a Bowl; to 
form with a bowl shape. 

BOWLING ALLEY. A. Originally, an 
alley in a garden, enclosed by hedges or shrub- 
bery, in which the game of bowls was played ; or 
a bowling green, if long and narrow. 

B. In the United States, a covered place 
and floor for the playing of the game called 
variously Tenpins, Ninepins, Bowling; and, 
rarely, American Bowls; in two senses, viz. : 
(1) The floor upon which the balls are rolled, a 
slightly raised long and narrow strip of care- 
fully built and smooth wooden flooring, having 
on either side a sunken groove or gutter into 
which the balls will fall if not rightly directed, 
and behind the pins, when they are arranged in 
order for the game, a mattress or cushion to re- 

ceive the blows of the heavy lignum-vitze balls. 
There is usually a raised trough: with a steep in- 
cline on one or the other side by means of which 
the balls are returned to the players. (2) The 
building erected, or the room arranged, for the 
alley in definition (1) and the players ; usually 
a simple wooden structure with windows in 
either side, and especially strong light thrown 
upon the pins. 

There are in the cities of the United States 
builders who make the fitting up of bowling 
alleys their especial business. The game was 
played formerly with nine pins, and now, since 
about 1850, with ten. The popular account of 
the matter is that laws were passed in some 
of the states forbidding ninepin alleys, which 
laws were evaded by increasing the number of 

342 


BOWLING GREEN 


the pins. It is probable, however, that the 


arrangement in a single triangle rendered pos- | 


sible by the number ten was preferred to all 
other arrangements, and was the real reason for 
the change. — R. 8. 

BOWLING GREEN; GROUND. In 
garden architecture, a piece of lawn carefully 
planted, cut, and rolled in order to form a sur- 
face for playing some game of bowls ; hence, is 
taken the mongrel French term boulingrin, 
which speedily lost all trace of the original 
signification of the English term, and grew to 
mean simply a piece of carefully kept lawn. 
The English term is sometimes used in a more 
general sense, especially in old formal gardens 
in England. 


BOW PEN. (See Bow Compass, under 
Compass.) 

BOW PENCIL. (See Bow Compass, under 
Compass. ) 


BOWTEL; BOWTELL. Same as Boltel. 

BOW WINDOW. A bay window, the face 
of which is curved, giving a more or less bow- 
shaped plan. (See Bay Window ; Oriel.) 

BOX. A case, or a more or less enclosed 
recess or compartment, or a small independent 
structure, for the shelter, protection, or accom- 
modation of persons, animals, articles, or mate- 
rials. Specifically : — 

A, A receptacle for articles or materials, as 
coal, grain, letters, or the like; a box in the 
ordinary sense. Distinguished from a bin as 
having generally a cover, or as being smaller. 

B. A more or less permanent structure to 
enclose and protect a part or parts of a con- 
struction, as the enclosure, commonly built of 
thin brick walls, to protect and afford access to 
a drain trap when laid below the cellar floor ; 
or the recess forming part of a wooden window 
trim, into which the shutters are folded when 
not in use. 

C. A compartment, or alcove, more or less 
enclosed and separated; especially: (1) In a 
theatre, or similar public place, such a compart- 
ment with seats for only a small number of 
spectators, generally more luxuriously appointed 
and commanding a higher price than the other 
parts of the house. (2) In an eating house, or 
the like, a compartment, generally enclosed by 
partitions on three sides, having a table and 
two or three chairs, or benches. (3) Ina law 
court, the place, formerly enclosed, containing 
the jurymen’s seats; the jury box. (4) In 
a law court, a witness stand, when more or 
less enclosed; the witness box. (5) In Great 
Britain, a square pew (N. E. D.). (6) A prison 
cell (N.E.D.). (7) In a stable, a compart- 
ment larger than a stall, in which a horse may 
move about; more specifically, a loose box or 
box stall. 

D. A small shelter for one or more persons 
engaged in specific duties ; as, in military usage, 

345 


BOYLE 
a small movable wooden hut to afford shelter 
for a sentry, often somewhat elaborately deco- 
rated with the national colours: a sentry box ; 
a house, now generally of iron, and frequently 
comparatively large, to accommodate the opera- 
tors of switches or signals on a railway: a signal 
box. 

EH. A small and comparatively unpreten- 
tious country house, for the temporary use of 
sportsmen ; as a shooting box, a fishing box. 

—D.N.B.8. 

BOX BED. A. A bed enclosed by wooden 
sides and top, the front being made to open and 
close by means of shutters or doors. Common 
in Scotland.—(N.E.D.) (Compare Bed Place.) 

B. Sometimes, a bed that folds up in the 
form of a box. 

BOX COIL. A steam, or hot water coil, 
consisting of a series of iron pipes connected 
vertically and horizontally by return bends and 
forming a stack of somewhat cubical shape. 
(See Ventilation ; Warming.) 

BOX OFFICE. In a theatre, the office 
where tickets of admission are sold. 

BOX SCENE; BOX SET. In a theatre, 
or similar place of entertainment, a scene con- 
sisting of a back scene joined at its ends to two 
side pieces extending nearly to the front of the 
stage. Commonly, also, provided with a ceiling. 

BOX STALL. (See Box C, 7.) 

BOYFIELD, JOHN; ecclesiastic and archi- 
tect; d. 1381. 

Abbot of Gloucester, supposed to have built 
the vaulting of the choir of the cathedral of 
Gloucester, England, about 1350. 

Britton, Architectural Antiquities. 

BOYLE, RICHARD, third Earl of Burling- 
ton and fourth Earl of Cork ; amateur and archi- 
tect; b. April 25, 1695; d. Dec. 4, 1753. 

Richard Boyle succeeded to his father’s titles 
and estates in 1704. Oct. 9, 1714, he became a 
member of the Privy Council, and August, 1715, 
was made Lord High Treasurer of Ireland. He 
grew up under the influence of Sir Christopher 
Wren (see Wren), spent several years in Italy, 
and became an enthusiastic admirer of Palladio 
(see Palladio). He was a skilful architect and 
had a strong influence upon the architectural - 
work of his time. In 1716 he undertook the 
reconstruction of the family mansion, Burling- 
ton House in Piccadilly, London, which was 
originally built by his great-grandfather, the first 
earl. Walpole attributes the fine colonnade 
of the court to Burlington himself. In 1730 
he rebuilt his villa of Chiswick from a design 
suggested by La Rotonda of Palladio, and laid 
out the park in the Italian style. Burlington 
designed General Wade’s house, Cork Street, 
London (destroyed), a dormitory for Westmin- 
ster school, London, and the Assembly Rooms 
at York. His principal helper was William 
Kent (see Kent), who lived at his house until 

o44 


BRACCIALE 


his death in 1748. Burlington spent much of 
his wealth upon the preservation and restora- 
tion of important public monuments, among 
others the church in Covent Garden, London, 
designed by Inigo Jones (see Jones, I.). He 
bought in Italy many of the original designs 
of Palladio, which he published under the title 
Fabriche Antiche, London, 1730, 1 vol., folio. 


Walpole, Anecdotes of Painting; Redgrave, 
Dictionary of Artists; Stephen, Dictionary of 
National Biography; Campbell, Vitruvius Bri- 
tannicus. 


BRACCIALE. In Italian art, a bronze or 
iron standard for a torch or for a flagpole or 


_ the like ; as frequently seen on the exterior of 


Tuscan palazzi. 
BRACCINI, 
Tribolo.) 
BRACE. A piece or member, generally long 
as compared to its lateral dimensions, used to 
stiffen or steady another member or structure; 


ee 
NICCOLO DEI. (See 


_ specifically : — 


A bar introduced into a framework to pre- 
vent distortion or change of shape, usually a 


a ad 


BRACE. 


It may act either 
The quadrilat- 


diagonal in a quadrilateral. 
by tension or by compression. 


eral abcd may change its shape by the rota- 


tion of its sides about the joints. If the rigid 
diagonal brace bd is introduced and _ firmly 
attached, deformation is rendered impossible ex- 
cept by rupture of the parts. 

If the rectangle is exposed to deforming forces 
in two directions, 7.e., to the right or to the left 
in the diagram ; a single rigid brace firmly at- 
tached to the frame will prevent change of 
shape, but it is customary in such case to intro- 
duce two diagonals, both ties or both struts 
or compression members, as the case may be; 
which facilitates construction. If the four sides 
of the quadrilateral are rigid members, the diago- 
nals will be ties. If two of the opposite sides 
are tension members, the braces will be struts. 

— W. R. Hutton. 

Angle Brace. A brace set across the corner 
of a more or less rectangular structure, as at the 
corner of a frame house. 

' 345 


BRACKET 


Batter Brace. The inclined braces at the 
end of a truss, as of a Pratt truss. 

Counter Brace. In a truss an extra or sup- 
plementary brace crossing the main brace. It 
is introduced in those panels which are exposed 
to change of shape in two directions. 

Portal Brace. In ironwork, a brace ap- 
proaching the form of a knee inserted in the 
angle between a vertical and a horizontal mem- 
ber to resist lateral pressure. Being commonly 
bent approximately to a quarter-circle, a pair of 
them, placed so as to face each other, will pro- 
duce the effect of an arched portal. 

Principal Brace; Principal Sway Brace. 
A brace to stiffen a principal rafter or its sup- 
porting structure; as, especially, in the angle 
between a tiebeam and its end-support. 

Purlin Brace. In carpentry, a brace from 
a roof truss to relieve or stiffen a purlin between 
its bearings upon the principals. 

Sway Brace. A brace inserted to pre- 
vent sideways motion, as under the influence of 
wind ; therefore, usually horizontal in position 
or in the plane of the main structure. This 
term, common in bridge building, is rare in 
architecture. 

Wind Brace. A sway brace designed pri- 
marily to resist the lateral action of wind. 

BRACHADICZ, PETER VON; architect. 

Peter von Brachadicz worked on the spire of 
the church of 8. Stephen in Vienna, Austria, un- 
til 1429. His successor, Hans von Brachadicz, 
completed the spire in 1433. 

Tschischka, S. Stephans Dom; Tschischka, 
Geschichte der Stadt Wien. 

BRACING. The operation of strengthening 
a framed or other structure by means of braces ; 
or any system or aggregation of braces. The 
general principle upon which bracing depends 
for its efficiency is that of the triangle, whose 
shape cannot be changed without breaking, bend- 
ing, or altering the length of one or more of its 
sides. (See Brace; Carpentry ; Construction ; 
Truss. ) 

Cross Bracing. A. Any system of bracing 
with crossed struts or ties, as in many bridge 
trusses. 

B. In house carpentry, the term is used spe- 
cifically for continuous lines of crossed braces or 
struts between the floor joists, these lines of 
cross bracing being put in at intervals of 6 or 
8 feet to stiffen the floors by distributing 
over several joists any shock or strain upon one. 
Generally called Bridging, and Cross Bridging 
or Herringbone Bridging (which see under 
Bridging). 

BRACKET. A member prepared for carry- 
ing a weight which overhangs or projects, as a 
projecting story of a building, or a shelf. This 
is the general term ; and although it would not 
be applied, often, to a cantilever, a corbel, a cul- 
de-lampe, or a modillion, except carelessly, it 

346 


ae ES fake ee, en mee mee eer Os Uae pee 
4 5 “* i me, ge ; i. ‘ 


: BRACKET 
covers all varieties which have no specific names 


of their own. The common shelf bracket of 
modern times is a light piece of castiron, sold in 


BRACKETS CARRYING PROJECTION OF UPPER 
Story; Houssz at York, 14TH CENTURY. 


shops. The action of the bracket is twofold : 
it pulls outward along the line of the horizontal 
top bar or edge, and presses inward more solidly 


BRACKETS IN THE OLD CLOISTERS, WINDSOR 
CASTLE. 


547 


vis 
Set SM Fp 
Va en | > 

a rw) ae 


* be ae 


at the foot. If, therefore, a bracket is secured 

to a wall along the whole height of its vertical — 
member, the more the horizontal member above 
is loaded, as with a balcony, bay window, or the 
like, the more of a pull is exercised upon the 
wall immediately below this projecting member. 
This may even become dangerous; and it is, 
therefore, customary to make the bracket a part 
of a floor or other horizontal member which can 
resist a strong outward tendency. 

The term is applied also to small movable ob- 
jects which project from walls so as to resemble 
distantly the architectural bracket. Thus, a 
gas fixture for a wall opening, and, equally, a 
support for a bust, or vase, hung upon a hook, 
receives the name. (See Mutule ; Torsel.) — B.S. 


Projection of Fri 
from Face ff Wait eum ( 


Wrough! 


BRACKETS CARRYING PORCH-ROOF; ARNOLD 
Housk, CHARLESTOWN, MAss. 


BRACKETING. A system or series of 
brackets ; or the operation of setting or provid- 
ing brackets. 

BRAMANTE (DONATO D’AGNOLO), 
incorrectly called Bramante Lazzari; b. about. 
1444; d. Mar. 11, 1514. 

The surname Bramante comes from bramare, 
to desire ardently, doubtless derived from some 
family peculiarity. Donato, the son of Angelo, 
was born at Asdrualdo, near Urbino, Italy. 
There is no proof that: he assisted Luciano da, 
Laurana (see Luciano da Laurana) on the palace 
of Urbino, but the influence of that work upon 
his style was very great. He began as a painter, 
and according to Fra Castiglione had for teach- 
ers Piero della Francesca and Mantegna (see 
Mantegna). In 1477 he decorated the palace 
of the Podesta at Bergamo, Italy, and there are 

348 


‘sacristy. 


- Belvedere, Vatican. 


 fecta” (D. Gnoli, op. cit., p. 183). 


BRAMANTE 


still fragmentary frescos in Lombardy which are 
ascribed to him. He appears to have gone to 
Milan about 1472 (V. Geymiiller, Les Proj. 
prim., p. 28) in the reign of Galeazzo Maria 


_ Sforza (b. 1468 ; d. 1494), and to have remained 


there until the fall of the Sforza dynasty under 
Lodovico Sforza (il Moro, b. 1451; d. 1508). 

Bramante’s Milanese differs so much from his 
Roman work that it has been ascribed to a fic- 


 titious “ Bramante of Milan” (Von Seidlitz, op. 


cit., p. 183). He built at the church of 8. Maria 
presso 8. Satiro the transept with its curious 
apse in perspective low relief, and the famous 
(For the sculpture, see Ambrogio 
Foppa.) He appears in the records of the 
*‘Canonica” (the interesting cloister of S. Am- 
brogio) in 1492 as director of the works. He is 
supposed to have worked on the Ospedale Mag- 
giore (see Filarete). Bramante’s chief work at 
Milan is the dome and sacristy of 8. Maria dei 
Grazie (1492). The lower parts of that build- 


_ ing show his influence especially. June 27, 1490, 


he made an interesting report, which has been 


_ preserved, on the competition for the central 


tower of the cathedral (V. Seidlitz op. cit., p. 
199). . Of his buildings near Milan the most 


important is the facade of Abbiate Grasso, dated 


1477, which suggests the ‘ Nicchione” of the 
He probably planned the 
cathedral of Pavia (Malaspina, op. cit.) and 


built the nave of the cathedral of Como. 
- | Bramante seems to have settled in Rome after 


the capture of Milan by Louis XII., Oct. 6, 1499. 
The classic surroundings developed at once an 
entire sympathy with antique style and propor- 
tion. This is shown in his first building, the 
Tempietto of 8. Pietro in Montorio, finished be- 
fore 1502. (The upper part was added later.) 
The Cancelleria is commonly ascribed to Bra- 


~mante, but the facade bears the dates 1489 and 


1495, and it was undoubtedly begun by the Car- 
dinal Raffaello Riario as early as 1486. Vasari’s 
words “rizoluzione di gran parte” may reter 
to extensive additions by Bramante. The case 
of the Giraud Torlonia palace, a replica of the 
Cancelleria, is similar. In the letter of gift of 
this palace to Henry VII. of England, dated 
March, 1504, it is described as ‘‘nondum per- 
Bramante 
built the cloister of S. Maria della Pace in 1504. 
The immense palace which he built ‘ presso 
San Biagio” for the offices of Julius II. was 
famous for its magnificent use of rustication. A 
few fragments remain in the Via Giulia (Red- 
tenbacher, op. cit.). He began the Santa Casa 
and the palace at Loreto (see Sansovino, A.). 
One of Bramante’s most interesting works was 
the palace bought by Raphael in 1517 and pre- 
served to us by a sketch of Palladio. Bramante 
does not appear at the Vatican until the reign 
of Julius II. (Pope 1503-1513) who wished 


to unite the old Vatican with the Belve- 


349 


BRANDER 


dere of Innocent VIII. (Pope 1484-1492). 
Bramante planned an immense quadrangle, the 
shorter sides formed by the two palaces and the 
longer by galleries copied from the theatre of 
Marcellus. This court led by three levels up to 
a great apse, the Nicchione of the Belvedere. 
He finished the eastern gallery only. In the old 
Vatican Bramante built the loggie which re- 
ceived Raphael’s decorations (see Santi, R.). 
The reconstruction of the Basilica of Constan- 
tine (S. Peter’s ) was attempted in the reign of 
Nicholas V. (Pope 1447-1455). (See Alberti and 
Rossellino, B.) And again in the reign of Paul 
II. (Pope 1464-1471). Julius IT. resumed the 
work April 18, 1506, and placed it under the 
direction of Bramante. At his death the four 
piers of the dome had been raised to the cornice 
and the apse opposite the main entrance had 
been vaulted. His design was a Greek cross 
with towers in the open angles and a central dome. 
A complete table of the works attributed to 
Bramante is given in Von Geymiiller (Les Pro- 
jets primitifs, p. 103). Bramante is supposed 
to have been inalfabeto (illiterate ), but there 
are several sonnets and other poems and some 
fragments of manuscripts which are attributed 
to him. 

Von Geymiiller, Les Projets primitifs; Von 
Geymiiller, The School of Bramante; D. Gnoli, 
La Cancelleria ; Von Seidlitz, Bramante in Mai- 
land; Miintz, Renaissance, Vol. 2; Vasari, Mila- 
nesi ed.; Vasari, Blashfield-Hopkins ed.; Pungi- 
leoni, Memorie; Casati, I Capi d’ Arte di Bra- 
mante; H. Semper, ‘‘Donato Bramante’’ in 
Dohme Series; I. Beltrami, Bramante Poeta; 
Letarouilly et Simil, Le Vatican; Castiglione, 
Ricordi; Cassina, Fabbriche di Milano; Malas- 
pina, Cattedrale di Pavia; Redtenbacher, Der 
Palazzo di S. Biagio. 

BRAMANTESCO; -ESQUE. Having to 
do with Bramante, the celebrated architect of 
the Renaissance, and with the style of building 
and decoration largely introduced by him. (See 
Italy, Part III., Lombardy, where it is pointed 
out that the term is still in use in Italy as ap- 
plied to architecture of a certain stamp.) 

BRAMANTINO. (See Suardi, Bartolomeo.) 

BRANCH. A. A member or part of a sys- 
tem or structure which diverges from the main 
portion ; especially in heating, ventilation, 
plumbing, and the like, a smaller or subordinate 
duct or pipe extending from the main line for 
whatever purpose. Hence, — : 

B. A piece of piping having two or more 
arms by which a branch in the sense A is 
connected with another or with the main line. 

T Branch. One having an arm at right 
angles with the main part, giving three openings. 

Y Branch. One having an arm at an 
oblique angle with the main part, giving three 
openings. —D. N. B.S. 

BRANDER (v.). To apply battens or fur- 
ring strips to the under sides of joists prepara- 
tory to lathing for the plastering of a ceiling. 

350 


BRANDIN 


BRANDIN, PHILIP ; 
tect. 

Philip Brandin of Utrecht (Holland) between 
1576 and 1586 built the monuments of the 
princes of Mecklenburg on the north side of the 
choir of the cathedral of Giistrow (Mecklen- 
burg, Germany). With Conrad Floris, also a 
Netherlander, he was employed by the Duke 
Johann Albrecht at Schwerin (Mecklenburg). 

Liibke, Geschichte der Renaissance in Deutsch- 
land. 

BRANDON, JOHN RAPHAEL ; 
tect; b. 1817; d. 1877. 

John Brandon was articled to W. Parkinson, 
architect, in 1836, and, with his brother, Joshua 
Arthur, established an office in London. The 
brothers Brandon were especially students of Eng- 
lish Gothic architecture, and are best known by 
their books: Parish Churches, London, 1848, 1 
vol., 8vo. ; Analysis of Gothic Architecture, Lon- 
don, 1847, 2 vols., folio; and Open Timber Roofs 
of the Middle Ages, London, 1849, | vol., 8vo. 

Stephen, Dictionary of National Biography. 

BRANDON, JOSHUA ARTHUR. (See 
Brandon, John Raphael.) 

BRASS. A. A mixed metal; an alloy of 
copper with zinc, in about the proportion of 
forty-five parts of zinc in the hundred, by 
weight. (See Metal Work.) 

B. With the article, same as Memorial Brass. 

BRASS WORK. (See Metal Work.) 

BRATTICE; -ING; -ISHING. dA. In 
medizeval architecture, a temporary wooden para- 
pet, breastwork, or gallery erected on a fortifi- 
cation for use during a siege. 

B. An ornamental openwork, as a cresting, 
or the like, especially over a shrine. In this 
sense generally written in the third form. 

C’ (loosely and without good authority), A 
wooden enclosure of any sort, as light board- 
work, connected with and generally projecting 
from a more massive building. Thus, the 
wooden balconies and overhangs of some mosques 
and other buildings of the Levant are called by 
this term, apparently for want of another which 
would be more accurately descriptive. 

BRAUN, MATTHIAS VON; sculptor and 
architect ; b. 1684 (at Innsbruck); d. Feb. 15, 
1738 (at “Prague). 

Braun commenced the practice of sculpture 
while quite young, and at the age of sixteen 
went to Italy, where he formed himself on the 
work of Bernini (see Bernini). In 1705 he was 
called to Bohemia by the Count Franz Anton 
Spork, and employed by him on his residence at 
Graslitz for several years. His work included 
bas-reliefs and colossal statues cut in the native 
rock. In 1720 he went to Prague, and was 
later established in Vienna as court sculptor by 
the Emperor Charles VI. 


Pelcel, Abbildungen Bohmischer Gelehrten und 
Kiinstler ; Allgemeine deutsche Biographie. 


3d] 


sculptor and archi- 


archi- 


+ " 4 i 
as ea aN A on 8 

he aaaiee' fen re i 

ety 5 ay eae | 


BREAKFAST ROOM 
BRAY, SIR REGINALD DE; ee tt 


and architect ; d. 1503. 
Reginald was the second son of Sir Richard 


de Bray, privy councillor to Henry VI. Hebe | 
came a favourite of Henry VII., and retained his __ 
confidence until his death. He succeeded Richard 


Beauchamp (see Beauchamp, R.) as master of 


the works at S. George’s Chapel, Windsor, in 
1481, and built his private chapel in the south __ 


aisle of this building. Sir Reginald de Bray 


was present at the laying of the corner-stone of _ 


Henry the Seventh’s 
Abbey, Jan. 24, 1503. 
building has been attributed to him, but that 


Chapel at Westminster 
The design of that 


honour probably belongs to William Bolton (see E a 


Bolton, W.). 


Britton, Architectural Antiquities ; Brayley and eo 


Neale, Abbey Church, Westminster. 
BRAY, SALOMON DE&;; architect, painter, 
and poet; b. 1597 (Haarlem, Holland) ; d. 1664. 
Salomon de Bray made a model for a church 


in Haarlem, Holland, and a plan for the enlarge 4 


ment of that city. There are pictures by him 
in the Oranien Saal at The Hague, and at 
Dresden. In 1627 he published a volume of 
poems at Amsterdam. 

Seubert, Kiinstler-lexicon. : 

BRAYLEY, EDWARD WEDLAKE; an- 
tiquary and topographer ; be lLT78s 1854. 

As a boy he formed a close intimacy with 
John Britton (see Britton, J.), and was asso- 
ciated with him in many of his principal anti- 
quarian undertakings. He wrote the text of — 
Neale’s History and Antiquities of the Abbey 
Church, Westminster. A list of his works is 
given in Stephen (op. cit.) 

John Britton, Autobiography ; Leslie Stephen, 
Dictionary of National Biography. 

BRAZIL, ARCHITECTURE OF. (See_ 
South America, Architecture of.) 


BREAK (n.). A change in the continuity of | < a 


a surface or member. Thus, a projecting chimney 
breast forms, on either side, a break in the wall. 

BREAK (v.). In architecture and build- 
ing, mainly in composition ; as, To Break Back, 
to return (as a wall, etc.) inward from a projec- 
tion, the reverse of to break out (which see 
below) ; To Break Ground, to begin an excava- 
tion, as by making the first cuts with the spade, 
(see Turn the First Sod, under Sod) ; To Break 
Joints, to have such a disposition of solids (as 
bricks or stones) that each piece laps over two 
pieces adjoining above and below, so that no 
joint is continuous ; To Break Joints (transitive), 
to dispose solids as above; To Break Out, to 
project at a right angle or nearly so, as a chim- 
ney breast from a wall. 

BREAKFAST ROOM. A small room for 
the morning meal ; usually, but not always, ad- 
joining the chief dining room ; and in northern 
climates often specially arranged with an eastern 
expoSure to catch the morning sun. 

352 


BREAKING IN 


BREAKING IN. The cutting of holes or 
recesses in brickwork or masonry to receive the 
ends of beams, wooden plugs, or the like. 

BREAST. A. The projecting portion of 
a chimney, especially when projecting into a 
room or other apartment. 

B. The under side of a hand rail, beam, rafter, 
or the like. (See Back.) 

C. That portion of a wall which is between 
a window sill and the floor. (Compare Allége ; 
Spandrel Wall.) 

BREAST SUMMER. A Summer or beam 
serving as a girder or lintel over an opening 
to support the wall above, or other super- 
structure. 

BREAST WALL. (See Retaining Wall.) 

BREBION MAXIMILIEN; architect ; b. 
Pero cd. 1796. 

Brébion won the grand prix d architecture 
in 1740, and was admitted to the Académie 
Wd Architecture in 1755. In 1781 he replaced 


- Soufflot (see Soufflot) as architect of the Pan- 


théon at Paris, and finished the cupola. He 
restored the Observatoire in Paris (1786), and 
built the vestibule of the Jnstitut on the side of 
the Pont des Arts. 


Lance, Dictionnaire; Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 


BRECCIA. 
Marble.) 

. BREGNO, ANDREA, OF OSTENSO 
(ANDREA MILANESI); sculptor and archi- 
tect ; b. 1421; d. 1506. 

In the church of 8. Maria Sopra Minerva 
at Rome is found an obituary inscription with 
the name Andrea Bregno, and the date 1506. 
This Andrea Bregno, who is not to be con- 
founded with Antonio Bregno surnamed Rizzo 
(see Rizzo), is supposed to be the sculptor of the 
altar of the Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia at the 
church of S. Maria del Popolo (1473), the Fer- 
rici monument at the church of 8. Maria Sopra 
Minerva, a part of the Roverella monument’ at 
the church of 8. Clemente in Rome (both after 
1476), a part of the monument of Cardinal 
Cristoforo Rovere at 8. Maria del Popolo in 
Rome (after 1479), and the great Piccolomini 
altar at the cathedral of Siena, built for the 
Cardinal Federigo Piccolomini. 

August Schmarsow, Meister Andrea ; Milanesi, 


Documenti ; Geymiiller-Stegmann, Die Arch. der 
fien. in. Toscana; Gaye, Carteggio. 


BREGNO, ANTONIO (of Como). (See 
Rizzo, Antonio di Giovanni.) 

BRENTANO, GIUSEPPE; architect; b. 
about 1860 ; d. 1890. 

Giuseppe Brentano, a pupil of Luca Beltrami 
in Milan, won the competition for a new facade 
of the cathedral of that city, and had begun the 
model for it when he died. He was a pupil of 
the Polytechnic School at Milan, and after win- 
ning the competition entered the atelier of 


353 


(See Breccia Marble, under 


BRETON 


Baron Hasenauer (see Hasenauer) in Vienna, to 
study Gothic architecture. 
American Architect, Vol. XXVIL., p. 130; Bren- 


tano, Concorso per la Nuova Faciata del Duomo 
di Milano. 


BRERA. (Properly, the palace of the Brera 
or della Brera ; so called from the flat land out- 
side the ancient city on which it was built.) A 
building of the seventeenth century, formerly 
occupied successively by different religious orders, 
but since the close of the eighteenth century 
used for learned societies and especially for an 
important museum of sculpture and painting ; 
in Milan, Italy. 

BRESSUMER; BREST SUMMER. Same 
as Breast Summer. 

BRETECHE; BRETESSE. Same as Brat- 
tice, A. 

BRETON, GILLES LE; architect : d. 1552. 

Three architects of this name, probably 
brothers, appear in France during the first half 
of the sixteenth century. Gilles le Breton was 
charged with the transformation of the chateau 
of Fontainebleau (Seine et Marne, France), prob- 
ably from the commencement of the work about 
1528 until his death in 1550, and to him are due 
the most interesting parts of that building. He 
built at Fontainebleau, about in the order given, 
the pavilion of the Porte Dorée with the build- 
ings near it in the Cour Ovale and the so-called 
gallery of Francois I. ; in the main structure of 
the Cour du Cheval blanc, the chapel of la 
Trinité and the 7ez-de-chaussée of that por- 
tion nearest the pool; and, later, in the Cour 
Ovale, the Tour du Peristyle, the chapel of 8. 
Saturnin, and the great hall called the Galerie 
fTenvi II. The splendid wooden ceiling of the 
Galerie Henri II. is the work of Philibert de 
YOrme (See De l’Orme, Philibert), who suc- 
ceeded Le Breton as architect of the building in 
1550. 

These statements are made on the authority 
of Léon Palustre (op. cit.). His attribution of 
the chateau of Fontainebleau to Gilles Le 
Breton appears to be the only one warranted by 
existing documents. 

De Laborde, Comptes des batiments du rot; 
Palustre, La Renaissance en France; Palustre, 
article Le Breton in La Grande Encylopédie. 

BRETON, GUILLAUME LE; architect ; 
d. 1550. 

Guillaume and Jacques (d. 1550) le Breton 
appear to have been associated in their work. 
In 1532 and again between 1541 and 1550 
they were employed in the construction of the 
chateau of Villers Cotterets (Aisne, France). 
They were probably brothers of Gilles le 
Breton. 

(For bibliography see Breton, Gilles le.) 

BRETON, JACQUES LE. (See Breton, 


Guillaume le.) 
354 


_ lish usage. 


BREWERY 


BREWERY. A building or group of build- | 


ings arranged for the purpose of carrying on a 
brewer’s business. 


George Ehret, 7wenty-five Years of Brewing, 
with an illustrated history of American beer; 
Philipp Heiss, Die Bierbraueret mit besonderer 
Beriicksichtigung der dickmaisch Brauerei, Miin- 
chen, 1853; Gustav Noback, Bier, Malz, sowie 


| Maschinen und Apparat fiir Brauereien und Mal- 


zereten; W.J. Sykes, M.D., Principles and Prac- 
tice of Brewing; Short Account of Alisopp’s 
Breweries, Burton-on-Trent; Emil Strure, Die 


. Entwickelung des Bayerischen Braugewerbes im 


neunzehnten Jahrhundert. 


BREWHOUSE. An establishment for 
brewing ale and beer, in connection with a 
large dwelling house in the country. It is 
thus distinguished from a brewery, where malt 
liquors are manufactured for the trade. (Eng- 
The brewhouse is practically un- 
known in the United States.) 

BRICK. A. A regularly shaped piece of clay 
hardened in the sun or by the heat of a kiln 
and intended for building; commonly one of 
very many pieces of uniform size. The term is 
usually limited to pieces of clay not very thin 
and flat, which latter are called tiles ; the ordi- 
nary brick are, as in parts of the United States, 
about 25 by 4 by 8 inches, or, as in parts of 
Europe, about 22 by 42 by 9 inches. Bricks 
made for facework, as it is called, that is to 
say, the smoother and more elegant facing 
of the exterior of a wall, are made of many 
shapes and colours and commonly laid with 
mortar joints much smaller than those between 
the common bricks in the same wall. Moulded 
bricks are made in a great number of patterns, 
and so arranged as to form, when laid up in the 
wall, continuous lines of moulding, curves of an 
arch, and the like, or patterns in relief, and even 
to the extent of having a raised leafage or the 
like upon their faces, 

B. The material, baked clay, in small pieces 
in a general sense. (See Brickwork ; Masonry.) 

The various kinds of brick are given in the 
subtitles, in the definitions of which cross refer- 
ences have not been thought needful. — R. 8. 

Air Brick. A hollow and pierced brick or 
piece of hard material, about the size of a brick, 
built into a wall with ordinary bricks to allow 
the passage of air. 

Angle Brick. A brick shaped to any oblique 
angle; especially one made to fit an oblique, 
salient corner, as in a polygonal building. 

Arch Brick, A. Generally a wedge-shaped 
brick for a voussoir of an arch. 

B. A brick from the arch of a brick kiln, 
usually more thoroughly burned and _ harder, 
and therefore regarded as more valuable for 
certain kinds of work. 

Ashlar Brick. Brick made especially for 
the facing of walls in expensive and decorative 
work, and intended to resemble ashlar. A com- 

355 


> "BRICK = ie 
mon form has a very rough finish, so as t 
resemble rock-faced stone. (See Face Brick, 
below.) 

Clinker Brick. A very hard-burned brid, ? 
so called from its metallic sound when struck. 
Hardly to be distinguished from Arch Brick, — 
B. More specifically, a Dutch or Flemish 
Brick. 

Compass Brick. Same as Arch Brick, 4 ; 

Dutch Brick. <A hard, light-coloured brick : 
originally made in Holland ‘and used in England — 
for pavements ; hence a similar brick made gh 
England. 

Face Brick. One of a superior quality used e 
for the face of a wall. “4 a 

Fire Brick. One made of a refractory aan 
which will resist great heat. Used for the lin- ¥ 
ing of flues, furnaces, and the like. E 

Flemish Brick. Similar to Dutch Brick. Re 

Floating Brick. A brick solightthatit will 
float on water. This brick is remarkable as a - 
non-conductor of heat, and for its fire-resisting 
qualities. —(C. D.) ay 

Furring Brick. A hollow brick for furring | ae 
or lining the inside face of a wall. Usually — 
of the size of an ordinary brick, so as to bond = 
readily, and grooved on the face to afford a key — 
for plastering. | 

Gauged Brick. Any brick, ground or other- 
wise, prepared to fit accurately a given curve ; 
specifically, same as Arch Brick, A. 

Hollow Brick. A brick having one or more 
perforations forming more or less continuous 
ducts or channels when laid up. Used exten- 
sively for non-combustible floors and partitions, 
on account of its lightness and fire-resisting 
qualities. i 

Pilaster Brick. A brick for constructing - 
pilasters or slightly projecting piers, the end of 
which is so notched or rebated that it bonds — . 

more readily with the backing, and thus in- — 
creases the stiffening of the wall. — (A. P. 8.) 

Place Brick. Same as Salmon Brick. 

Pressed Brick. One which has been pressed, 
before drying, in a mould by hydraulic or other 
means, so as to become very hard, compact, and 
uniformly shaped. 

Red Brick. In Great Britain, a brick of 
a more or less pronounced red colour used in bet- 
ter classes of construction, so called to distin- 
guish it from the common kinds, which are — 
browner. 

Salmon Brick. A soft, imperfectly burned 
brick; so called from its pale, seereitt 
colour. 

Stone Brick. A hard brick made in Wales 
and valuable as a fire brick. 

Ventilating Brick. A hollow brick cae 
as an inside lining, or in the body of a wall, so as 
to form continuous air ducts. 

Washed Brick. A brick rendered inferior 
by exposure to rain before burning. 

856 


~~ 


Sue ate . ce a A eee " 
: a Hf na) * Sita Y An 


_ 


Ler, 


- workmen. 


BRICK 


Water Struck Brick. A brick in which 
water was used instead of sand to prevent 
the adhesion of the clay to the mould. This 
process was in use in New England before 1840 ; 
and the bricks made in this way can be recog- 
nized by peculiarities of surface. — D. N. B.S. 
BRICK (vy.). To lay bricks, especially to 
cover, surround, or enclose by laying bricks. Gen- 
erally with up or in. ~ 
BRICKBAT. (See Bat; Closer.) 
BRICK BEAM. A lintel formed by several 


courses of bricks held together by iron straps 


built into the horizontal joints and acting as 
tension members. — (A. P. 8.) 

BRICK BOND. (See Bond.) 

BRICK FENDER. A brick foundation wall 
to support a hearth at the lowest story of a 
house. — (A. P. 8.) 

BRICKLAYING. The art and practice of 
laying bricks in masonry. As the purpose of 
bricklaying, when simple and confined to ordinary 
walls, is merely to produce a solid, almost homo- 
geneous mass of small pieces of baked clay held 


_ together by strong mortar, the chief training 


given to a bricklayer is to lay bricks rapidly 
with fair accuracy and tolerable neatness.. Face 


_ bricks are laid by men especially trained for that 


purpose, or who have become especially skilful ; 
the modern face brick being usually attached 
to the body of the wall in a very imperfect way, 
Tequiring considerable knack on the part of the 
The more difficult parts of bricklay- 
ing are the laying up of flues, where no lining, 


_as of earthenware pipe, is to be used ; the build- 


ing of the throats of chimneys, upon the accurate 
adjustment of which much depends; and the 
doing of corbelled-out work with chimney tops 
and the like, all of which may be considered, 
together with the laying of moulded brick, as 
unusual and ornamental parts of the trade. (See 


_ Brickwork. For the peculiar styles of laying 


bricks more commonly in use, see Bond. 

It is generally admitted that bricks should 
be laid in an abundance of mortar, which should 
fill the vertical as well as the horizontal joints, 
and this in the middle of the wall as completely 
as those which show on the face. Engineers and 
architects agree in requiring such work as this, 


and whenever a piece of work, done thoroughly 
_ by the government engineers in a fortress, is ex- 


amined, it will be found that the wall or vault 


consists of a solid and nearly homogeneous mass. 


It is a common practice, however, to build brick 
walls with a much smaller allowance of mortar, 
thereby saving a great deal of time for the brick- 
layers ; and this practice is defended by some 
reputable builders, on the ground that a very 
solid and homogeneous wall has no internal 


_ joints where the water, absorbed from external 


storms, can trickle down and gradually dis- 

appear ; but that such moisture goes through the 

wall and affects the inner face. Inasmuch as 
357 


Di OM ac a AT 


BRICKWORK 


both in Great Britain and in America, the large 
majority of brick-walled houses are built with a 
tacit understanding that they are to last for but 
a few years, this practice has not proved as objec- 
tionable as it seems ; and it is extremely difficult 
to get walls built with the solidity desired by a 
careful constructor. — R. 8. 

BRICK NOGGING. The filling of brick- 
work between the members of a framed wall or 
partition. (See Nogging.) 

BRICK TRIMMER. Same as 
Arch (which see under Arch). 

BRICKWORK. Masonry of bricks and 
mortar (see Bricklaying). This article deals 
especially with that which has attractive quali- 
ties, as of perfect finish or of patterns in colour, 
or in relief produced in the structure itself. 


Trimmer 


ee 


BRICKWORK: WINDOW AT CoccaGuLio, LoMBARDY, 
ITALY, 14TH CENTURY. 


Roman brickwork, of which so much is said, 
was almost uniformly a mere sheathing for the 
strong masonry of broken stone and cement 
mortar of which even thin walls were composed 
in and near the city of Rome during the Im- 
perial period. The bricks of which these fac- 
ings were composed were generally triangular 
tile, thin in proportion to their other dimen- 
sions. The facing was then composed of the 
longest edge, — the hypothenuse of the triangle, 
—and these were arranged so as to break joints, 
the point of the triangle bonding firmly into the 
masonry within. This brickwork was never 
decorative in any sense, as it was expected to be 
covered up either by slabs of marble or fine 
stone, or by stucco. The facing in enamelled 
and richly coloured bricks, as in Persia, at 
different epochs, hardly comes into the present 
358 


owe Tey od 1s He pp wd oe ee ae 


BRICK WORE 
consideration, as it is a highly specialized work 
in chromatic sculpture rather than brickwork. 
Sun-dried or unbaked bricks are hardly ever the 
subject of fine work- 
manship, as they 
are known to per- 
ish rapidly if left 
exposed, and are, 
therefore, never 
treated ornament- 
ally. 

The most inter- 
esting brickwork, 
in an artistic sense, 
is that of medizeval 
times. The poverty 
of the people and 
their princes, and 
the great difficulty 

| of land transporta- 

Brickwork: ARCHIVOLT ; : 
AT CREMONA. tion, made it natu- 
ral to build with 
brick in any country where stone of good qual- 
ity was not common. ‘Thus, in northern Italy 
marble could be brought in moderate quantities 
from the Tuscan mountains or from the western 
Alps; or in Venice, Istrian stone could be 
brought by sea across the Adriatic ; but still it 
became natural to use brick for the greater part 
of the work. The unsettled state of the country 
- and the thinness of the population which in most 
parts of Northern Europe caused the Gothic build- 
ers to use cut stone, caused the builders of Lom- 
bardy, and those of the great German plain south 
of the Baltic, to use brick. The Roman organ- 
ization was gone, and work had to be done with 
a few craftsmen and still fewer skilled masons ; 


aD 


Ae 
IIRGQG 
Vox 


PINCH) 
ING Uy 
RY 


BRICKWORK: ARCHIVOLT IN THE BISHOP’S PALACE, 
MANTUA. 


therefore the materials had to be such as could 

be utilized in this way. (Compare Masonry.) 

When, however, brick was forced upon the 
359 


J , 2 7 - r i : 
r ae rw j yi 


BRICKWORK 


use with economy, it would become obvious to _ 
the master masons that this material possessed — 

artistic possibilities, and the facility of making _ 
it in any simple form, and the resources of colour 
decoration which the different glaze and the 
different ways of firing afforded, would become __ 
evident. We have, then, from the tenth cen- 
tury the use of brick both moulded and used in 
contrasting colour, in such buildings as the tower __ 
of S. Gotardo in Milan ; the cathedral at Cree 
mona; the Palazzo Agostini at Pisa; 8. Fran- — 
cesco at Brescia; 8. Pietro Martire at Verona, 
all of the Gothic period, and hundreds of build- _ 
ings of equal interest of this and of later times. _ 
In these buildings, moulded brick and the con- 
trasted colours of brick are the chief decorative 
features. In like manner, in Germany, buildings __ 


= Hf 
> Peg mari te 
/ Te LS RR peepee 
BES 2 [a ; 


“i Mi) PI TTY ee 
LY WM 
VA Re 
1 core (ares =e 
Fr Stee 
iy i= a a 
(} LT} alk 
ie 4 
Woe 
tf woman ae 
= 
WY) a 


BRICKWORK : MopDERN WALL-CORNICE, WITH —~ 
ARCHES RESTING ON TERRA-COTTA CORBELS. 


of Liibeck, Brandenburg, Tangermiinde, Sten- 
dal, Konigsberg, and many other towns are con- 
structed and decorated by brickwork almost E 
unaided, as generally thought, by other more 
solid material. This is peculiarly noticeable 
after the introduction of Gothic architecture, 
for a serious attempt was made to build Gothie 4 
churches entirely of baked clay, the construc- —_ 

tional and decorative parts alike. (See Ger- 
many (the northeast) and Gothic Architecture.) — 
Nothing of the kind had existed in antiquity, - 

for, if burned or unburned bricks had formed 
the mass of the structures on the banks of the 
Euphrates, it does not appear that the architec- 
tural treatment depended upon the colour or the 
form of the separate pieces of clay. These were 
merely massed together in vast agglomerations 
to receive and to carry the decorative appliances 
which were to delight the eyes of the inmates, 

360 


By 


BRIDGH 


~ BRICKWORK: MopERN CHURCH, Najux-LES-MINES, NEAR CALAIS, FRANCE. 


while the exterior was impressive chiefly from its 
overwhelming mass. (See Keramics; Terra Cotta.) 


Strack, Ziegelbauwerke des Mittelalters und 
der Renaissance in Italien, is admirable for the 


decorative brickwork of Italy ; and for Germany, ' 


the best books are Adler, Backsteinbauwerke des 
Preussischen Staats ; and Haupt, Backsteinbauten 
der Renaissance in Norddeutschland. ‘These are 
folios and somewhat expensive; but it is hard to 
imagine a proper treatment of the subject without 
large plates. Street’s Brick and Marble in the 
Middle Ages is devoted to North Italy and is full 
of interest. Gruner, Terra-Cotta Architecture of 
North Italy; and see the bibliographies under 
Keramics and Terra Cotta. —R. S. 


361 


BRIDGE. A structure by means of which 
a path, roadway, or the like is carried over a 
trench, a ravine, watercourse, or other de- 
pression. This may be a mere slab of stone, or 
a plank, or rough log supported at either end ; 
or a structure of masonry as elaborate as that 
of Bordeaux, or Waterloo Bridge in London ; 
or as rich architecturally as the Ponte SS. 
Trinita’ at Florence, or as the Pont de |’Alma, 
or the Pont d’Iena at Paris; or, finally, a sus- 
pension bridge like that between New York and 
Brooklyn, which is much the largest existing ; 
or, in the way of railroad bridges, the immense 

362 


BRIDGE 
Tay Bridge in Scotland. In the history of 


architecture, those bridges are the most attrac- 
tive which are something more than mere pas- 


sages for carriages and pedestrians. Thus, the 
medizeval bridges of European cities, when 
covered with the houses which once stood upon 


G kai 


ct Hy 


BRIDGE UNITING Two PALAzzI AT Fouieno, ITALY. 
363 


them, were of a value which they hav. 2 since 
lost ; and a bridge like that of the Rialto at — 
Venice, with rows of shops along it, and an . 


_BrinGe (RoMAN) AT ALCANTARA, SPAIN, 


S. Chamas in the south of France, with a me- 
morial arch at either end, express the instinctive 


_~— 
r | Lyiliqa'- tacit Ling 


desire of man to make of a bridge some- 
thing more than a viaduct. On the 
other hand, a viaduct bridge in the 
usual sense, or an aqueduct bridge, will - 
be interesting in proportion as its con- 
struction is elaborate and varied; thus __ 
the Pont du Gard in southern France, = 
or the bridge at Auteuil.in Paris are 
interesting because of the superposition 
of two or three arcades of differing scale 
and proportion. High Bridge in New 
York is an aqueduct bridge with a pas- 
sageway for pedestrians above, and that 
is interesting because of its great height. 
and generally good proportion ; on the 
other hand, the Washington Bridge, — 
about a mile distant, is a recent con- 
struction in which two great steel 
arches, each of more than 500 feet span, 
spring from stone piers and imposts, 
the whole forming one of the nearest 
approaches to the great desideratum —_ 
the making beautiful works of pure en- ~ 
gineering science. The city of Venice 
owes part of its attraction to its numer- 
ous bridges, of which, by far, the largest — 
is the bridge of the Rialto, above named. 
The smaller ones are seldom more than 
30 feet in span in a single arch, and 
they are ascended on either side by 
steps. None of very early times re - 
mains, but those of the seventeenth cen- 
tury are numerous and interesting, A 
most picturesque structure is the bridge 
at Verona, which crosses the Adige — 
from the city proper to the old forti- 
fications on the hill to the north. This 
364 


365 


BRIDGE 


366 


BRIDGE OF VALENDRE, WITH FORTIFIED TOWERS, AT CAHORS, SOUTHWESTERN FRANCE. 


BRIDGE 


bridge has its parapet cut into battlements of the 
forked or so-called Scaliger type, on either side. 
A few bridges have been built during the last 
two centuries with deliberate decorative effect, 
as in private or public parks; even having, 
in certain instances, pavilions, or ‘“‘ summer 
houses,” built upon them. It has often been 
pointed out that the common bridges of an- 
tiquity and of the Middle Ages, which connect 
two shores of not very great elevation above a 
ravine or stream, and which rise in a curve de- 
pendent upon the height of the arches below,— 
which height is in its turn dependent upon the 
width of those arches, which varies according to 
the facility of finding good foundation for the 
piers, —that such bridges are often far more 
beautiful structures than the modern engineer’s 
bridge with a perfectly level roadbed and para- 
pet. On the other hand, where the banks are 
high, every inducement is offered to span the 
open space with a single arch, and in many 
such cases the roadbed will be level, or nearly 
so. Moreover, the vastly greater convenience 
of the level roadway for heavy vehicles of all 
sorts is evident. Even the slight rise of some of 
the Paris bridges causes a serious strain to the 
horses which draw omnibuses and loaded wagons. 
(See Pont, Ponte, and following terms.) — R. S. 

Bascule Bridge. A form of drawbridge 
having a platform pivoted near the centre, one 

end dipping into a pit as the other end rises by 
the operation of a bascule ; or, perhaps, having 
a pair of levers in place of one half of the plat- 
form, each having its own pit or channel at the 
side of the roadway. 

Drawbridge. Any bridge of which a part 
or the whole can be temporarily moved from its 


piers or abutments, either to allow the passage 


of vessels, etc., or prevent ingress and egress 
over itself. In the Middle Ages a drawbridge 
giving access to a castle or fort across a moat 
was so hung or pivoted as to block the entrance 
when the outer end was raised by chains or 
otherwise. This was accomplished sometimes 
by the aid of balance-beams pulled down on the 
inside of the gate, the outer ends as they rose 
fitting into chases cut in the outer wall; some- 
times by a strong pull, as of a windlass, mov- 
ing the inner end either upward or downward. 
Other forms, both ancient and modern, involve 
the movement of the bridge in its own plane, 
either around a pivot (swing bridge), or in and 
out, on rollers. 

Suspension Bridge. A roadway hung by 
a series of suspension rods from cables passing 
over two lofty and massive towers, and firmly 
anchored at the extremities. 

Swing Bridge. A bridge which, in whole 
or in part, may be swung aside to give passage 
for river craft or canal boats. 

Tower Bridge. In London, erected dur- 
ing the last decade of the nineteenth century. 

367 


designs of Thomas Page. 


Although picturesque in appearance, itisr ie 
a subject of study as a piece of engineering ay . 


than of importance in a strictly architectura 

sense. 

of London. 
Waterloo Bridge. 


and 1817. 
120 feet span. 

Westminster Bridge. 
ning the Thames, built about 1860 from the — 
It is immediately 


In London, and span- 
ning the Thames, immediately above Somerset 
House, built by John Rennie between 1812 
It has nine arches, each of about 


So called as being just below the Tower = 


In London, span- ‘* 


: 
ay 
‘a 


below the new Westminster Palace, and has 


seven arched trusses of iron bearing upon gran- = 


ite supports. 


BRIDGE BOARD. Same as String Board. . 
(See Karls- 


BRIDGE OF PRAGUE. 
briicke.) 


BRIDGE OF SIGHS. (In Italian, Ponte 
In Venice, the bridge which 
spans the narrow Rio del Palazzo and con- 
It is. 
far above the water, at the third or fourth floor 
of the buildings it connects, and is a covered 
and enclosed bridge forming a chamber which _ 
is divided lengthwise by a partition, so that: 3 


dei Sospire:) 


nects the Ducal Palace with the prisons. 


persons going and those coming will not meet. 


It is of a late style, constructed about the close — 


of the sixteenth century. 


BRIDGE TOWER. A tower erected upon — 


a bridge, commonly at one end, to serve as a. 


defence, gate, memorial, or otherwise. A cele- 


brated example is the fine Gothic tower at one Ae 


end of the bridge (Karlsbriicke) at Prague. 
BRIDGING. A. A piece, or pieces, of 


scantling, or heavier timber, placed transversely _ a 


between other timbers to stiffen them and to. 


distribute the weight of a load more evenly on ™ 7 


them. 


between parallel beams. When the bridging 
between the floor joists forms a series of x’s, it 
is often called Cross Bracing and Cross Bridg- 
ing, in the United States. 


Cross Bridging. A kind of bridging con- 


B. The setting of bridging pieces, or of any- — 
pieces which are to serve as struts or stiffeners 


sisting of a series of small diagonal braces set 


in rows transversely to the timbers. The braces. 
are generally of light scantling, about 2 inches 
by 3 inches, or somewhat less, and, in floors, ex-- 
tend from the top of one beam to the bottom of 
the next, crossing each other at the middle. The 
term, as also herringbone bridging, is usual in 
the United States ; drumming, dwanging, strut- 
ting, and herringbone strutting being applied in 
different parts of Great Britain. The continu- 
ous rows of such crossing braces are generally 
put in about five or six feet apart. (See Cross 
Bracing, B, under Bracing.) 
BRIDGING FLOOR; JOIST, etc. (See: 
Floor ; Joist ; etc.) of 


368 


BRIDGE 


In Venice, connecting the Ducal Palace (on the 


left in the picture) and the Prisons. The name is 
a translation of the Venetian Ponte det Sospiri. 
The Prisons are of 1590, and the bridge was built 
immediately afterwards. The designs for both 


BEATE 1X 


OF SIGHS 


were by Giovanni or Antonio da Ponte, but he 
seems to have died before the bridge was finished, 
the work being completed by Antonio Contino. 
A work of the Decadence, the bridge is still full 
of grace and light solidity. 


BRIDLE 


BRIDLE. In parts of Great Britain, same 
as Trimmer. Also written Bridling. 

BRIDLE IRON. In local, United States, 
usage, the same as Stirrup. 

BRINGING FORWARD. The operation 
of so priming or painting old work and new, 
when juxtaposed, that the whole shall be uni- 
form in color and finish. 

BRIOSCHI, BENEDETTO DE; sculptor 
and architect. 

Brioschi assisted Giovanni Antonio Omodeo 
(see Omodeo) in the execution of the facade of 
the Certosa of Pavia, Italy. The portal (after 
1501) is especially credited to him. After 1483 
he appears in the records of the construction of 
the cathedral of Milan. 

Miintz, Renaissance. 


BRIOSCO, ANDREA (called Riccio) ; 
sculptor and architect of Padua; b. April 1, 
1470; d. July 8, 1532. 

The son of one Ambrogio Briosco, a Milanese 

goldsmith in Padua. He was a pupil of the 
sculptor Bartolomeo Bellano (see Bellano). In 
1500 he designed the Capella del Santo in the 
church of 8. Antonio, Padua. About 1505— 
1507 he made two bas-reliefs for the choir of 
8. Antonio. The contract, dated June 19, 1507, 
for his great candelabrum at S. Antonio is given 
by Gonzati (op. cit., Vol. I., Doc. 84). This 
work was finished in 1516, and is 3.92 metres 
' high and 1.12 metres in extreme width. For 
the church of 8. Fermo in Verona he made the 
tombs of Girolamo and Antonio della Torre. 
Eight bas-reliefs from Girolamo’s tomb are now 
in the Louvre (Paris). Nov. 12, 1516, Briosco 
was commissioned to make the model for, and 
direct the works at, the church of S. Giustina 
at Padua. (See Leopardi.) 

C. C. Perkins, Jtalian Sculptors; Mtintz, 
Renaissance; Paoletti, Rinascimento in Venezia ; 
Baldoria, La Chiesa di Santa Giustina a Padova ; 
Gonzati, Basilica di San Antonio. 

BRISVILLE, HUGUES; iron-worker (ser- 
rurier). 

Brisville was maitre serrurier to Louis XIV. 
(b. 1638; d. 1715). He was associated with 
Jean Bérain (see Bérain) in the decoration of 
the royal palaces. There is an entry in the ac- 
counts of Louis XIV. for work done at the 
chateau of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. _ Brisville 
published Diverses pieces de Serrurerie .. . 
gravées par J. Bérain (Paris, 1680, folio). 

Guiffrey, Comptes de Louis XIV. ; Valabrégue, 
‘‘ Jean Bérain’’ in Revue des Arts décoratifs. 

BRITTON, JOHN;; antiquary: b. 1771; d. 
= Jan. 1, 1857. 

John Britton was the son of a village store- 
keeper. At the age of sixteen he was appren- 
ticed to his uncle, a tavernkeeper, in London. 
In 1799 he published his first book, The -Ad- 
ventures of Pizarro. He next undertook, with 

the assistance of E. W. Brayley (see Brayley), 
369 


BROLETTO 


the Beauties of Wiltshire (1801-1825). The 
Beauties of England and Wales appeared 
about the same time. Britton and Brayley 
withdrew from this work in 1814. He pub- 
lished independently the Architectural Antig- 
uities of Great Britain (4 vols., 4to, 1807- 
1814). A fifth volume, containing A Chrono- 
logical History and Illustration of Christian 
Architecture, was published in 1826. After 
this came Cathedral Antiquities of England 
(14 vols., 4to, 1814-1835). With the co- 
operation of A. C. Pugin (see Pugin), he pro- 
duced Specimens of Gothic Architecture 
(1823-1825), Architectural Antiquities of 
Normandy (1 vol., 4to, 1828), and Iilustra- 
tions of the Public Buildings of London (2 
vols., 4to, 1825-1828). He published inde- 
pendently a Dictionary of the Architecture and 
Archeology of the Middle Ages (1 vol., 4to, 
1838), and, with Brayley, a History and De- 
scription of the Ancient Palace and Houses 
of Parliament at Westminster (1834-1836). 
The Autobiography of John Britton appeared 
in 1850 (see Bibliography). 

Britton, Autobiography ; Britton, A Brief Me- 
morial of His Life and Writings. 

BROACH (n.). A straight, slender, and 
pointed object, especially : — 

A. In ancient English usage, any spire. In 
local modern English usage, a spire which 
springs directly from the tower beneath, with- 
out any parapet or similar feature at the base. 

B. In a lock, the pin over which the barrel 
of a key fits. 

C. A pointed tool for roughly dressing stone. 
(See Stone Dressing.) 

BROACH (v.). To dress stone with a 
broach, generally the second process in stone- 
cutting following the scappling or hammer dress- 
ing. (See Stone Dressing.) 

BROAD STONE. A. Same as ashlar. 

B. Formerly in English usage paving stones 
which came from the quarry in broad, thin 
pieces. — (A. P. 8.) 

BROB. A wedge-shaped spike used to se- 
cure the end of a timber which butts against the 
side of another, as a post standing on a sill. 
In driving, its sloping sides force it close against 
the side of the member to be secured. 

BROEBES (or PROVES), JEAN BAP- 
TISTE; architect ; d. 1733. 

In 1686 Broebes built the Alte Boerse in 
Bremen (Germany). 

Gurlitt, Geschichte des Barockstiles in Deutsch- 
land. 

BROEUCQ. (See Dubroeucq.) 

BROLETTO. In Italian art, a town hall 
or municipal building of any kind. The term 
is used chiefly in connection with the cities of 
Lombardy, and the broletto of Como and that 
of Bergamo are specially celebrated. As the 
broletto frequently adjoins the cathedral, or is 

370 


very near to it, an architectural mass of great 
interest sometimes results. (Cut, cols. 373, 374.) 

BRONGNIART, ALEXANDRE THEO- 
DORE; architect: b. Feb. 15, 1739; d. June 
6, 1813. 

Brongniart was a pupil of Jacques Francois 
Blondel (see Blondel, J. F.). He was associated 
with Jacques Ange Gabriel (see Gabriel, J. A.), 
and succeeded him as architect of the Hcole 
Militaire. Brongniart’s chief work is the 
Bourse (Exchange), in Paris, which he designed. 
The first stone was laid March 24, 1808. He 
completed only the basement. 

Lance, Dictionnaire; Charles Lucas, in La 
Grande Encyclopédie; Ministére de 1’ Instruction 
Publique, Inventaire Général, Monuments Civils, 
VoLiLL 5 pbs; 

BRONZE. (See Metal Work.) 

BRONZE (v.t.). To give to metal and even 
to wood or other solid material ‘a specially se- 
lected metallic appearance, as of bronze, gold, 
silver, or the like, by investing its surface with a 
metal powder (see Bronze Powder), or a liquid, 
or a paint containing large amounts of metallic 
powder more or less fine, which being left upon 
the surface may produce an almost deceptive 
resemblance to the solid metal. Much the most 
common use of bronzing is in the imitation of gold 
or some alloy of gold, and this is improperly 
called gilding. Gold-bronze powders are made in 
imitation of red gold, yellow or pure gold, green- 
ish gold, etc., and these are sometimes used to- 
gether to produce a chromatic effect. — R. S. 

371 


tat 


mea 


in decorative painting and the like, and by 
which are produced what is commonly but 
wrongly called “gilding” in many different tints _ 
of gold, and also ‘“‘silvering,” ‘“bronzing,” etc. 
(See Bronze.) 

BROOM (y.i.). To spread out in broom 
shape through separation of the fibres, as when 
a pile is partly crushed at its head under the 
blows of the pile driver. 


mon de). 

BROSSE, JEAN (JEHAN) DE; 
itect ; d. 1585. 

Jean de Brosse is mentioned in the accounts 
of Marguerite de Valois, first wife of Henri IV. 
(b. 1553 ; d. 1610), as architecte et secrétaire 
d’ icelle dame. He married Julienne, the sister — 
of Jacques (I.) Androuet du Cerceau (see An- 
drouet, J., (I.)), and was the father of the famous 
Salomon de Brosse (see Brosse, 8. de), 


arch- 


Jal, Dictionnaire ; Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 


BROSSBE, PAUL DE; architect. 

Paul is supposed to have been a son of Salo- 
mon de Brosse (see Brosse, 8. de). He was ap- 
pointed architect to Louis XIII. 


Jal, Dictionnaire ; Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 


BROSSE, SALOMON (JACQUES) DE; 
architect ; b. about 1560 (at Verneuil-sur-Oise, 
France) ; d. Dec. 7, 1626. ew 

The baptismal name of the great De Brosse 

372 


BROSSE, JACQUES DE (see Brosse, Salo- 


4 sur-Oise (destroyed), 
_ which is supposed to 
have been designed 


(see Androuet du 


: aqueduct of Arcueil 
to supply the Lux- 


portal of the church 


BROSSE 


was Salomon, and not Jacques as formerly sup- 


posed. He was probably a son of Jehan de 


Brosse (see Brosse, Jean de) and a nephew of 
Jacques (II.) Androuet du Cerceau (see An- 
drouet du Cerceau, Jacques, (II.). He was ap- 
pointed architect of Maria de’ Medici, queen of 
Henri IV. (b. 1553; d. 1610). In 1615 he 
began for her the palace of the Luxembourg 
(Paris), which was nearly completed in 1620. 
The principal char- 
acteristics of the 
Luxembourg are 
usually Supposed to 
have been derived 
from the garden fa- 
cade of the Palazzo 
Pitti in Florence (see 
Ammanati). They 
were probably rather 
suggested by the old 
chateau of Verneuil- 


by Jacques (I.) An- 
drouet du Cerceau 


Cerceau, Jacques, 
(II.)). Between 
1613and 1624 Salo- 
mon built the new 


* 


embourg with water. 
He built also the 
fountain of the 
Medici in the Lux- 
embourg garden. 
Between 1616 and 
1621 he built the 


of S. Gervais (Paris), 
and between 1618 
and 1620 the Salle 
des Pas-Perdus at 
the Palais de Jus- 
tice (Paris), to re- 
place the medizval 
hall burned in 1618, 
De Brosse was a 
Huguenot. In a 
register of burials 
of an old Protestant 
cemetery in Paris 
is found the entry, Salomon de Brosse, ingé- 
nieur et architecte des bastimens du roy, 
natif de Verneuil, enterré a Saint-Pere, le 9. 
decembre 1626. 


Charles Read, Salomon de Brosse ; Maurice du 
Seigneur in Planat, Encyclopédie de 1’ Architec- 
ture; De Gisors, Le Palais du Luxembourg ; Von 
Geymiiller, Les du Cerceau. 


373 


wel lh OND petite GS yy lu ole I ols sla ig a 


é 


BROWN 


BROUGH. In Celtic archeology, a round 
structure of prehistoric age, or the ruins of such 
a structure. (Compare Harth House; Pict’s 
House.) 

BROWN, A. PAGE; architect ; b. Oct. 19, 
1859 ; d. Jan. 21, 1896. 

He was educated at Cornell University. 


After working for three years in the office of 
McKim, Mead, and White (New York City) 


BROLETTO AT Monza, LOMBARDY. 


he spent two years in Europe. On his return 
he designed the Art Museum and several other 
buildings for Princeton University. He is best 
known by the California state building which 
he designed for the World’s Fair in 1893. He 
designed several important buildings in Cali- 
fornia. 
American Architect, Vol. LI., p. 57. 
374 


a co > Pie. aie 
4 : oe ; / 


BROWNING 


BROWNING. Same as Brown Coat (which 
see under Plaster). 

BROWNSTONE. A sandstone of prevail- 
ing brown colour. Ex., the Connecticut, New 
Jersey, and Pennsylvania brownstones. 

—G. P. M. 

BROW PIECE. A beam over a door; a 
breast summer. — (N. E. D.) 

BROW POST. A cross beam. — (N. E. D. ; 
Aes) . 

BRUANT (BRUAND), LIBERAL ; archi- 
tect ; b. about 1635; d. Nov. 22, 1697. 

A son of Sébastien Bruant (d. 1670), who 
was maitre général de charpenterie du rot 
about 1635. Bruant made the original designs 
for the h6tel and church of the Invalides, begun 
Nov. 30, 1671. He built the choir and nave 
of the church between 1671 and 1679. The 
work was completed by Jules Hardouin-Mansart. 
(See Hardouin-Mansart, Jules.) 

Guiffrey, Comptes de Louis XIV.; Bauchal, 
Dictionnaire ; Lance, Dictionnaire. 

BRUANT, SEBASTIEN. (See Bruant, 
Liberal.) 

BRUCE, SIR WILLIAM; architect; d. 
1710. 

Sir William Bruce, Scottish architect, was 
the second son of the third baron of Blairhall. 
By letter of Charles ITI., dated June 3, 1671, he 
was appointed “‘ general overseer and superin- 
tendent ” of the reconstruction of the palace of 
Holyrood (Edinburgh, Scotland). 

Mylne, The King’s Master Masons ; 
Dictionary of Artists. 

BRUNELLESCO ; BRUNELLESCHI (FI- 
LIPPO DI SER BRUNELLESCO) ; architect ; 
b. 13877; d. 1446. 

Filippo’s father received the name Brunellesco 
from his own mother’s family, the Brunelleschi, 
of Florence. Filippo was born in Florence, and 
apprenticed to a goldsmith. He was early in- 
terested in mechanics, and made many practical 
inventions. Two statuettes of prophets, in the 
silver retable of S. Giacomo at Pistoia, are 
supposed to be by him. He made, also, a wooden 
crucifix, at S. Maria Novella. He entered 
the competition for the doors of the Florentine 
Baptistery, in 1401 (see Ghiberti). From 1401 
to 1417 Brunellesco appears to have lived in 
Rome, with Donatello (see Donatello), making 
occasional visits to Florence. In 1404 he joined 
the corporation of jewellers, and, in the same 
year, served on a commission at the cathedral 
of Florence. In 1415 he again appears at the 
cathedral. The general scheme of the dome was, 
undoubtedly, established by the model made 
about 1367 (Fabriczy, op. cit., p. 60). (See 
Giovanni di Lapo Ghini.) In 1417 the work 
had proceeded as far as the oculi in the eight 
sides of the drum. The cupola itself was be- 
gun in 1425. Ghiberti and Brunellesco, both 
members of the guild of goldsmiths, of Florence, 

375 


Redgrave, 


0. em 


fos abe a 
a and : ie — 


; Hy: Ee orks. 
‘ BRYAXIS © - 77a 


were associated at first on equal terms. Filippo ae: 
superseded Ghiberti, and became capo maestro — 
about 1438, and provisore a vita in 1445, — 
The lantern was finished in 1461 (after his — 
death), from Brunellesco’s model. All Brunel- 
lesco’s work is in Florence or vicinity. The — 2 
reconstruction of S. Lorenzo was begun not 
later than 1420. Filippo finished the old sacr tye 
and transept of that church before he died. — 
The nave was built from his plans, after his 
death, by Manetti Ciacheri (see Manetti, An- 
tonio). He built the Badia, at Fiesole, near — % 
Florence, after 1439. The second cloister of 
S. Croce was built from his designs. The church — 
of S. Spirito was begun by Brunellesco, and fin- 
ished after his death. The chapel of the Pazzi, - : 
at S. Croce, Filippo’s most perfect building, was 
begun not ‘earlier than 1429. The unfinished om 
church of the Camaldoli, or degli Angeli, was 
begun after 1426. The plan is an interesting 
example of eight sides on the inside, changing __ 
to sixteen on the outside, The Spedale degli 
Innocenti was commenced in 1419. The Loggia, 
with sculpture by Andrea della Robbia (see Rob- 
bia, Andrea della), is wellknown. Hebeganthe 
Pitti palace, for Luca Pitti, about 1444. Many 
drawings of this building, after the end of the 
fifteenth century, show the three stories of the | 
facade, with only seven windows in the second 
and third. The rest has been added since. The 
Pazzi palace is attributed to Filippo without — 
documentary evidence. He built a large part of | 
the Palazzo della parte Guelfa. Brunellesco 
is credited with having discovered the modern __ 
science of perspective. a 

Fabriczy, Filippo Brunelleschi; Von Geymiil-— a 
ler, Filippo de Ser Brunellesco ; Antonio Manetti, s 
Vita di Filippo di Ser Brunellesco; Vasari, Mi- 
lanesi ed.; Vasari, Blashfield-Hopkins ed.; Nar- 
dini-Despotti-Mospignotti, Filippo di Ser Brunel- — 
lesco e la Cupola del Duomo; Guasti. La Cupola 
Santa Maria del Fiore ; Guasti, Santa Maria del — 
Fiore; Durm, Die Kuppel in Florenz; Paolo 
Fontana, Jl Brunellesco e Varchitettura classica . 
Mazzanti, Del Badia, Migliori fabbriche di 
Firenze. 

BRUNNEN, ANDREAS. (See Pozzo, An- 
drea. ) 
BRUNNENHAUS. In Germany, a build- 
ing erected over a natural spring ; especially one 
resorted to as curative. Such a building, con- 

sidered as a place of resort, is often treated in 
a decorative fashion. 

BRY AXIS; sculptor. 

Bryaxis probably originally came from Caria 
(Asia Minor), and was educated in Athens. — 
His signature is found on a bas-relief on the ae 
base of a monument at Athens. About 350 
B.c. he was associated with Scopas (see 
Scopas), Timotheos (see Timotheos), and Leo- 
chares (see Leochares) in the decoration of the 
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus in Caria. 


Collignon, Histoire de la sculpture Grecque ; 
K. A. Gardner, Handbook of Greek Sculpture. 


376 


BUCKINGHAM PALACE 


BUCKINGHAM PALACE. The town 
residence of the sovereigns of Great Britain ; 
begun by George IV. and finished under Wil- 
liam IV., but never occupied continuously by 
the royal family. It stands in London at the 
western end of 8S. James’s Park, and south of 
Green Park. It has no important architectural 
character. 

BUCKLE (v.). To bulge or curve under 

excessive strain; to deviate from the normal. 
Used of walls and other members which suffer 
deflection as under extreme load; of metal 
plates ; of boards, and the like, which warp or 
twist because too thin or light. 
- BUCKLED. Past participle of buckle. In 
a special sense, corrugated ; said of thin metal 
plates. The term was originally applied to 
corrugations of a peculiar form, connected with 
a patent. 

BUCKLED PLATE. A metal plate, gener- 
ally square, stamped or wrought with a slight 


_domical convexity, leaving a flat rim with 


straight edges. Laid on iron beams, they are 
commonly used on account of their stiffness, as 


a foundation for fireproof floors. 


BUCRANE; BUCRANIUM. Anox skull, 


_ used as a symbolic decoration in Roman archi- 
tecture, in which it had a sacrificial significance, 
_ and was confined to altars and temples. 


It ap- 
pears to have originated in the primitive prac- 
tice of affixing the skulls of the oxen sacrificed 
to the frieze, or other parts, of the temple of the 
god worshipped. As a decoration, it was asso- 
ciated with garlands, festoons, and fillets. In 
Renaissance decoration in Italy it occurs as an 
arbitrary ornament destitute of particular sig- 
nificance. Its inappropriateness, however, pre- 
vented its general adoption. — A. D. F. H. 
BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE. § That 
of India of the time of the great Buddhist re- 


' ligious movement, and which is generally 


assumed to be of the sixth century B.c., and 
the centuries immediately following. The build- 
ings are mainly in the northern part of the 
peninsula, from Kashmir in the far northwest 
to the Ganges, and in Ceylon; but on the 
western coast of the peninsula they extend as 
far south as Bombay. Temples and topes of 


extraordinary magnificence exist at Buddha 


Gaya, Patna, Amravati, and Benares. At San- 
chi, Sarnath, and Bharhut (though of the last 
named the central mass has disappeared) are 
topes with gateways and railings (see Rail- 
ings), which are not buildings in the modern 
sense, but religious monuments extremely rich in 
sculpture. (Compare Chaitya Cave; Vimana ; 
and see India, Architecture of). 


Fergusson, Indian and Eastern Architecture; 
Gustave Le Bon, Les Monuments de l’ Inde ; Rajen- 
dralala Mitra, Buddha Gaya, and the other titles 
named in the bibliography of India, Architecture 
of. —R.S. 


377 


BUILDER 


BUFFET. A. A sideboard; especially a 
large, stationary, and somewhat elaborate one 
with shelves, racks, and the like, for serving 
refreshments ; hence, — 

B. In public places, a room where refresh- 
ments are served. Generally provided only 
with counters or bars, and thus distinguished 
from a restaurant or café, which has tables and 
chairs; sometimes a place for slight repasts 
only, luncheons and the like. 

In both these senses the word has partly lost 
the original French signification. 

BUFFET BAR. A bar in the sense of Bar, 
B, situated against the wall and forming a more 
or less extensive buffet. Barrooms and café’s 
fitted in this way, and without bars in the proper 
sense, are becoming common in the United States. 

BUHL AND COUNTER. Decorative work 
done with the inlay of thin materials (see Boule 
Work) but having the scroll pattern or similar 
ornamental device given in the two aspects, first 
of a piece sawed out and set upon, or within, a 
different ground ; and second, of a larger piece, 
from which the smaller has been sawed out, with 
the opening filled in. Thus, if a piece of sheet 
brass has had a figure cut out of it, the piece 
so cut away will be mounted, enclosed in per- 
haps a sheet of tortoise shell; and the piece 
cut out of the tortoise shell to admit the piece 
of brass will be inserted in the opening left in 
the original sheet of brass, so as to produce 
what in heraldry is called a countering, or 
counter charging. — R. 8. 

BUHL WORK. (See Boule Work.) 

BUILD (v.). To construct or erect a struc- 
ture by any process of uniting materials or 
members. (See Building.) 

BUILDER. One who builds, and, in the 
limited technical sense, one who organizes and 
manages the various trades for the construc- 
tion of edifices for the purposes of habitation, 
religion, industry, and art. 

The builder as he exists to-day is a creation 
of the last four centuries. The Renaissance of 
classic art in building and decoration, which 
placed the prerogative of design and the de- 
termination of art standards in the hands of 
students of antiquity, separated these functions 
from those of construction, and determined new 
lines to divide the builder from the architect. 
Previously this division had not existed, or when 
perchance one did exist it was of a different 
character. 

The builder in antiquity enjoyed a position 
and prestige which his modern successor has 
lost. Then the builder was indeed both builder 
and architect. The architect who was not also 
the builder was only the author of the general 
idea and its main features. He might be a king 
or an ecclesiastic. His share of the work of 
design might go as far as to determine the 
number of columns of a portico or the general 

378 


; iF; —?) 7 
0 Pa of ‘ a al iT oe C8 * 7 
. 2 " ? 
wee 1 ; hal se 3 ae inp ate Ver br 4 
, a : i q 


BUILDER 


disposition and dimensions of a cruciform plan ; 
but it was the builder who defined the propor- 
tions, the order, the style and extent of decora- 
tion, and who drew all the diagrams, and decided 
by his experience the questions of engineering. 
He was better enabled to do this by reason of 
the slow changing traditions which governed the 
art. He did not, as the modern architect does, 
direct arbitrarily the design and details. Hach 
workman in his own sphere made his details in 


the only way he knew. There was no question . 


of purity of style, for the prevailing style was 
the only one of which the workman had any 
conception. 

Written records are strangely lacking in re- 
gard to the individual authorship of ancient 
architecture. Compared with the age of such 
relics as the Assyrian and early Egyptian ruins, 


the buildings of Rome and medizval Europe 


are almost recent, and had they been the crea- 
tion of individual genius the names of their 
authors would have been blazoned upon the his- 
tory of mankind. But such names, as of indi- 
vidual artists, rarely appear, and the inference 
is that the builder and architect, as we know 
them, were not yet evolved from the hetero- 
geneous art life which was collective and tradi- 
tional rather than individual and inventive. 

This view is supported by the remarkable 
similarity, not only in great features, but in the 
minutest details, of all: buildings of each period, 
however far apart in location. This character- 
ized alike the Grecian, the Roman, and the medi- 
zeval epochs, and is absolutely lacking in the 
modern. It reveals positively the existence of 
direction which was a unifying medium for the 
art impulses of the times very different from the 
individual force of the modern builder or archi- 
tect. This medium was no doubt the guild or 
society of builders. Fragmentary testimony of 
record unites with the incontestable evidence of 
the buildings themselves to show that from the 
Grecian age down to the Renaissance the art 
of building was possessed by strong and closely 
organized fraternities which have now entirely 
ceased to exist. 

The Dionysiacs of Ionia, a company of masons 
and builders, almost monopolized the building 
of temples. They had secrets of both scientific 
and doctrinal character, guarded by signs and 
passwords and initiations much like those pre- 
served in the ceremonies of Freemasonry. It 
appears that the strength of these societies was 
based upon really exclusive scientific knowl- 
edge and skill in building, and their mysteries 
were not sentimental only, but were founded 
in practical business jealousy of their monop- 
olies. 

In Roman times these Greek societies still 
flourished, and although the personal force of the 
great military citizens doubtless asserted itself 
and dominated the builders’ operations, the 

379 


ie | 


latter still paren all art baa. and engi 
ing yaar : 


arene and Gothic series, similar cond 
tions of organization of the builders’ art un- 
doubtedly prevailed. We again find an age, — 
possessing most limited facilities for recording — 
and communicating, producing works in far 
removed places showing close similarity, and 
proving therein a complete unification and or- 
ganization of their art. Perhaps the guilds of 
the latter part of this period were in less degree 
monopolists of the secrets of their work. In- 
dustrial education and military science both — 
tended to popularize engineering knowledge; 
and, as to the artistic, we see, in the latest 
phases of it, as in the French Flamboyant and 
its contemporaries, the English Tudor and Ger- 
man late geometrical, differences which are ex- 
amples of marked independence and which show 
the disintegration of the old unity of school. 
And in Italy, where the authority of the medi- __ 
eeval guilds was never great, the individualism 
which inspired the Renaissance was very early 
developed. The energetic communities born 
of commerce and learning afforded good soil — 
for such a growth, and when its strength was 
developed the other European countries had 
reached a receptive condition. The medieval 
guilds sank into insignificance, and as the indi- 
vidual architect, who was chiefly archeologist,  __ 
and secondarily engineer, arose to power, the 
builder sank to the position of a mere chief _ 
of mechanics, who pretended to but little art By! 
knowledge and whose engineering skillwas sim- 
ply practical and of the “rule of thumb” order. 
But for some years the traditional habits of 
building and decorating produced local styles 
following the models of the strongest designers, ‘= 
This is traceable in England in country work — 
long after the classical methods had taken pos- 
session of the capital; and again on the Ameri- 
can continent in the early colonial work of the 
Eastern states (see the terms England; Colonial). 
From this position the modern builder has 
arisen under the stimulus of industrial enter- 
prise. The tendencies toward division of labour, © 
even in the eighteenth century, had produced 
independence of the several trades, such as 
mason, carpenter, smith, etc., and to this day 
much good work is done by builders who each 
controls only his particular branch of the art ; 
but the necessity for organization, on the other 
hand, long since demanded a chief directing 
power which the architect was no longer com- 
petent to supply, even if his new professional — 
status had made it desirable. Hence arose the 
modern builder— namely, a chief executive, 
who organizes and details the work of the 
several trades to carry out the projects defined” 

by the architect. 
380 


BUILDER 


There are two systems in vogue for this pur- 
pose. They may be called the English and the 
American for want of better names, although 


the latter is the more recent, and is perhaps 


only American because the rapid growth and 
change in the United States facilitates reform 
of such organizations. 

In England the builder is usually a contractor 
of considerable experience, who himself has in- 
timate knowledge of all the building trades, 
and who employs directly foremen and artificers 
in each one of them. He is in fact a stone 
mason and bricklayer, a carpenter and smith, 
and painter and roofer, by reason of his own 
technical knowledge, and he maintains, upon his 
own business premises, yards and shops and de- 
pots for all these several purposes. 

In America a builder (it must be remembered 
that operators in large cities are referred to in 
each case) is usually a contractor who, com- 
manding certain financial resources, assumes a 
concentrated responsibility, and subdivides it 
among many subcontractors, each supposed to 


__ be technically qualified to produce a certain 


part of the work required. This builder usually 
has some experience in a special trade, but his 


chief qualification is an aptitude for executive 


organization ; and he makes but little effort to 
understand the needs, artistic or scientific, of 
his work beyond what is necessary to refer each 
part to the proper subcontractor. 

In comparing these two methods it is some- 


times alleged that the latter is inferior ; that 
the lack of expert knowledge and of personal 


interest on the part of the builder is productive 
of evil in the executed work, as compared with 
the older fashion and its results. But it must 
be admitted that it is the legitimate outcome of 
our industrial tendencies, and that it has many 
advantages from the contractor’s point of view 


which make it not only desirable but imperative 


in the sharp competition of modern business. 
The larger number of trades now involved, con- 
tinually increasing as workmen enroll in separ- 
ate unions for protection of their own interests, 
make it impossible to unite their operations 
under a single administration. Then the enor- 
mous rapidity of modern building, as well as the 
size of the edifices, makes two or three (some- 
times even one) of such contracts a sufficient 
undertaking for one builder, and demands a suc- 
cession of the trades rather than a cooperation 
of them. At onetime a hundred ironworkers 
may be needed, and no other workmen; then 
later a hundred bricklayers ; later stone setters, 
plasterers, steam fitters, electricians, and so on. 
A builder who has ten buildings in course of 
construction can remove each corps of artisans 
from one to the other, and so keep all his 
various trades continuously at work; but one 
who has a vast amount of work concentrated in 
one structure to be erected in a short time must 
381 


ee Se Re ase ee ie 


BUILDER 


find each trade in turn idle. He therefore 
ceases to employ the workmen of that trade. 
He sublets each section of the work to a con- 
tractor who will bring. an army of men when 
wanted, and, as their labours are lessened, will 
remove them to perform other subcontracts 
upon buildings less advanced. In short, the 
subcontract system permits the effective distri- 
bution of labour upon a very large scale, and 
this alone would enforce its use. But, beyond 
this, the number of the various trades is becom- 
ing very great, and the technical knowledge 
necessary to control some of them is of a very 
high order. The subcontracts are further sub- 
divided in many cases, and let a third, or 
even fourth, time, so that the responsibility is 
sometimes too far removed from the builder to 
be readily ascertainable. The building trades, 
as now usually arranged in the United States, 
are as follows :— .~ 

MASON, including excavator, rock blaster, 
shorer, pile driver, pneumatic caisson engineer, 
bricklayer, fireproofing terra cotta setter, stone 
cutter and setter, scaffolder and hoister, paver, 
waterproofer and roofer, plasterer, marble and 
tile workers. 

IRONWORKER, including structural work 
of cast iron, steel in framing of columns, beams, 
and trusses, ornamental and finishing ironwork, 
bronze, and other metal works. 

CARPENTER, including structural timber 
framing work, joiner work, cabinet work, cop- 
per, tin, and sheet metal work, roofing work 
(sometimes under Mason), painting, varnishing, 
glazing. 

PLUMBER, including fixtures and machines, 
piping, marble work, gas piping, tiling. 

HEATING AND VENTILATION, includ- 
ing boilers, piping and radiators, engines, 
pumps, ventilating plant, special fixtures and 
fittings. 

ELEVATOR WORK, including pumps, cars. 

ELECTRIC WORK, including wiring, dyna- 
mos, engines, bells, telephones, fixtures. 

When it is noted that each item mentioned 
separately is customarily the subject of a dis- 
tinct subcontract with a special contractor, it 
will be seen that the ability to specialize each 
trade is an important impulse toward the sys- 
tem. In fact it becomes apparent that the 
older or English system can now exist only in 
part, for it is out of the question that an Eng- 
lish builder should maintain a shop for building 
steam engines or electric machinery, and the 
most ardent advocate of the system must per- 
force consent to the subcontracting for such 
things, or else reserve them to be contracted for 
separately by the owner. But this latter 
method leads around the circle to the original 
need of a chief contractor, and brings us back 
to the fact that this subcontract system is 
essentially the method of the modern builder. 

382 


WE +, Tyas ee 


i nie OY re oft it eat vie a ge. ed 


BUILDER 


There is still much work of lesser magnitude 
done by the various trades without the inter- 
vention of any chief contractor; the owner, 
by his architect, sometimes making contracts 
for the work under the main headings in the 
above list; but even then many secondary items 
are usually subcontracted, the builders being 
equipped only for the primary work —a mason 
employing his bricklayers and subletting the 

stone and plaster; a carpenter employing 
framers and fitters, and subletting all mill and 
shop work ; and so on. 

The repeated reference to contracts and con- 
tractors in the lines preceding calls for a brief 
comment. ‘‘Contractor” has become almost 
synonymous with ‘‘builder,” because of the 
settled custom of agreeing beforehand in draw- 
ings and written documents upon the extent, 
character, and cost of building. This develop- 
ment, too, has been much deplored ; but again, 
it is the product of the age. 

The old method known as the “ days’ work” 
system still prevails to a small extent, but 
chiefly for work which cannot be determined in 
advance. In this system all work done and 
material used are carefully recorded, and their 
cost, plus an amount or percentage for profit, is 
charged to the owner. Its advantages include 
the encouragement of good workmanship by 
proportionately high compensation. Its defect 
is the commercial one of removal of responsibil- 
ity for cost from those who only can control it. 
The admitted fact that days’ work is always 
expensive is explanatory of its decadence. 

It is much to be regretted that this old- 
fashioned way of making compensation for 
building work is falling into disuse, especially 
as the prevalence of other systems brings about 
an attitude of builders and workmen which robs 
the days’ work method of its chief advantage — 
namely, loyalty and sympathy for the work 
itself and theemployer. The impulse in “ days’ 
work” is to render the best work possible. In 
“contract” it is to do the least that will be 
accepted. Another method in use in England 
is known as the “measured work” system. It 
is used in America only in engineering or, very 
exceptionally, in subcontracts in building. In 
this case a schedule of prices per foot, per yard, 
etc. is agreed upon, and the work when done is 
measured up and the total value determined. 
It is evidently of only limited applicability, and 
need not be much considered, although it is 
doubtless true that it combines some of the ad- 
vantages of a days’ work system, with a proper 
location of responsibility for extravagance and 
waste. 

But the contract system of building is the 
generally accepted one, and it can only be in- 
ferred that it is that ‘Dest suited to our use. 
Many of the evils attributed to it, especially 
the lack of pride in good workmanship, should 

382 


a nar 14 ae % ~ 
a nS Om, er a , 


really be charged to other causes. The c 


of awarding contracts upon competitive - 4 
posals involving the selection of the lowest t 


and the uniform wage scale insisted upon te r 
most trades unions, together with their cen : ie 


fee raise the standard of the average. = 
The builder now as truly represents his epoch 7. 
as did any of his predecessors, individual or — 
corporate. His work demands of him executive 
ability and enterprise beyond that shown at — 
any time in the past, and in his army of sub- — 
contractors he commands skill and power and — 
inventive genius of such diversity and degree as — 
have been until now unthought of in connection — 
with the builders’ art. — Ropert W. Grpson. 
BUILDERS’ HARDWARE. The metallic 
fittings in common use about a house or other — | 
building, such as hinges, bolts, locks. More — | 4 
rarely, by natural extension, larger fittings, bie x 
almost entirely in the interior, such as brass or — 
cast-iron saddles for doors ; but never including — 4 
the fittings connected with the plumbing, a 
BUILDERS’ JACK. (See Jack.) " | 
BUILDING. A. The art and the practice— @ 

of putting together material in such awayasto 
produce a structure of some elaboration ; espe- — 3 
cially, in architectural usage, a dwelling ‘house, 
hall for meeting, place of worship, or the like. = 
B. The structure so put together and com- 
posed. ‘- 
In sense A the term differs from ‘Archibat a 
ture in excluding all idea of artistic treatment; 
and it differs from Construction in excluding the a 
idea of scientific or highly skilful treatment. 
Building may be poor, may be commonplace, 
ugly, insufficient, or otherwise of small inp ae 
tance. ‘ 
The building of those earliest races of men = 
who first emerged from the lowest savagery haat se 
always been strictly confined to the use of such — 
material as comes easiest to hand. Thus, in 
the forest grown countries the use of saplings 
and branches for the main structure, and of 
leafy boughs or large leaves for thatch and >= 
keeping out the rain, is universal; but where = 
such materials are not available, building, al- 9 
though it may develop more slowly, is none the __ 
less undertaken with stones, mud, clay, andthe 
like. Even where men have lived in caves, or _ 
in excavations in the face of a cliff, building is 
resorted to at an early stage of their develop- 
ment to complete their protection or their de- 
fence ; and in these cases, such materials as stone 
and clay are usually accessible and are found _ 
more efficacious. The same truths hold good 
throughout nearly all the natural development 
of building ; and an advanced stage of mechani- __ 
cal civilization is reached before building mate- 
rials are brought from a great distance. There 
384 


~ 


x 
7 
i 


NS SAO 


ear Re ee 


_ Zealander’s hut. 


BUILDING 


are exceptions to this rule; thus, the Egyptians 
at a very early epoch became skilful in moving 
to the water’s edge and in transporting by water 
very large blocks of stone worked in the quar- 
ries on the upper Nile and floated down the 
stream. At the same. time, however, the ordi- 
nary building of the people and the greater part 
of the larger and more splendid structures were 
built of material found ready at hand. The re- 
sult of this strong tendency to save trouble and 
expense is found in the sharp distinction be- 
tween two kinds of building and the rarity of 
their combination in one and the same structure. 
These two kinds of building are, first, that 
which may be called cage building; in which 
long, slender joists, bars, beams, logs, stems of 
bamboo and stems of palm, and the like are 
combined to form an openwork box, the inter- 
stices of which are filled up or covered over 
afterward by material secured to the uprights, 
the horizontals, and diagonals. This structure 
is as visible in an American balloon frame house 
or in the modern steel cage building as in a New 
It is but a slight modification 
of it which obtains in the half-timbered house 
where the interstices are filled up with masonry. 
This method of building has prevailed for thou- 
sands of years in China, along the banks of the 
Nile, in Japan, in Northern Europe, and in other 
lands where the materials are easy to obtain. 
The other kind of building is the solid kind. 


In this a combination of walls is carried up from 


the ground, and these walls may be built of 


stones roughly heaped together or slightly 


dressed, or of clay cut or pressed into uniform 
shapes and dried in the sun, or of mud of some 
tenacious kind ; but this last material requires 
a backing, a frame or skeleton, to keep it in 
place, and here again is a partial combination 
of the two systems of building. Walls built 
solidly in this manner require for the roofing of 
the enclosure within them, either a resort to the 
first-named system of building,— the cage sys- 
tem, — or they require the use of peculiarly for- 
tunate material and the employment of unusual 
constructional and mechanical skill. The rare 
instances in the history of building in which 
roofs are made of slabs of stone, of corbelled 
courses of stone, or of true vaults, are instances 
of the difficulty found by half-civilized man in 
closing his room at the top by the materials 
used in what we call masonry. — R. S. 

In addition to the works mentioned below, 
see the bibliographies under Iron Construction ; 
Masonry ; Wood, Construction in. 

F. E. Kidder, Building Construction and Super- 
intendence ; Sit John Anderson, The Strength of 
Materials and Structures, London, 1887, 12mo; 
Baukunde der Architekten unter Mitwirkung von 
Fachmdnnern der Verschiedenen Einzelgebiete, 
bearbeitet von den Herausgebern der Deutschen 
Bauzeitung und des Deutschen Baukalenders, 2 
vols., 8vo, Berlin, 1890; Max Becker, Allgemeine 
Baukunde des Ingénieurs, text 5 vols., 4to, plates 


085 


BULFINCH ‘ 


5 vols., folio, Leipzig, 1882; Théodore Chateau, 
Technologie du Batiment, ow étude complete des 
matériaux de toute espéce employés dans les con- 
structions, Paris, 1880, 2 vols., 8vo; A. Devilley, 
Eléments de constructions civiles, art de batir, 
composition des édifices, etc., Paris, 1882, 1 vol., 
8vo; Notes on Building Construction, London, 
4 vols., 8vo, 1875; also by the same author, .Ad- 
vanced Building Construction, London, 1892 (both 
of the above issued for the South Kensington 
Schools) ; F. E. Kidder, Architect’s and Build- 
er’s Pocket Book; M. Winter, Die Dach con- 
structionen nach den verschiedenartigen Formen 
und Bedingungen, Berlin, s. d., 1 vol. text, 1 
vol. plates; G. A. Breymann, und H. Lang, 
Allgemeine Bau-constructionslehre mit beson- 
derer Beziehung auf das Hochbauwesen, Leipzig, 
1881, 4 vols.; Léopold Lanck, Traité pratique de 
la construction moderne et description du matériel 
employé par les constructeurs, Paris, 1877, 2 vols., 
folio; Charles H. Haswell, Mechanics’ and Engi- 
neers’ Pocket Book of Tables, Rules and Formu- 
las, etc., New York, 1891; Banister Fletcher, 
Quantities, a Text-book for Surveyors in tabulated 
form, London, 1880; Glenn Brown, Healthy 
Foundations for Houses (reprinted from the Sani- 
tary Engineer), New York, 1885; Jules Gaudard, 
Foundations, translated by L. F. Vernon Har- 
court, M.A., New York ; George T. Powell, Foun- 
dations and Foundation Walls for all classes of 
Buildings, New York, 1889 ; R. Guastavino, Essay 
on the Theory and History of Cohesive Construc- 
tion applied especially to the timbrel vault, Bos- 
ton, 1893 ; Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire Raisonné, 
article ‘‘ Construction,’’ and translation of same, 
ational Construction, by G. M. Huss. 


BUILDING APPLIANCES. Implements, 
fittings, and machinery used by builders in pre- 
pating material and in erecting or repairing 
buildings. (See Centring ; Crab; Crane ; 
Derrick; Elevator; Hod; Hod Elevator ; 
Hoistway ; Lift; Scaffold.) 

BUILDING SURVEYOR. A person 
whose business it is to examine and report on 
existing buildings and their appurtenances, 
with regard to their safety, sanitary condition, 
general state of repair, or other qualities. The 
title is, however, not specific, and the work de- 
scribed is usually undertaken by an architect, 
builder, or similar professional man ; also, some- 
times, by a surveyor of any kind, as a quantity 
surveyor. 

BUILDING LAW. (See Legislation.) 

BUILDING PAPER. Paper used in im- 
mediate connection with building, usually either 
to provide warmth, or to serve as a deafening. 
Many patent papers are in the market, the 
general tendency of such manufacture being 
toward heavy and soft material, as thickness is 
needed while strength would be unimportant. 
The use in the United States of paper applied 
between the first sheathing and the outer clap- 
boards in all kinds of frame buildings has 
proved most useful to the comfort of the houses 
so protected. 

BULFINCH, CHARLES; architect; b. 
Aug. 8, 1763 (at Boston, Massachusetts); d. 
April 15, 1844. 

386 


‘ fa 


e =a ~~ =! 
: ms, » Sas * = ~ D i ee - a. ‘ 
y , 2h ‘ : yi ¢s A aoe nue yf 
ms ‘ ee si NA AO ictaop Py Pe eo petty et ee ee 
’ ; . ry Ve pian ane oma TiN 
: ] j , N ae ‘ 


BULK 

The earliest native architect of Boston. Bul- 
finch graduated at Harvard College in 1781, 
and between 1785 and 1787 travelled in 
Europe. He visited Paris while Thomas Jef- 
ferson (see Jefferson, T.) was minister to France, 
and spent three or four months in Italy. After 
his return his first work was the Doric column 
erected to take the place of the old wooden 
beacon on Beacon Hill (Boston). In 1796 he 
undertook the Franklin Place improvement in 
which his entire fortune was lost. July 4, 1795, 
Bulfinch laid the corner stone of the State 
House in Boston (finished 1798). He finished 
the McLean Hospital, Somerville, in 1818, and 
in the same year received the commission for the 
General Hospital in Boston. Jan. 8, 1818, 
Bulfinch succeeded B. H. Latrobe (see Latrobe) 
as architect of the Capitol in Washington. He 
built the rotunda according to Latrobe’s plans, 
and added, from his own designs, the portico 
and approaches on the western side. He fin- 
ished the Capitol in 1830. (For changes after 
1851, see Walter, Thomas U.) 

Ellen S. Bulfinch, Life and Letters of Charles 
Bulfinch ; Winsor, Memorial History of Boston ; 
Quincy, Municipal History of Boston; Howard, 
Architects of the National Capitol, in International 
Review ; Glenn Brown, United States Capitol. 

BULK. A small structure projecting from a 
building, as a booth or stall. 

BULKHEAD. A. The top of a bulk; 
hence, sometimes the bulk itself. 

B. In the United States, in modern times, a 
boxlike structure, generally framed of wood or 
iron, rising above a floor or roof, either as a 
means of lighting by a window or windows in 
its sides, or to cover and accommodate the head 
of a staircase, elevator, or the like. 

BULKHEAD LIGHT; WINDOW. Any 
window in a bulkhead ; a window or windows 
constructed as a bulkhead. Specifically, in the 
United States, such a window arranged to light 
a cellar; the top of the opening in the outer 
wall being higher than the cellar ceiling and sur- 
rounded by a bulkhead which projects into the 
room above; commonly forming a broad window 
seat, or a platform behind a show window. 

BULLANT, CHARLES; architect 
builder. ; 

A nephew of Jean Bullant, of Ecouen, who 
worked under his direction at Saint-Denis after 
1573 (see Bullant, Jean). 

Berty, Les Grands Architectes francais, p. 167. 


BULLANT, JEAN ; b. 
1515; d: Oct, 10, 1578. 

In his Reigle Généralle Bullant asserts that 
he measured the antique in Rome. He very 
early entered the service of the Constable Anne 
de Montmorency. The result of their codpera- 
tion was the more interesting part of the cha- 
teau of Ecouen, France. The original design 
and the older work are doubtless by another 

387 


or 


architect ; about 


| French classic style. 


| person (see Baillard, Chae 


eaux, but, like Philibert de YOrme (see De e: 


The raise ssica 
influence of Bullant appears gradually anda 
comes predominant i in the wing to the right 
the main entrance built about 1550. He built — 
the main entrance also (destroyed), and the por 
tico, copied from the temple of Castor and Pollux 
at Rome, which was added to the left wing, t the 
first appearance of the colossal order in France. a 
This work especially marks the transition from | 
the early Renaissance to the clearly defined 
Oct. 25, 1557, Bullant 
was appointed contrdéleur des batiments TOYy- 


rOrme, P.), lost his office after the death of — 
Henri IT. (July 10, 1559). A period of about — 
ten years follows in which no building of impor- — 
tance can with certainty be ascribed to him, — 
Palustre (op. cit., Vol. I., p.79) supposes that dur- — — 
ing this time he was ‘occupied with the Petit A 
Chateau of Chantilly, the reconstruction of the _ 
Chateau of Fére-en-Tardenois, and the improve 
ment of various churches in the vicinity o 
Ecouen, as at Bellay, Sarcelles, Villiers-le-Bel, etc. 
The great Constable Anne de Montmorency. 
was killed at the battle of Saint-Denis, Nov.10, 
1567. The mausoleum for himself and his 
wife, Madeleine de Savoy, in the church at Mont- 
morency, was begun by Bullant soon after. The 
work continued a long time and appears never 
to have been completed. (For the sculpture, . 
see Prieur, Barthélemy.) Fragments of this aa 
monument, which was destroyed i in the Revolu- 
tion, are now in the Louvre. In 1570 Bullant 
superintended the works at the chapel of the 
Valois, at Saint-Denis, near Paris. Jan. 8, 
1570, he succeeded Philibert de Orme as archi- 
tect of the Tuileries, and built the pavilion con- _ 
necting with De LOrme’s work on the south — 
side. In 1572 Catherine de’ Medici abandoned — 
the Tuileries, and Bullant began for her the — “4 
great Hotel-de-la- Reine, which afterward came — 
into the possession of Charles de Bourbon, . "am 
Compte de Soissons, and was called Hotel de ae 
Soissons, Paris. In the eighteenth century it 
was destroyed, except the great column builtin 
imitation of Trajan’s column at Rome, which 
still remains. The first of Bullant’s first book  __ 
appeared in 1561 under the title Recueil 
d’ Horlogiographie, quarto, with engravingson 
wood. The second part followed the next year, 
and with the first formed a volume entitled 
Petit Traicté de Géométrie et d’Horlogio- 
graphie pratique, 1562. His second work — 
Reigle généralle d Architecture, came from 
the press May 27, 1564. A second edition was 
printed in 1568. In 1619 an edition was 
issued by N. Pilouet, reveue et corrigée par 
Monsieur de Brosse, architecte du roy (see 
Brosse, Salomon de). Bullant died at Ecouen, 
Oct. 10, 1578. q 
Berty, Les Grands architectes francais; Pa- 
lustre, La Renaissance en France; Mrs, Patti- 
. 388 


oak eo ~ pe ae ee eae a 


BULLANT 


son, The Renaissance of Art in France; Le 


Marquis Léon de Laborde, Les comptes des bati- 
ments du Roi; Ph, de Chenneviéres, Archives de 
Vart francais. 

BULLANT (of Amiens), JEAN ; architect. 

The records concerning Jean Bullant of 
Amiens usually refer to two persons. There 
may have been more. One Jean Bullant began 
in 1524 the church of Saint Jean hors les-Murs, 
at Amiens (Somme, France), and in 1525, the 
tour Le Compte, at Lucheu. According to the 
records of the Echivinage, a Jean Bullant was 
Machon de la grande église (cathedral), in 
1532. 

In 1569 another Jean Bullant was charged 
with the reconstruction of the belfry of Amiens, 
and made un pourtraict sur six feuilles de 
papier collés ensemble. From 1565 to 1574 
he was occupied with the fortifications of the 
city of Amiens. 

Dusevel, Recherches historiques sur les Ou- 


vrages exécutés dans la ville d’ Amiens, etc., Pa- 
lustre, Renaissance en France. 


BULLET, PIERRE; architect; b. 1639; 
vd, 1716. 


Bullet was a pupil of Francois Blondel (see 
Blondel, Fr.). In 1670-1672 he assisted Blon- 


del in the construction of the Porte Saint-Denis, 


Paris. He afterward built the Porte Saint- 
Martin from his own designs. In 1675 Bullet 


_ built the great altar of the church of the Sor- 
- bonne, Paris. 


In 1676 he published his Plan 
de Paris. 
Lance, Dictionnaire Ministére de l’instruction 


publique, Inventaire général, Monuments reli- 
gieux, Vol. L., p. 239. 


-BULL'S EYE. A. A small circular win- 
dow or opening. 

B. A piece of glass having a circular con- 
vexity on one or both sides, commonly used in 
a circular leading in stained glass designs —a 
Roundel. 

BULL'S NOSE. The projecting obtuse 
angle formed by two faces when the corner is 
rounded outwardly, as in the salient corner of a 
plastered partition, and, in a few instances, one 
of the principal angles of an exterior. 

BUNK. A standing bedstead of simple char- 
acter, such as is fitted in the cabin of an officer 
on shipboard, or is roughly built of boards in a 
temporary lodging house, or the barrack of a 
mining camp or the like. Bunks are often 
arranged so as to form the top of a chest of 
drawers, the space beneath them being thus 
utilized, and the bunk itself being raised high 
above the deck or floor. 

BUNK ROOM. A dormitory for a number 
of men; especially, in the United States, the 
dormitory of a firehouse, although usually pro- 
vided with ordinary bedsteads, and not bunks. 

BUNZ, JOHANN VITUS;; iron worker. 

In 1713 Bunz made the iron screen in the 

389 


BUONARROTI-SIMONI 
choir of the cathedral of Ulm (Wiirtemberg, 


Germany). 
Liibke, Renaissance tn Deutschland. 
BUONACCORSI, PIERINO (PERINO 


DEL VAGA of Florence); painter and deco- 
rator; b. 1499; d. 1547. 

One of the assistants of Raphael in decorating 
the Stanze and Loggie at the Vatican. After 
the sack of Rome, in 1527, Perino entered the 
service of the great Admiral Andrea Doria in 
Genoa, in whose palace he decorated the vesti- 
bule, a loggia, and a series of apartments in the 
second story. He returned to Rome, and for 
Paul III. (Pope 1534-1549) and the Farnese 
family made designs for numerous crystals, 
embroideries, stuccoes, carvings in wood and 
stone, etc. 


Miintz, Renaissance ; Crowe and Cavalcaselle, 
Raphael. 


BUONAMICO. (See Bonusamicus.) 

BUONARROTI-SIMONI, MICHEL— 
ANGELO; sculptor, painter, architect, and 
poet; b. Mar. 6, 1475; d. Feb. 17, 1564. 

The Buonarroti-Simonis were an old burgher 
family of Florence. Michelangelo was born at 
Caprese in the Casentino (Tuscany), while his 
father Lodovico (d. 1534) was podest& of that 
village. April |, 1488, he was apprenticed to 
the painters Domenico and David Ghirlandaio 
for three years. He was one of the boys selected 
to study from the antique statues collected in 
the gardens of the monastery of 8. Marco, 
Florence, and there attracted the attention of 
Lorenzo de’ Medici (b. 1448; d. 1429), who 
invited him to his palace, where Michelangelo 
lived and worked until his patron died. In 
1491 Michelangelo came in contact with Savo- 
narola (b. 1452; d. 1498), whose influence upon 
him was very great. Through the assistance 
of the prior of the convent of S. Spirito, 
for whom he made a crucifix, he had abun- 
dant opportunity for dissection, and began that 
exhaustive study of anatomy to which he de- 
voted a large part of his life. Just before the 
expulsion of the Medici (Nov. 8, 1494), Michel- 
angelo went to Bologna, where he made one of 
the kneeling angels of the Arca of 8. Domenico 
(see Niccolo del Arca). Returning to Florence 
in 1495 he made a statue of S. John, supposed 
to be now in Berlin, and a sleeping Cupid which 
was sold to the Cardinal Riario in Rome as an 
antique. Going to Rome, June 25, 1496, he 
made there at this time the Bacchus of the Museo 
Nazionale, Florence, a Cupid, probably that of 
the South Kensington Museum, and the beauti- 
ful Piet& of S. Peter’s, Rome, for which the 
contract was signed Aug. 26, 1498. Michel- 
angelo returned to Florence in 1501 and began 
the colossal statue of David, in August of that 
year. It was placed in position before the 
Palazzo della Signoria, June 8, 1504, and is 
now in the Accademia, Florence. The Madonna 

390 


BUONARROTI-SIMONI 


of Bruges was probably made at about this time, 
and a bronze David which was sent to France, 
and drifted to the chateau of Villeroy, where 
it disappeared. The two rondels of the Royal 
Academy, London, and the Museo Nazionale, 
Florence, and the picture of the Holy Family 
at the Uffizi doubtless belong to this early 
period. In 1504 he began the famous cartoon 
representing soldiers alarmed while bathing in 
the Arno (the so-called “Battle of Pisa”). It 
was made as a companion to Leonardo da Vinci’s 
“Battle of Anghiari,” begun 1503 (see Leonardo 
da Vinci). This cartoon, which influenced the 
art of the Renaissance more than any other 
work, was finished in 1506, but abandoned a 
few years later and finally destroyed. 

In 1505 Michelangelo was called to Rome by 
Julius IT. (Pope 1503-1513), and in April of 
that year began the mausoleum of the Pope, a 
work which extended through many years of 
his life and was the source of endless irritation 
and disappointment. A part of the design, with 
the statue of Moses, was finally set up in the 
church of 8. Pietro in Vincolo, Rome, after 
1542. Disturbed by some misunderstanding 
with the Pope about the mausoleum, Michel- 
angelo abandoned Rome for Florence before 
May 2, 1506. In December of the same year 
he made his peace with the Pope at Bologna, 
and executed a bronze statue of him which 
stood over the door of the church of S. 
Petronio (Bologna), until Dec. 30, 1511, when 
it was destroyed. At Bologna, Michelangelo 
came in contact with the work of Giacomo della 
Quercia (see Giacomo della Quercia), which had 
a powerful influence upon his compositions for 
the ceiling of the Sistine chapel (Vatican, Rome). 
This ceiling, begun in the summer of 1508, rep- 
resents scenes from the Creation, surrounded 
by a superb setting of architecture and figures. 
It was finished in October, 1512. Julius II. 
was succeeded by Giovanni de’ Medici, Leo X. 
(Pope 1513-1521). Leo found little for Michel- 
angelo to do in Rome. In 1515 the Pope con- 
ceived a scheme for the construction of a facade 
for the church of 8S. Lorenzo in Florence, 
for which designs were made by Michelangelo, 
Giuliano da San Gallo (see San Gallo, Giuliano 
da), Andrea and Jacopo Sansovino (see Sanso- 
vino, A. and J.), and others. That of Michel- 
angelo was preferred. From 1516 to 1520 
Michelangelo was occupied in the mountains of 
Carrara and Serravezza, building roads, opening 
quarries, and preparing marbles for this facade, 
which was never built. Leo X. was succeeded 
by Adrian VI. (Pope 1522-1523), and he in 
turn by Giuliano de’ Medici, Clement VII. (Pope 
1523-1534). Clement employed Michelangelo 
in the construction of the new sacristy of S. 
Lorenzo, Florence, and the tombs of the two 
dukes, Giuliano and Lorenzo de’ Medici. The 
sacristy was finished before 1524. The mag- 

391 


aly Pon 
Pd 
NS eee 
a ee 


- tol. 


poe Nee ee bah ; by 
i Aah et ee os ae 
ints sh ae : 
aS i nog te 


BUONO OF aes a, 


ba Us ; 


nificent sculpture of the two tombs was kept i in 
hand for a long period, and not actually placed — 
in position until after 1534. Michelangelo hess 
gan the Laurentian library in Florence in 1526. 
During the siege of Florence in 1530, he waa a 
made controller general of the works of defence. — 

In 1534 Michelangelo settled in Rome for z i 
the remainder of his life. Under the patronage 
of Paul III. (Pope 1534-1549) he completed — 
the decoration of the Sistine chapel by painting — 
the picture of the “ Last Judgment” (begun 
1534, finished 1541). The decorations of the — 
Pauline chapel were painted between 1542 and a 
1549. About 1544 he was called in to complete — 3 
the Farnese palace (Rome), which had been 4 
placed in charge of Antonio (II. .)s da San Gallo. 
The third story, with the cornice and much of — 
the court, are attributed to Michelangelo. He 
had, however, from this time until his death very 
able assistants, such as Vignola (see Barozzio, — 
Giacomo) and Giacomo della Porta (see Giacomo E 
della Porta), and it is impossible to separate — 
their work from his. (Garnier, Michel-Ange — 
architecte in L’Ciuvre et la Vie de Michel- 4 / 
Ange.) After the death of Antonio (II.) da San — 
Gallo, in 1546, Michelangelo became architect — a Se 
of 8. Peter’s, and worked on that building until- 
his death without compensation. He returned 
to the main features of the design of Bramante = 
(see Bramante), and, in 1557, made a model of a 
the cupola, according to which it was built after 
his death by Giacomo della Porta. The dome 
as constructed doubtless represents Michelan- 
gelo’s conception very perfectly. The Porto Pia 
(Rome) is also ascribed to him. The recon- 
struction of the Capitol was begun with the 
placing of the statue of Marcus Aurelius, in 
1538. Michelangelo designed the main features _ 
of the present buildings, which were carried out —__ 
after his death. He rebuilt the great hall of — a 
the Thermae of Diocletian (now the church of — 
S. Maria degli Angeli), which was again re- 
modelled in 1749 by Vanvitelli (see Vanvitelli). 

Passerini, Bibliograjia di Michelangelo; J. A. 
Symonds, Life of Michelangelo; Heath Wilson, 
Life and Works of Michelangelo; J. S. Harford, ~ 
Life of Michel Angelo; Hermann Grimm, Das 
Leben Michelangelos; L’CGfuvre et la Vie de 
Michel-Ange; Gotti, Vita di Michelangelo Buo- 
narroti ; Condivi, Vita di Michelangelo ; Vasari, 
Milanesi ed. Vasari, Blashfield-Hopkins ed. 
Milanesi, Lettere di Michelangelo ; Duppa, Life _. 
and Literary Works of Michel Angelo; Anton | 
Springer, Raffael und Michel Angelo ; Symonds, a 
Renaissance ; Durm, Die Domkuppel der Petrus 
Kirche in Rom; Russell Sturgis, Michelangelo in 
Johnson’s Cyclopedia; Strack, Baudenkmaeler x 
Roms; Michaelis, Michelangelos Plan zum Capi- 

BUONO. (See also Bono.) 

BUONO OF PISA; architect. 

Buono and his uncle, Pietro, were called from 
the monastery at Monantulano in 990 to build 
the church of San-Michele-in-Borgo, at Pisa, 

392 


BUONTALENTI 


on the ruins of a Roman temple. He brought 
columns for the church from Rome and Elba. 


Of his work the crypt and some of the columns 


of the nave still remain. A kneeling figure in a 
niche of the facade is supposed to be his portrait. 
Rohault de Fleury, Monuments de Pise, p. 39. 


BUONTALENTI, BERNARDO; architect, 
sculptor, painter, landscape architect, minia- 
turist ; b. 1536; d. June 6, 1608. 

A pupil of Vasari and of Giulio Clovio, the 
miniaturist. For the dukes Francesco I. (b. 
1541 ; d. 1587) and Ferdinando I. (b. 1551 ; 
d. 1609) de’ Medici he designed the villas of 
Pratolino, Artiminio, Marignolle, and Magia, 
near Florence. He built the additions to the 
Palazzo Vecchio, Florence, on the Via dei Leoni, 


- the Tribuna of the Uffizi, and the gallery con- 


necting the Uffizi with the Pitti palace. He 
continued the arrangement of the Boboli Gar- 
dens, begun by Tribolo (see Tribolo), and built 
the grotto and other architectural adornments 
there. Buontalenti fortified Porto Ferraio, 
Livorno, and Grosseto. The Palazzo Reale, 


- in Siena, and the Palazzo Nonjfinisto, in Flor- 


ence, are attributed to him. 
- Miintz, Renaissance ; Redtenbacher, Architek- 


tur der Italienischen Renaissance; Burckhardt, 


Cicerone ; Vasari, Milanesi ed., Vol. VIL, p. 614. 
~BUORA, GIOVANNI (ZUANE) DI AN- 


TONIO OF OSTENO ; sculptor and architect. 


Buora appears frequently in the Venetian 
records, especially in association with Pietro 
Lombardo (see Lombardo, Pietro), in the con- 
struction of the Scuola di S. Marco in Venice, 


in 1489 and 1490. He made the doorway of 


the church of 8S. Zaccaria, Venice. In 1494 
he began the dormitorio of the monastery of 
S. Giorgio Maggiore, Venice. 

Paoletti, Rinascimento in Venezia. 


_ BURGES, WILLIAM; architect; b. 1827; 
d. April 20, 1881. 

He was educated at University College and 
King’s College, London, and was also a pupil of 
Edward Blore and Digby Wyatt (see Blore and 
Wyatt), and applied himself especially to med- 
izval architecture. In 1856 he won the first 
award in the competition for Lille cathedral. 
Burges designed the cathedral of Brisbane, in 
Queensland (1859), and the cathedral of Cork 
(Ireland), his most important work (1862). In 
1865 he restored Cardiff Castle. He prepared 
designs for the new law courts in the Strand, 
and for the decoration of 8. Paul’s cathedral 
(London), which were not executed. He de- 
signed Trinity College in Hartford, Connecticut. 

Stephen Lee, Dictionary of National Biog- 
raphy. 

BURGHLEY (BURLEIGH) HOUSE. A 
large English country house, close to the town 
of Stamford, Lincolnshire ; built by John Thorpe 
in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. 

393 


-BUSCHPERGER 


-BURKART ; bell founder. 

In 1461 he made the storm bell ( Wetter- 
glocke) of the cathedral of Strassburg. He ap- 
pears in the records as bell-founder of the 
cathedral (Werks Gilockengiesser). He is sup- 
posed to have refounded in 1458 the bell called 
Mutte, at the cathedral of Metz. 

Gérard, Les artistes de 1 Alsace au Moyen age. 

BURKLEIN, FRIEDRICH; architect; b. 
March 1, 1813; d. Nov. 4, 1872. 

Burklein came to Munich (Bavaria), about 
1828, and entered the atelier of Gartner (see 
Gartner). He held the offices of Bauconstruc- 
teur Regierungs-inspector and Professor in the 
Polytechnische Schule in Munich. He went 
with Gartner to Greece, and assisted him in the 
construction of the royal palace at Athens. He 
assisted the King Maximilian II. (b. 1811; d. 
1864) in his development of the city of 
Munich. Burklein’s chief work was the laying 
out of the Maximilianstrasse and construction 
of the Maximilianeum. He worked in a style 
peculiar to himself (Newer Baustil), a combina- 
tion of Romanesque and Renaissance. 

Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie. 

BURLINGTON, BARL OF. 
Richard.) 

BURLINGTON HOUSE. Originally the 
London residence of the Earl of Burlington ; 
built in the early years of the eighteenth cen- 
tury. Its most interesting part architecturally 
was the colonnade which formed the enclosure on 
the side of Piccadilly; but this was destroyed 
when the building was transferred to the use of 
the Royal Academy, and wings, with a building 
on Piccadilly, were erected, making a quad- 
rangle of the whole. The Royal Society, the 
Society of Antiquarians, and other smaller asso- 
ciations occupy rooms in the building. 

BURMAH, ARCHITECTURE OF. 
Farther India, Architecture of.) 

BUSCHETTO. (See Buschetus.) 

BUSCHETUS (BUSKETUS, BU- 
SCHETTO) ; architect. 

The first architect of the cathedral of Pisa. 
The date, 1006, in the inscription on his monu- 
ment, which still stands in the cathedral, is 
probably that of the commencement of the build- 
ing. The inscription on the facade, with the 
date 1063, is supposed to refer to a subsequent 
enlargement (Mothes, Vol. II., p. 722). In a 
contract of Dec. 2, 1105, Buschetto is mentioned 
as one of four architects who had worked on the 
cathedral ; the others being Uberto, Leone, and 
Signoretto. He was probably a Byzantine Greek. 

Mothes, Baukunst des Mittel-alters ; Rohault 
de Fleury, Monuments de Pise ; Gsell-Fels, Mittel 
Italien ; Vasari, Milanesi ed., Vol. I., p. 287. 

BUSCHPERGER, MARTIN;; architect. 

Martin Buschperger, of Osnabriick, rebuilt the 
Burg, in Vienna, during the reign of the Arch- 
duke Albrecht I. (b. 1250; d. 1308). 

394 


(See Boyle, 


(See 


= é 2 i + ¥ : y 7 . a : = ne 
« ee ib, > s. § NJ i " : re Pei a he * 
i. ‘ 


a 


BUSH. HAMMER 


BUSH HAMMER. In stone dressing, a 
hammer used in finishing the harder stones. It 


BousH HAMMER. 


has a prismatic head, the ends of which are 
square, and divided into a number of pyramidal 
points. 

BUTLER’S PANTRY. Originally, and still 
in England, a room for the use of the butler, 
who has charge of the service of wine, and the 
service and stowage of plate. In the United 
States, a small serving room adjoining the dining 
room, and furnished with shelves, glazed cup- 
boards or dressers, a sink, and other conven- 
iences, for the stowage and care of the silver 
and fine china, glass, ‘and crockery, required for 
the table. 

BUTLERY. The same as Buttery, or But- 
ler’s Pantry, especially in the English sense. 

BUTMENT. Same as Abutment. 

BUTMENT CHEEK. The face of the ma- 
terial surrounding a mortise, and against which 
abut the shoulders surrounding the tenon. 

BUTT (n.) (I.). The end or back of a mem- 
ber or piece ; especially, such part when prepared 
for another member to butt, or abut against it. 
Specifically, the larger of the two ends of a log; 
the back edge of a door; the squared end of a 
timber prepared for framing and the like. 

BUTT (n.) (II.) ; and compounds. Same as 
Butt Hinge, and compounds (under Hinge). 

BUTT (v. t. and v.i.). To join squarely, as 
when two girders meet end to end, forming a 
Butt Joint. (See Abut, v.; Butt Joint, under 
Joint.) ; 

BUTTERFIELD, WILLIAM, F. 8. A; 
architect ; b. Sept. 7, 1814. Feb. 23, 1900. 

He devoted himself to the study of "Gothic 
architecture, and was especially successful in the 

395 


introduction of colour by the help of brick, st tone, 


ss BUTTRESS” 


marble, and mosaic. The earliest of fie more — 
important works is the church of All Saints, 
Margaret Street, London, begun in 1849. He 
designed S. Augustine’ s College, Canterbury ; _ ; 
all the buildings of Keble College, Oxford ; the — 
cathedral of Perth ; Balliol College chapel, Ox- 
fords) S; Michael’s Hospital, Axbridge ; the 
school buildings at Winchester College ; the % 
chapel, quadrangle, and other buildings at Rugby 
School; Rugby parish church; 8S. Alban’s, — 
Holborn ; S. Augustine’s, Queen’s Gate, and — 
churches at Enfield, Winchester, Dover Castle, i 
and Tottenham. All the work mentioned isin _ 
Great Britain. There are several importa a 
buildings by Butterfield in Australia Chia c 
see 
ye and Women of the Time; Eastlake, Gothic 
Revival. ; 
BUTTERY. Originally, a Butlery, that is, "A 
the storeroom for wines, liquors, and the like, 
in the charge of the butler. In later, but still 
early, times, used also for the storage of such 
provisions as are capable of being preserved, and 
are, therefore, stored in relatively large quanti- 
ties, such as flour, bacon, cheese, salt fish, and 
the like. Later, and in modern times, a gen- 
eral storeroom for provisions ; the wines, ete, 
being kept in the cellars. a 
BUTTERY BAR. A ledge or shelf form- 
ing a bar ‘on the top of a Buttery Hatch. aa 
BUTTERY HATCH. A half door giving 
entrance to a buttery and over which are 7 
served out the contents of the buttery. | 
BUTT HINGE. (See under Hinge.) 
BUTTON. Any small projecting member, 
generally movable or forming part of a movable 
object, as a small knob; anything more or ee 
resembling a button in the ordinary sense. 
Specifically : — a a 
A. A piece of wood or metal, secured to the ee 
frame of a door or the like by a pin or screw © a 
on which it is free to turn so as to secure the 
door by extending across its edge, and to allow 
the door to open when it is turned away. 
B. In connection with electrical apparatus, 
a push button. 
BUTTRESS. Any structure put up to 
support or partly support or maintain another, 
as by resisting its tendency to fall or move 
sidewise; a stay or prop. In ordinary use, 
however, the term is limited to a piece of ma- 
sonry like a pier built either in close connection __ 
with a wall which it is intended to stiffen, or 
standing isolated, or nearly so, to resist the _ 
thrust of a flying buttress. A buttress has no 
utility except where there is a concentrated 
pressure or strain in one point along one line; 
thus, if a wall is pressed outward along its 
whole extent, there is nothing for it but to 
strengthen that wall, as by thickening it, and 
the material so added would hardly be called 
396 


4 =~ ene 


BUTTRESS 


a buttress. If, however, the thrust of an arch 
or vault comes against a certain small part of 


the wall, the natural precaution is to build a 


buttress at that point, or, in other words, to 
thicken the wall 
considerably, the 
projecting part be- 
ing then called a 
buttress, especially 
if it is on the out- 
side of the build- 
ing and forms a 
part of its exterior 
architecture. 
Buttresses are of 
two kinds, those 
which, as above 
stated, project 
without and are 
built obviously for 
the single purpose 
of taking up a 
thrust and the like, 


Mah 


be 


PARTLY WITHIN AND PARTLY BEYOND THE 
WALLS. PALACE AT CHAQQA, SYRIA. 


See Fig. 2, partial section, showing transverse arches, 2; and 
Fig. 3, partial end wall at A. 


and those which are walls dividing rooms, com- 
partments, or bays of the interior. Thus, in a 
building like the Basilica of Maxentius or the 
great hall of the Baths of Diocletian the thrust 


‘of the vaults from the nave is taken up by the 


heavy walls which divide the bays of the aisles 
or lower wings of the building. In antiquity, 
the thought seems never to have occurred to 


HUI 

I 

: il HI cae 
“ga a6 

‘i i Wea tie i =e vie 

aa 

HUI i ming ne THA IH 
a “ARMA TTHL iti 


F a tl HI 
aN 3 ii I i Hl It) 


CO y 
oils 


=== 
== 


any builder to build buttresses 
outside of the walls. The very essence of skil- 
ful planning was to so combine the dividing 
walls or partition walls as to provide sufficiently 
397 


- Burtress: Fic. 1.— AN Earty Form; THE Mass 


BUTTRESS . 
a by their means 
for resistance to 
such thrust. A 
curious instance © 
of the survival 
of this scheme 
is seen in the 
church at Trier 
or Tréves called 
the Church of 
Our Lady (Lieb- 
frauenkirche) 
which, although a 
building in an al- 
most pure Gothic 
style, has a very 
peculiar plan, evidently combined with the pur- 
pose above stated. The numerous buttresses 
of Aya Sophia in Con- 
stantinople are in like 
manner included with- 
in the outer walls. 
These resist the thrust 
of arches of one hun- 
dred feet span which 
in their turn carry the 
pendentives of the 
great dome and of the 
two semidomes. In 
like manner 8. Peter’s 
at Rome has no ex- 
terior buttress; but 
this is a deliberate re- 
turn to the classical 
practice, the external 
buttress being  as- 
sumed a purely medi- 
zeval feature. 
The buttresses of the 
Romanesque churches 


lA 


BuTTRESS: Fia. 3. 


are thin and slight, 
and in nothing is the 
feeble and unskilful 


AISLE 


BUTTRESS OF 
WALL: WARMINGTON 
CuuRcH, NORTHAMP- 


BuTTRESs: Fic. 2. 


TONSHIRE, C. 1260. 


building of the time 
more clearly shown than 
in this inability to see 
how naturally the but- 
tresses could be increased 
individually in their pro- 
jection from the. wall so 
as to resist even the great 
thrust of the transverse 
arches by means of which 
the builders were trying 
to vault their aisles and 
their naves in those 
churches built without 
aisles. There are many 
instances of new buttresses built at later times 
to check the spread already begun of Roman- 
esque vaulted roofs; several are named in the 
Sharpe Memorial, The Domed Churches of 
398 


BUTTRESS 


Charente, and many more could be named; 
thus, the great nave of the abbey church at 


} 


SS==— 


=. 
== 


Buttrress: Two at ANGLE 
oF AISLE; OxFORD Ca- 
THEDRAL, C. 1330. 


or thickness measured across 
the buttress, and, therefore, 
parallel to the main axis of 
Those of the 
S. Chapelle — which are sim- 
ple in their conditions as 
supporting the thrust of 
vaults raised high above the 
foundation of the church and 
which bear directly upon the 
buttresses without the neces- 
sity of any flying buttress to 
lead the thrust across an 


the church. 


intervening space — have 


total depth from in to out of 
three and a half times their 
general thickness, and their 
clear projection beyond the 
wall below the great windows 
and above the windows of 
is more 
than twice their thickness. 


the lower church 


The buttress which 


built on the outer side of the 'g 


aisle of a three-aisled or 
five-aisled church, and 
which is used not only to 
resist the thrust of the 
aisle, but also to take the 
flying buttress which leads 
the thrust of the nave vault 


across the whole width of the aisle, 
very often a Buttress Pier. 


399 


Vézelay has a sys- 
tem of flying but- 
tresses and large 
buttress piers which 
were not added un- 
til the nave vault 
had already settled 
perceptibly. With 
the earliest appear- 
ance of the ribbed 
vault, forming the 
true commencement 
of Gothic architec- 
ture, the buttresses 
assumed very dif- 
ferent proportions, 
and within a very 
few years they began 
to be built with a 
skilful adaptation of 
means to an end, as 
large and as boldly 
projecting as re- 
quired. It was natu- 
ral to make them 
much greater in pro- 
jection than i in width 


a 


is 


PERPEN- 


BUTTRESS: 
DICULAR STYLE, 
THE FACES RICH- 
LY PANELLED; 
DIVINITY SCHOOL, 
OXFORD, C. 1490. 


is called 
(See that term.) 


BUTTRESS 
In the chevet or curved western end of a 


FLYING BUTTRESS: 


A. The flying buttress. 
flying buttress. 
porting clerestory wall. 


above, F. 


which shows without is a continuation of the | 
wall dividing two of the radiating chapels, 80 ; 


that the whole depth of 
the piece of wall which 
takes up the thrust of 
the arches within by re- 


ceiving them on its edge | 


and transmitting their 
pressure throughout its 
whole mass may be eight 
times its thickness. It 
will be seen that in this 
instance a combination 
of the classical and medi- 
zeval systems has arisen 
naturally from the con- 
ditions of the plan. 

For a full discussion 
of buttress and buttress- 
ing see treatises on 
Gothic Architecture. 

—R.S. 

Flying Buttress. A 
structure of masonry by 
means of which the 
thrust of a vault is taken 
up or neutralized with- 
out the immediate prox- 
imity of a great mass of 


masonry, such as an ordinary buttress or a 
The usual form of the flying 
400 


buttress pier. 


DIAGRAM SHOWING ACTION. 


ff. The open space beneath arch of — 
B. The crown of one of the arches sup- — 
MN. Arch across the aisle, which 
would have been loaded too heavily but for the opening < 


* Or, ‘ i 


et 
: * 
> = ‘—< 


FLYING BUTTRESS: 
HARTLEPOOL CHURCH, 
DuRHAM, C. 1250 


eera 
————— tf 


ha fa i ie 


copra 4 w=, nea 


H SIDE OF NAVE. 


4p 


TRASBURG CATHEDRAL; NOR 


S 
The perfected system 


S: 


TTRES 


FLYING BU 


with heavy buttress piers. 


: 


402 


401 


BUTTRESS PIER. 


buttress is a straight bar or band of stone 
carried by a half arch or similar arcuated struc- 
ture; but this bar of stone may act as a mere 
strut transmitting the thrust of the vault across 
the open space to a buttress pier be- 

p yond, or the arch beneath may neutral- 

ize some part of the thrust of 
the vault by its con- 

trary thrust ; that 
is to say, 


+ 
tl 


L} 
HHP 
=aai made 


Fiyine BuTTRESsS: CHURCH OF S. ReMy AT REIMS (MARNE), FRANCE. 


Diagram of arrangement of double-aisled church with two flying buttress systems. 


the flying buttress may be a simple brace or an 
active inward pressure. (See the analysis of 
the whole system in the article Buttress.) (Cut, 
cols. 405, 406.) 


BUTTRESS PIER. A. A pier which serves ; 


as a buttress while having another purpose, as 
403 


i 4 , 
ME GUS, Vi a a ca 
verona es 


BUTTRESS TOWER 


when a pier dividing openings in an cute wall 
receives also the thrust of a vault within ant | 
is, therefore, shaped so as to resist that thrust ae 
One such, in a gallery near the church of hea 
Pietro in Perugia, is the corner pier of a build- 
ing with arches of the outer wall thrusting — 
against it on two sides, and a groin vault with 
thrusting against it in a diagonal direction; to — 
meet all of these thrusts the pier is greatly | 
widened at the base and has a continuous batter ~ 
on two sides. In Henry the Seventh’s Chapel _ ; 
in Westminster Abbey the massive piers of — 
the rounded apse, whose axes radiate — : 
from the centre of the curve, are ia 
buttress piers; and so are 
the massive octagonal shafts _ 
along the north and south — 
sides; that is to say, they 
are primarily piers of ver- 
tical support and of an 
architectural design agree- 
ing with that function; but 
they also act as buttresses og 
to take up the thrust of 
the aisle vaulting. a 
B. That part of a bare : ¥ 
tress which rises above the Es 
point of thrust of a vault — 
which it is intended to 
maintain, or above the roof — 4 
of the building to which it — 
isattached. Thus, in Gothic “" e 
construction, the prismatic — a 
pier which rises above the __ 
aisle roof and takes the 
thrust of the flying buttress 
is sometimes called by this 
name. Such piers often are — 
_ carried up vertically on the — 
outer side; butontheinner 
side, toward the flying but- ~ 
tress, are built overhanging 
or corbelled inward, so that = 
the thrust from within is 
partly counterbalanced by 
the tendency of the unsym- 
metrical pier to fall inward. __ 
(Cut, col. 406.) — R. 8. | 
BUTTRESS TOWER. 
A. towerlike structure which 
acts or seems to act as 
a buttress, asoneitherside 
of a great archway of en- 
trance. In strong castles 
of the Middle Ages, the — 
towers which flank the 
entrance are for defence, the discharge of arrows, _ 
bolts, and stones from the battlements or gal- 
leries of defence being intended to keep the 
assailant from the gate, and from trying to lower __ 
the drawbridge or portcullis. It is only modern _ 
ignorance of the conditions of medizeval fortifi- 
404 


wee 


BUZZER 


Fiyinc BUTTRESS: SAINT DENIS, c. 1240. 


Radiating system of rounded or polygonal east end; apsidal chapels between the 


buttress piers. 


cation which has given rise to the term “but- : 
tress tower” as applied to these gateway towers. 
~ (Compare Buttress Pier.) — R. S. 


BUZZER. (Sce Electrical Appliances.) 

BYART. (See Biard.) 

BYE-PASS. Ina plumbing system a faulty 
connection between the back air pipe of a trap 
and other pipes, whereby an open passage is 
created for gases from the soil and, waste pipe 
system into a house. —W. P. G. 

BYRE. A cow stable or cow shed ; the term 
is used chiefly in Scotland and the north of 


England. 


BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. Archi- 
tecture of a style chiefly developed in the domains 
and during the existence of the Byzantine Empire, 
from which it spread westward .into Italy, whence 
its influence radiated into France and Germany ; 
and northward into Russia, where it still, to 
some extent, dominates ecclesiastical design. It 
was developed almost exclusively in ecclesiastical 
buildings, and was the distinctive style of the 
Eastern or Greek church, as the basilican style 
was of the Western (see Latin Architecture), 
both before and after the separation of the two. 
In spite of its long duration, covering the mil- 
lennium from the fifth to the fifteenth century, 
it was in reality a style of transition, leading 
from the classic Roman architecture to the 
Romanesque and Gothic styles of the West on 
the one hand, and to the Moslem styles of the 
East on the other. Its chief distinction is the 
revolution in structural design brought about by 
the invention of the dome on pendentives, and 

405 


mn se ee Pao ay ee 


BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 


its greatest monument — Hagia 
Sophia at Constantinople — is 
one of the really great buildings 
of the world ; yet the majority 
of its productions were small in 
scale and timid in construction, 
and it never carried to their logi- 
cal conclusion the great principles 
exhibited in its early master- 
pieces, It thus presents the 
spectacle of an arrested develop- 
ment, of precocious and brilliant 
promise unfulfilled ; the decline 
of the empire began before its 
arts had reached their culmina- 
tion. 

Origins, With the fall of 
Rome, in 476, Constantinople 
became the chief city of Christen- 
dom in wealth, power, and cul- 
ture. Situated at the gates of 
the East, it was for centuries the 
great entrepdt of commerce be- 
tween Europe and Asia; and 
while it inherited the structural 
and decorative traditions of Ro- 
man art, it was in reality an 
Asiatic Greek city, and subject 
to the influence of Oriental taste. Greeks from 
Asia Minor were in a large measure the archi- 


ia cc in 


“ | 


ave mu . on 
| as 
Wi ; | 


pe 


ei! i 
De, a A 
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i 


= 


a 


a 
a 
== 


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SSS = 22 
S222 


- fe 


j an 


es ee 
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Ee. Gee 

iz ; = gee 

Poy oe : 


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= 


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IN Hr) 


BuTTRESS PIER: CHAPTER HovusE#, LINCOLN, 
c. 1270. 


406 


BYZANTINH ARCHITECTURE 


tects of the Byzantine Empire, even in its 
European provinces of Thrace and Macedon ; 
and their art was profoundly influenced by tra- 
(ditions handed down from Assyria and Persia, 
and by familiarity with the silks and other fab- 
rics of India and China and the rugs for which 
Western Asia and Persia have always been 
famed. These combined influences, operating 
upon the groundwork of Roman structural tra- 
ditions, produced a gradual change of style, which 
may be traced in the later pagan Roman build- 
ings of Syria; in the palace of -Diocletian at 
Salona, where now the little town of Spalato 
has been built upon its ruins ; in the early Chris- 
tian buildings of Syria of the fourth and fifth 
centuries, and in much of the work of Constan- 
tine’s reign alike in Rome and the East; and 
which culminated in the sixth century in a num- 
ber of remarkable buildings erected by Justinian 
~ at Constantinople, Ravenna, Jerusalem, and else- 


Py 


é 
: 


SEN SAIPAN I ARE I SEERA RTD ITT I, EE EE 
i. 


0. OE Te x 


BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE: CHURCH OF S. SOPHIA (PLAN) AT CONSTANTINOPLE; AS REBUILT, 


Fe Pai: ; \ 
aA | ti Sa poe ae wad 
ames 4 


BYZANTINE ARCHITECTU 


brick and rubble in alternate courses, resulting 
in a notable reduction of the areas of the sup- 


porting masses, the structural scheme of Byzan- - 


tine designs remained essentially Roman, and 
nearly every feature except the pendentive can 
be traced to examples in the Roman therme. 


This is true not only of the massive piers and __ 


buttresses sustaining the heavy vaults, of the 
Byzantine predilection for circular halls and semi- 
circular apses, of the arrangement of narthex and 


atrium in front of the church, and of the great — a 


semicircular clerestory windows over the side 
aisles, but also of the decorative system of in- 
crustation of the walls with a veneering of coloured 
marbles, of the use of polished monolithic shafts 
of semiprecious material, of the decoration of 


ss enceernre eed 


nee name #48 ot meee 


ev coqeos vers wosesere ceneds3 To soe senemmnsnen ees 


538 AND 558. 


where. These buildings were never surpassed, 
nor indeed equalled, by the later productions of 
the style, which were chiefly churches of small 
size, richly decorated internally with mosaics or 
frescoes, but lacking scale and structural dignity. 

Characteristics. Structurally, Byzantine ar- 
chitecture differs from all earlier styles in its 
universal and exclusive use of vaulted roofs. 
Timber was wholly rejected, and with it the 
basilican plan for churches, which necessitated a 
roof of wood over the broad nave. The vaults 
employed were ‘extremely varied, both in form 
and construction. They were for the most part 
laid up in brick, without centrings, by simple 
and ingenious processes derived from Assyrian 
traditions, and still practised to-day in Asia 
Minor and Persia. Groined and domical vaults 
predominated, the latter being by far the most 
prevalent, — they became, indeed, the most strik- 
ing feature of the style, which might well be 

407 


pavements with opus sectile, and of the adorn- 
ment of vaults and lunettes with glass mosaic. 
Every one of these features was derived from the 
therm. On the other hand, we note in Byzan- 
tine architecture for the first time the germs 
of the Gothic principle of. balancing thrusts by 
counter thrusts, instead of by dead weight as in 
the thermze, and observe that the column was 
reconverted into a supporting member by being 


made to carry arches instead of fictitious entab- — sh 


latures. The capitals were modified in view of 


this new function, being formed like inverted — aq 


truncated pyramids, and covered with flat, incised 
carving instead of strongly projecting leaves and 
volutes. 
recalled the fragment of entablature universally 
used in a like position in the thermze wherever 
a column was made to receive the springing of a 
vault. The decorative system of the Byzantine 
style was as characteristic as its methods of con- 
408 


aise > 
RH 


called the Eastern domical style. While the 
Roman system of building in concrete with revet- 
ments of brick and marble was exchanged fora 


more scientific construction of brick alone, or of 
Ri 


- 


An impost block above the capital 


(‘avid 909) 
‘VIHdOS ‘S HO HOWNHO ‘HYOLOALIBNOYVY ANIINVZAD 


[aim a 


410 


‘taal ‘eaten 
A i H 
H q tf 
f ia: 
E 


PSL ACU Oey 6 ON 


ts EER 


oc el ‘ i 
aT 
é ee = 
OT OUEST HOE ew ay = a 


. 
A 
r 
< 
: 
= 
a 
‘ 


EP, TUCRAPRTVERC LILA NOY Hit Ie 
SS : aCe 
ANN aE o> 

hi oS GES 


409 


Ce eee ey Ce. a ee, i re ee mei yl & ~ wn. t 2 7 


BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 
zantine plans may be divided into two general 


struction. Founded on the Roman practice of 
interior decoration with marble veneering and 
mosaic, —a system originally brought to Rome 
from Asia, —it was by the Byzantines developed 
to the utmost pitch of splendour, but with almost 
total disregard of external adornment. To the 
Asiatic love of colour, and taste in its decorative 
use, we must in part ascribe the success of this 
element of Byzantine design. Floors were paved 
with coloured marble, forming panels of geometric 
forms framed in bands set with minute patterns 
in bright colours ; the walls were incrusted with 
richly veined slabs of marble and alabaster, ar- 
ranged to produce a definite and sumptuous colour 
effect ; and the smooth concave surfaces of the 
vaults were covered with mosaic, on a ground of 
deep lapis-lazuli blue, pale green, or more often 
brilliant gold (see Mosaic). This mosaic was 
executed with minute tesserce of glass of differ- 
ent colours, in which green, red, blue, and gold 
predominated. The larger areas were adorned 
with pictures of saints, apostles, royal person- 
ages, Christ and the Virgin, and with emblematic 
subjects ; the minor surfaces with conventional 
patterns, crosses, and monograms. The effect 
of the gold background was to bring into har- 
mony the whole mass of varied colour of the 
mosaics, marble, porphyry, and verd antique. 
In the later and ‘smaller churches fresco painting 
replaced the more costly mosaic. 

There was no carving in high relief, and 
mouldings and cornices played little part in the 
decoration. But certain restricted surfaces, 
such as spandrils and soffits, were covered with 
a frosting or lacework of incised carving. The 
background was formed by a series of minute 
depressions, leaving the pattern in a low and 
uniform flat relief which produced rather the 
effect of inlay than of true relief. The motives 
of this carving were interlacing bands, flat 
acanthus leaves with pointed and channelled 
lobes, crosses, and emblems. Parapet panels or 
railings were often of perforated marble in 
intricate patterns. All this rich and elaborate 
interior decoration in colour required abundant 
light, and progress in glassmaking enabled the 
architect to multiply and enlarge his openings. 


Even the bases of the domes were pierced with’ 


a circuit or crown of windows almost detach- 
ing the cupolas, seemingly, from their supports. 
Between these windows externally were but- 
tresses, in which we discern the germ of one of 
the most important principles of Gothic con- 
structions ; one which may, however, be traced 
still farther back to Rome (Temple of Minerva 
Medica, Tomb of Helena, as shown complete 
in an ancient engraving reproduced by Lanciani, 
etc.). But the decline of the empire began too 
early, and Byzantine civilization was too lacking 
in energy, to develop or perfect these principles. 

Plans. The dominant feature of Byzantine 
planning and construction was the dome. By- 

411 


‘A en ih ia 


pe roe Crayne j 
RE 


BYZANTINE ARC HITEC TUE 


classes: those in which the dome rests on 
octagonal or circular substructure in the centre — 
of a square or octagonal circuit wall; and thos 
in which the dome is carried by four piers and — 
arches, by means of spherical pendentives, over 
the square central part of an oblong nave flanked a 
by side aisles enclosed within a rectangular or 
cruciform plan. Subsidiary domes or half domes 4 
covered the ends of the nave in the second type; 
and the side aisles or enclosing aisles in bot 
types were vaulted, usually with groined vault 
ing, the central dome rising above these vault 
and dominating the whole mass. An apse in 
variably projected from the eastern end, to ac 
commodate the bema, or platform for the clergy, 
the altar, and the ciborium : it was divided from _ 
the nave in front by a screen, the iconostasis 
The ambon, or pulpit, stood in front of this. I 
later churches, owing to changes of ritual, a 
minor apse also terminated the eastetn end of 
each side aisle. A narthex or vestibule extended 
across the western front, preceded usually by a 
cloistered court or atrium. rs 
History. The beginnings of Byzantine archi- in 
tecture date from the age of Constantine, 7.¢.,the 
early fourth century A.D. » This period, usually | 
considered as an age of decline, was really one 
of transition ; marked, it is true, by a decline ~ 
in purity of detail and an almost complete dis- 
appearance of the sculptor’s art in its higher 
manifestations, but distinguished by unusual bold- 
ness and novelty of conception and construction, © 
The legalization of Christianity gave a tremen- 
dous impulse to Christian architecture, but its 
point of departure was the accepted Roman — a 
types of the basilica and therme, the temples 
being ill suited to the needs of the Christian — 
ritual. Western Christendom adopted the basil- 
ica type outright for its halls of. worship (see ye 4 & 
Basilica), and the rotunda for its mausolea and 
baptisteries (see Baptistery ; Round Church), — 
baptism being regarded as a symbolic burial of = 
the old man with his sinful works. Constantine . 
erected basilicas, tombs, and baptisteriesin Rome, __ 
Constantinople, and Syria; his predilection for. 
the circular form is evidenced by his “Golden —_ 
Temple” at Antioch, and the east end of his 
church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, as 
well as by the tombs of Constantia (church of 
S. Costanza) and of Helena (Torre delle Pi- 
gnatte) at Rome. These round structures were 
based on the design of the Pantheon, with seven 
deep internal niches hollowed in the mass of the: 
heavy wall, the whole covered by adome. An  — 
example of this type is seen in S. George at 
Salonica, dating chiefly from the fifth century. 
In Syria the niches on the diagonal axes were. 
enlarged to fill the corners of a plan externally 
square, and the dome made octagonal (S. George __ 
at Ezra, fifth or early sixth century); or the 
dome was erected on eight or more isolated sup- 
412 


be 
es 
oe 
— ae 
‘se 


: 
, 


Oe ee eee 


Stee ee 


a 


a : 


en To 


BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 


ports within a larger exterior circuit (Bosrah, 
sixth century; both in the Hauran, Syria). 
Meanwhile the use of flat surface carving, basket 
capitals, impost blocks, and arches carried on 
columns had been developing in the Roman 
provinces (Spalato, Palmyra, Baalbec, Central 


Syria), and in Ravenna; and Oriental artists 


employed in Rome, Ravenna, Antioch, and Con- 
stantinople had been perfecting the art of glass 
mosaic. arly in the sixth century the church 
of 8. Sergius was built in Constantinople, with a 
dome carried on eight piers and arches, the cen- 
tral space enlarged by four apses on the diagonal 
axes, besides the chief apse at the eastern end, 
and the whole surrounded by an aisle within a 
square enclosure. A few years later this design 


was imitated with variations in S. Vitale at 


Ravenna, an apse or niche opening into each of 
the six lateral arches, the surrounding enclosure 
being octagonal; a type apparently influenced 
by the so-called Temple of Minerva Medica 
at Rome, and again repeated in the minster at 


_ Aix (about 809 a.p.) and later at Fulda, Essen, 
and Ottmarsheim (1050). 
_ burning of Constantine’s basilica of the Divine 


When, upon the 


Wisdom (Hagia Sophia) at Constantinople, 


Justinian in 532 summoned Anthemius and 


Isodorus from Asia Minor to build a new church 
of surpassing magnificence, Anthemius con- 
ceived the brilliant idea of combining in one 


— edifice the basilican type with its nave and side 
aisles, and the rotunda as developed in S. Sergius. 


But the basilica he imitated was that of Con- 
stantine or Maxentius at Rome, —a vaulted hall 
in three bays, with broad side aisles divided 
each into three compartments by the transverse 
buttresses which stayed the nave vaults. This 
combination he accomplished by substituting for 
the terminal bays of Constantine’s basilica the 
east and west halves of the plan of S. Sergius, 


and erecting over the central bay, 107 feet wide, 


not a groined vault, but a large dome on pen- 
dentives. This daring conception was carried 
out in six years, and embellished internally with 
the utmost splendour of marble and mosaic (see 
Church of 8. Sophia under Church). The dome 
on pendentives (7.e., supported on four arches 
bounding a square, by means of concave tri- 


angular spherical surfaces filling up the spaces 


comprised between the base of the dome and 
each pair of adjacent half arches) was not ab- 
solutely a new invention ; but it had previously 
been used only on a small scale, and in a frag- 
mentary and tentative way which failed to 
recognize adequately either the structural or 
geometrical principles involved. Anthemius ab- 
solutely mastered these at a stroke, and ap- 
plied them on a vast scale in so triumphant a 


manner, that’ the dome on pendentives was 


ever after as characteristic of Byzantine archi- 
tecture as the ribbed vault of the Gothic. (See 
Pendentive.) 

413 


BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 


At this time Constantinople was at the zenith 
of her wealth and glory, and under Justinian a 
most extraordinary architectural activity set in. 
The whole Roman world was ransacked for 
building materials and pagan temples rifled of 
their marble and porphyry, to adorn Justinian’s. 
architectural enterprises at Constantinople, Ra- 
venna, Salonica, Jerusalem, and elsewhere. Next. 
to Hagia Sophia, the most important of his works 
was the church of the Holy Apostles at Con- 
stantinople. This church, destroyed by the 
Turks in 1453, was the prototype of S. Mark’s 
at Venice, erected in 1047 largely by Oriental 
architects. Its plan was cruciform, with a nave 
in three bays covered by three domes on pen- 
dentives, the central dome higher than the others. 
and pierced with windows at its base; and 
square transept arms, each covered by a dome. 
S. Sergius and Hagia Sophia at Constantinople, 
and §. Vitale at Ravenna are the only important. 
churches of Justinian’s time remaining substan- 
tially unchanged in form to our day. Many 
others, erroneously attributed to him, are of 
later date (e.g., S. Sophia at Salonica), and 
others, again, like 8. Irene at Constantinople 
(Hagia Hirené = the Divine Peace), though 
built or rebuilt under him, have been greatly 
altered by later rulers. It is a remarkable fact. 
that not one Byzantine church of which we have 
any knowledge reproduces with any closeness the: 
plan of Hagia Sophia, while that of the Holy 
Apostles has been preserved to us only in 8. 
Mark’s at Venice and in 8. Front at Périgueux 
(twelfth century). This is partly due to the 
artistic paralysis which seems to have atfected 
the empire after the seventh century, with the 
decay of its political and military prestige; partly 
to changes in the ritual, calling for changes in 
the plan and details of the churches. For the 
most part, the churches are of small size. In 
Greece and in the Danubian provinces, indeed, 
they were often mere chapels of microscopic di- 
mensions, —the cathedral of Athens measures. 
37 by 32 feet. The plans of the later churches 
are very varied, but in most cases a single central 
dome on pendentives forms the nucleus of the 
design. An apse (sometimes three) terminates 
the church eastward, side aisles flank the nave, 
and a narthex extends across the western front. 
In some plans there are only four columns, in 
others a larger number, carrying the vaulting of 
the side aisles and front part of the church ; in 
many examples minor domes cover the small 
square bays between the arms of the wider nave 
and transepts (e.g., Theotokos at Constantinople) ; 
barrel vaults are combined with groined vaults 
and low domes to produce a varied interior per- 
spective, which, if carried out on a larger scale, 
would be very effective ; the narthex was often 
doubled, with a gallery over the inner vestibule, 
to serve as a Gynzceum (which see). In Servia, 
lateral apses, as well as an eastern apse, open 

414 


; f H i 


BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 


out from the central space in some examples” 


(Ravanitza, Krusavatz, cir. 1390) ; the same is 
seen in the beautiful church at Kurté d’Arjish 
in Roumania (1529). At Trebizond is a church 
with three eastern apses and two large transeptal 
halls or porches. The church called Pantokrator 
at Constantinople (Zeirek Djami) originally con- 
sisted of two shrines combined with the mauso- 
leum of Irene, the empress of John Comnenus 
(cir. 1160). These and other almost countless 
variations indicate the weakness of the style in 
the absence of any controlling type or principle 


eo 


EZ 


_- 


Ona 
it nN 
| 


lOmsD! 


Biao 
© 
Nera 


BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE: CHURCH OF THE THEOTOKOS (A, PLAN), CoNn- Mi - CG 
STANTINOPLE; 10TH CENTURY. inor ( ngora, Uassa- 


of planning, and offer a striking contrast to the 
unity and harmonious development of type in 
the Constantinople mosques which the Turkish 
conquerors later erected, based on Hagia Sophia, 
and working out under new conditions the sug- 
gestions it offered for Moslem halls of worship 
(see Moslem Architecture and Mosque). The 
one feature which most conspicuously marks the 
style of the later Byzantine churches is the high 
drum of the dome. In the remodelling of 8. 
Trene at Constantinople, under Leo the Isaurian, 
the crown of windows separated by buttresses, 
at the base of the dome, was given a greatly in- 
415 


ae ld —- 7 i loeneent 
— ~ oo SP a ¥ 


vel 


Po eee) a ee 
E i 7 ‘ ie eT ee Pe: os 
BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE © | 
creased height ; and in the churches of the ten: 
and later centuries this feature took the propor- _ 
tions of a high drum, —an artistic necessity, _ 
perhaps, with the tiny domes of small churches, _ 
both to give dignity and to admit sufficient light 
to the interior. Throughout Greece it was also — 
customary to place external wall shafts between __ 
these windows, and to allow their arches to pene- __ 
trate the curve of the dome externally as well — 
as internally. Some of the chief of these later — ; 
churches are: at Constantinople, the Moné tes — 
Choras (Kahiré Djami), of the eleventh century, 
rebuilt in the thir- 
teenth by Theodore the 
Metochite, and cele- — 
brated for the beauti- 


& ful mosaics of its nar- 
thex (much injured in 
2 the earthquake of 
1894) ; the Theotokos 
: (Mefa Djami) of the 
6 same period, withelab- 
: orate facade in brick 
@ and stone; the Panto- — e 
‘ krator (Zeirek Djami), 
@ 1150; the Pantepopta 
‘ (Eski Imaret Djami). 
@ At Salonica, Hagia So- 


phia, Holy Apostles, 
S. Bardias, and 8. = 
Elias; at Trebizond, — © 
Hagia Sophia and ca- 
thedral (thirteenthand 
fourteenth centuries), 
In Greece, at Athens, 
many small churches _ 
(Katholikon, Kapika- 
reia, Lykodemou, etc.); 
many conventual 
churches (Daphnis, 
Mount Athos, Misi- 
tra); in Danubian 3am 
Provinces, at Studen- 
itza, Ravanitza, Kru- 

sevatz, Semendria, 

Kurté d’Arjish, etce.; 
many others in Asia 


Nw 


me 


ms 


ba, Myra, Trabala) and 
Armenia (Ani, Etchmiadzin, Dighour, Pitzounda, 
etc.). The churches in Armenia form an inter-— 
esting class apart, not so much in plan as in ex- 
ternal treatment. They are constructed chiefly 
of stone, with domes forming externally conical 
stone roofs, and with a picturesqueness of mass 
and a harmony and wealth of exterior ornament 
in striking contrast with the prevailing poverty 
of external design elsewhere. The relation of 
the intricate interlaces at Kouthais, Tourtoun, 
and some other places to Celtic ornament is not 
easy to determine, though the resemblance is 
striking. 

416 


~— Te ke ee 


ees 


ewe? 1 


BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 


In Russia the Byzantine style has been iden- 
tified with the national church, except where a 
more or less debased Western classic style founded 
on Italian examples has taken or disputed its 
place; but it has been so overlaid with local 
eccentricities of design as to be hardly recogniz- 
able. High turrets, twisted and bulbous spires, 
the external use of gilded copper and brilliantly 
coloured tiles, and a general absence of archi- 
tectonic propriety or restraint in plan or detail 
characterize the Russian branch of the style. 

In Italy the early beginnings of Byzantine 
art are seen at Ravenna, in the tomb of Galla 
Placidia and the beautiful baptistery called 
Battisterio degl’ Ortodossi, both rich in mosaics 
and dating from the early fifth century, in the 


BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 


The west front, incoherent and illogical as it is 
in some respects, is yet, on account of its pic- 
turesqueness and magnificence, without a counter- 
part in Byzantine architecture, and one of the 
most beautiful facades to be seen anywhere. 
The external use of marble veneering and of 
mosaic was a Venetian innovation; it is seen in 
the recently restored Fondaco dei Turchi (Museo 
Civico) dating from the twelfth century ; and the 
practice lasted into the Renaissance. The whole 
of Venetia is full of vestiges of Byzantine carv- 
ing and detail, and the church of S. Fosca at 
Torcello is thoroughly Byzantine in general design. 
In Sicily, under the Normans in the twelfth 
century, a number of churches were built which 
betray a picturesque mingling of Byzantine and 


e 


SET 

LOA 

SYR 
biPrie 


nN 
& 
& 


BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE: CHURCH OF THE THEOTOKOS (B, ELEVATION; SEE A, PLAN). 


decorations of the basilicas of S. Apollinare 
Nuovo, 8. Apollinare in Classe, and others, and 
in the archbishop’s chapel ; also in the circular 
or polygonal baptisteries of Asti, Florence, 
Nocera dei Pagani, Novara, etc. The church 
of 8. Vitale has already been alluded to. The 
reflex influence of the fully developed style was 
especially strong in Venice, where in the twelfth 
century was erected in its present form, upon 
earlier foundations, the superb church of S. 
Mark, modelled after the church of the Holy 
Apostles in Constantinople. (See Church of S. 
Mark under Church.) This edifice, with five 
domes over its nave and transepts, and a magnif- 
icent narthex and west front added later, was 
adorned with a wealth of colour in permanent 
and precious materials and mosaic, such as to 
equal or surpass its original, and to justify the 
verdict that ‘‘there have been no such colourists 
in architecture as the Venetians” (C. E. Norton). 
417 


Moslem influences (cathedral at Monreale, Ca- 
pella Palatina and Martorana at Palermo, etc.) ; 
while in the north the church of 8. Lorenzo at 
Milan, rebuilt in the sixteenth century on the 
old foundations, is by many considered to have 
been originally erected in the sixth century under 
the influence of the newly built Hagia Sophia 
at Constantinople. Along the pathway of 
Venetian and Oriental commerce in France the 
Byzantine influence gave rise to a series of re- 
markable domical churches in Aquitania, chief 
of which is 8. Front at Périgueux, and the in- 
fluence of the style is also traceable in much of 
the carving of the Romanesque period, not only 
in Italy, but also in France and Germany, and 
even in England. ~ How far it was concerned in 
the development of Celtic and Scandinavian 
ornament is a question not yet settled. 

Few of the secular monuments of Byzantine 
architecture have been spared to our day, though 

418 


CA’ 


the palaces of the Byzantine emperors were un- 
doubtedly magnificent. A facade in Ravenna 
supposed by many to be a part of the palace of 
Theodoric, though probably of later date, the 
banquet hall of the Blachernz palace at Con- 
stantinople, and the great underground cisterns 
of that city, constitute the list. 

No complete history of Byzantine architecture 
has yet been written, owing perhaps to the lack 
or inaccessibility of original documents ; but the 
literature of the subject is nevertheless fairly 
abundant. Besides notices in general histories 
and handbooks, the following may be consulted : 
Achison, Byzantine Architecture in Archi- 
tectural Record for 1892 and 1893 (N. Y.); 
Bayet, L’ Art Byzantin; Choisy, L’ Art de 
batir chez les Byzantins ; Couchaud, Hglises 
Byzantines en Gréce; Essenwein, Ausgdnge 
der Classischen Baukunst (being Paria, 
Vol. III. of the Darmstadt Handbuch der Ar- 
chitektur); Gosset, Les Coupoles d@’ Orient et 
@ Occident ; Hiibsch, Monuments de ?_Archi- 
tecture Chrétienne ; Isabelle, Les Edifices cir- 
culaires ; Kanitz, Byzantinische Monumente 
in Serbien ; Lethaby and Swainson, S. Sophia, 
Constantinople ; Ongania, Basilica di S. 
Marco; Pulgher, Les EHglises Byzantines de 
Constantinople ; 
liche Bauwerke zu Ravenna; Salzenberg, 
Altchristliche Baudenkmale von Constantino- 
pel; Texier, L’ Arménie et la Perse ; Texier and 
Pullan, L’ Architecture Byzantine; De Ver- 
neilh, L’ Architecture Byzantine en France ; 
De Vogiié, E'glises dela Terre Sainte ; Hamlin, 
History of Architecture, Chapter XI. ; Fergus- 
son, History of Architecture, edition 1893. 

—A. D. F. Hamrin, 


C 


CA’. The Venetian abbreviation of the word 
casa (house). In this sense it is used as a part 
of a common title of many dwelling houses, in- 
cluding some important structures, each of which 
would be called Palazzo in other Italian cities. 
(See Ca’ Dario; Ca’ d’ Oro; Ca’ Foscari.) 

CABANEL, RUDOLPH: architect ; 
(at Aix-la- Chapelle) ; d. Feb. 4, 1839. 

Cabanel settled in London early in life, and 
devoted himself to the construction of theatres. 
He arranged the stage of the old Drury Lane 
Theatre (London), and designed the Royal Cir- 
cus Theatre, afterward called the Surrey (1806), 
and the Coburg (later Victoria) Theatre. Ca- 
banel designed a form of roof, which goes by 
his name, ana various mechanical contrivances. 

Redgrave, Dictionary of Artists. 

CABIN. A. A residence smaller and more 
humble than a cottage. In the United States 
hardly used, except for the houses of slaves on 
a plantation before 1865, though in some cases 
continued in use since the abolition of slavery. 

419 


b. 1762 


Von Quast, Die Altchrist-— 


CA’ DARIO 


Such cabins generally had a living room of fair 


size, with a fireplace, the chimney being outside — ‘ j 
the wooden and framed wall, and at least one _ 
other small room, sometimes in a shed or lean-to. 


The house was generally raised on four or six 
posts, so as to have no continuous foundation 
and no cellar. (See Quarters, C.) 7 

B. A room or saloon in a ship or steamer, — 
as the captain’s cabin, the second-class cabin. 

CABINET. dA. A small eabin, hut, or 
shelter (obs.) ; hence, — 

Be A comparatively small room, especially 
one used by a sovereign or high official for pri- 
vate conferences or interviews. 

_ ©. A small closet or piece of furniture pro- 
vided with shelves, cupboards, or the like, fre- 
quently a rich and ornamented piece of furniture 
of such a character, designed primarily for the 
safe keeping of valuable articles ; hence, — 

D. A building or part of a building used as 
in definition C. This usage has become obso- 
lete, but its significance is still seen in cabinet 
picture, and in the use of the term as signifying 
a collection of curiosities or works of art. 

CABINETMAKING. The art and the 
trade of making fine woodwork, whether for 
furniture (to which the term was formerly con- 
fined) or for the interior finish of houses, ships, 
and offices. It is distinguished from the rougher - 
and less elaborate carpenter work by the careful 
and accurate fitting and high finish which it in- 
volves, by the lightness and relatively small scale 
of its productions, and by its predominant use of 
fine and hard woods. In carpentry the pieces — 
used are relatively large, and secured by nailing 
in the majority of cases, while the exterior finish 
is commonly painted. In cabinetmaking the 
pieces are small, glue enters largely into the 
joining of parts, and fine varnishing and polishing 
are required for the finish. 

' CABINET WINDOW. A kind of project- 
ing window or bay window for the display of — 
goods in shops, much used early in the nineteenth 
century, and occasionally imitated in mansions 
and villas. 

CABLE. <A. Same as Cable Moulding 
(which see, under Moulding). 

B. A moulding of convex section formed in the 
flute of a column. (Compare Reeding.) It is 
usual to fill only the lower part of the flute with 
these cables, —that is, for the lower half, or less” 
than half, of the shaft. 

CABLE FLUTED. Having each fluting 
filled with a Cable, B. Said of a column, 
or more rarely of a pilaster. 

CABLING. <A. Cable mouldings collec- 
tively. Decoration by Cable Mouldings. 

B. Same as Cable, B. 

CA’ DARIO. In Venice, on the Canal 
Grande; built about the middle of the fif- — 
teenth century. Exquisite Renaissance style, 
with inlaid and richly veined marbles. 

420 


PLATES Al 


CA* DARIO 


In Venice ; a house of the earlier Renaissance about 1475. For many years the floors have been 
adorned with slabs of richly veined marble, each _ out of level, the northwestern corner (on the right) 
one formed with carved white marble. Its date is having sunk, but it is perfectly habitable. 


x: ou) i . 


ds 
- ts Weed eu 

. a © MT Peas se 

i a : va 

ys ie cae 

- el , > A “ 
: . 
.] 
‘ 
i 


F CA’ D’ ORO 
CA’ D’ ORO. In Venice. A late Gothic 
palace built at the beginning of the fourteenth 
century. Only a part of the front remains. It 
was restored in a ruinous way at the beginning 
of the present century, and the splendid interior 

_ Staircase destroyed. (See Bono, Giovanni.) 

CAEN STONE. A soft, fine-grained, light- 

; coloured, Jurassic limestone from near Caen in 

i Normandy. One of the most noted limestones 

of modern history. 

4 CAFE. In French, a room, as in a hotel, or 

’ separately rented as a shop, accessible from the 

4 _ street, and used for the sale, for consumption on 

4 _ the spot, of coffee, chocolate, etc. ; also of brandy 

‘ and different liqueurs which are commonly taken 

___-with or after black coffee ; also of groseiille (cur- 

rant syrup) and similar non-intoxicating drinks ; 

___ also, in larger establishments, of wine and certain 

; dishes. The distinction is generally maintained 

: between the café and the restaurant, but some 

; very famous restaurants, as in Paris, have re- 

tained the name of café with a qualifying term. 
In America, especially in the modern hotel, the 

_ words “bar” and “barroom” are apt to be ig- 
-nored, and “ café” substituted. 

_ CA’ FOSCARI. In Venice, on the Canal 

Grande. It is of the finest thirteenth and four- 

_ . teenth century Gothic, with the most perfectly 

proportioned arcades for the great groups of 

windows. 

— CAGE. A chamber or enclosure formed 
wholly or partly of bars, slats, wire, open 
work, or tracery, as for wild beasts in a zo- 
ological garden ; especially, — 


‘ - 


A, A chantry or chapel screened by open - 


tracery. 
B. Timber framework to line a shaft or 
_ working in a mine. 

C. The iron and steel skeleton used in high 
modern buildings, — called steel cage, although 
many of its parts are of wrought iron or cast iron. 
(See Iron and Steel Construction ; Skeleton.) 

CAHER; CAHIR. In Celtic archeology 
a fort, the term being applied to the ruined 
stone structures which have the appearance of 
being intended for defence. The word is more 
commonly used in composition as forming part 
of a proper name; thus Caher-gal is at Lough 
Corrib in Ireland. 

CAILHON, JEAN ; architect. 

Cailhon was called from Paris in 1629 to 
continue the facade of the cathedral of Auch 
(Gers, France) begun by Jean de Beaujeu (see 
Beaujeu), and carried the structure from the 
Springing of the arches to the entablature of the 
great Corinthian order. 

Caneto, Sainte-Marie d’ Auch; Bauchal, Dic- 
tionnaire. 

CAILLETEAU (called L ASSURANCE) ; 
architect ; d. 1723. 

Cailleteau began as a draftsman, employed by 
Jules Hardouin-Mansart. He was associated 

421 


CAISSON 


with Girardini (see Girardini) in the earlier con- 
structions of the Palais Bourbon (begun 1722), 
and with Aubert at the Hotel de Lassay. Both 
buildings are now included in the Palais de la 
Chambre des Députés (Paris). He made the 
first plans for the Hotel d’Evreux, now Palais 
de lElysée (Paris). 

Lucas, Cailleteau, in la Grande Encyclo- 
pédie; Joly, La restauration de la Chambre des 
Députés ; Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 

CAILLETEAU (called LL ASSURAN CE), 
JEAN ; architect ; d. 1755. 

A son of Cailleteau the elder (see Cailleteau). 
In 1715 he went to Rome to study. In 1724 he 
succeeded his father as contrdleur at the chateau 
of Marly, France. Between 1748 and 1750 he 
made extensive additions to the chateaux of 
Crécy, Saint-Cloud, and Aulnay for Madame 
de Pompadour. For her also he built the 
chateau of Bellevue in 1751. In 1749 he was 
appointed contréleur of the buildings at Fon- 
tainebleau. He continued his father’s work at 
the Hotel d’Evreux (now Palais de I’Elysée). 

Charles Lucas, Cailleteau, in la Grande En- 
cyclopédie ; Bauchal, Dictionnaire; Lance, Dic- 
tionnaire. 

CAIRENE ARCHITECTURE. The archi- 
tecture of Cairo in Egypt, especially the archi- 
tecture of Saracenic or, more properly speaking, 
Moslem style. The mosques of Cairo contain 
the richest ornamentation of the unaltered style 
invented for the Arabian conquerors by the By- 
zantine Greeks who worked under their direction, 
which style was much corrupted in North Africa 
and in Spain. This Cairene architecture has, 
then, the peculiar value of having preserved for 
us the best examples of this curious school of 
design, and the richest and most tasteful pieces 
of its ornamentation. (See Moslem Architec- 
ture, and the references under that head.) 

‘ CAIRN. A tumulus of stones, whether cham- 
bered or solid, usually of a sepulchral or com- 
memorative character. In the essential character 
the Egyptian pyramid was a cairn. In modern 
times, sepulchral monuments have been made in 
the form of very rough pyramids, having usually 
a tablet with an inscription. 

CAISSON (I.). A. As used for building 
upon pile foundations or other firm bottom under 
water, a water-tight box in which the masonry 
is built, and is then lowered into its place. The 
floor is made strong enough to carry the weight 
of the masonry, the sides are detachable, and 
are taken off when the caisson rests upon the 
bottom. The caisson is sometimes made large 
enough to be buoyant with its load of masonry 
and is sunk by letting in water, is sometimes 
lowered by chains’ from a fixed platform, but 
usually it is floated into position and sinks as 
the masonry is built in it. 

B. Generally with the qualifying term pneu- 
matic or compressed air —a device for sinking 

422 


>) 


betes media at oe trac i is aE ee er 


CAISSON 


foundations under water or in soil containing 
much water, or too soft to be supported by other 
means. It is in form an air-tight box the size 
of the pier to be built upon it; the bottom is 
open, the top is strongly floored to carry the 
weight of the masonry. It is sometimes framed 
of wood, but for architectural building it is gen- 
erally made of steel plates and beams. Entrance 


and exit are by means of an air lock; materials” 


are generally supplied through a separate air lock. 
In use, the caisson is loaded sufficiently to over- 
come the friction of the earth on its sides, and 
the lifting power of the compressed air within 
it. This loading is usually the masonry which 
it is to support. The air is introduced under a 
pressure sufficient to exclude or expel the water 
or fluid earth entering under the lower edge. 
The earth in the centre and under the edges is 
excavated by men working in the compressed 
air, and is lifted out in buckets through an air 
lock, or blown out through special pipes by 
compressed air or by a water jet. As weight is 
added above, and the supporting earth beneath 
is removed by excavation aided at times by 
reducing the air pressure, the caisson gradually 
sinks until the lower or cutting edge rests upon 
the rock or other surface upon which it is to 
remain. It is then filled solid with concrete, 
and the air locks are removed for use elsewhere. 
The masonry upon it has meantime been carried 
above water, so as to be accessible when the 
caisson has come to rest. The air pressure is gen- 
erally taken at half a pound to the square inch for 
every foot in depth of water, although this is in 
excess of their actual relation. (See Foundation.) 
— W. R. Hutton. 

CAISSON (II. ). In Roman imperial and 
neoclassic architecture, a sunken panel, es- 
pecially in a vaulted ceiling or the inside of a 
cupola. Caissons are generally square or octag- 
onal, the octagon not being always regular. 
Some caissons have the different sides uniformly 
moulded or otherwise ornamented ; but in many 
cases the mouldings are modified so as to be 
seen properly from below. Thus, the lowermost 
side of a square caisson will have the mouldings 
forming a more oblique angle with the surface 
of the vault than those of the other side. (See 
Lacunar.) 

CAJON. A kind of Pisé used in Spain and 
also in France and some parts of England. In 
France, the wall is formed by ramming the earth 
into a box; the latter is about 3 metres long, 
1 metre high, and 50 to 60 centimetres wide. 
(See Pisé.) 

CAKCHIQUEL ARCHITECTURE. (See 
Central America, Architecture of ; Maya Archi- 
tecture ; Mexico, Architecture of, Part 1.) 

CALABOOSE. A common ‘jail or lockup. 
(Local in the United States.) 

CALAMIS (KALAMIS) OF ATHENS ; 
sculptor. 

423 


CALLE ae a. 

Calamis was a Greek sculptor of. t ie 
half of the fifth century B.c. His work is 
known only by the description of classic authors, 4 
It was undoubtedly archaic in style and char. : 
acterized by great refinement. The base of a 
statue of Aphrodite by Calamis has been found 
on the Acropolis at Athens; This Aphrodite — 
was undoubtedly identical with the Sosandra s 50 
highly praised by Lucian (op. cit., Portraits; 3 


Courtesan). 
Collignon, Histoire de la sculpture grecque; y 
Lucian, Dialogues. 4 


CALATHUS. Primarily a flower basket 
having a flaring or bell-shaped form ; hence, as > 
used by some ancient writers, Vitruvius among 
them, the bell or core of the Corinthian capital — : 
and of some other Greek and Egyptian campani-— 
form capitals. a 

CALCAIRE GROSSIERE. A highly fos- 
siliferous Tertiary limestone occurring in the so- 
called Paris Basin, of France, and much used — 
for building purposes in and about Paris. ag 

CALCIMINE. Same as Kalsomine. 

CALDARIUM. In Roman thermea, the ‘a 
warm bath; and, by extension, the room in a 


Py ot 
ae 


which the wan baths were Hiuated (See . 
Therme. ) ot 
CALEFACTORY. A. An artificially heated 


room in a monastery. ; 
B. A metallic vessel containing hot water or a 
live coals, placed on the altar in a church for — 
the priest to warm his hands upon. ae t 
CALENDARIO, FILIPPO; sculptor and ‘iz 
architect ; d. 1355. 
Calendario appears to have been a shipbuilteen a | 
of Murano who became capomaestro of the 
Doges’ palace in Venice and chief architect of 
He Venetian Senate. He is supposed by Porkina 2 
to have made the capitals of the facade of the 4 = 
palace under the influence of Andrea da Pisa 
(see Andrea da Pisa). He also continued (1327) - 
the reconstruction of the arsenal at Venice sup- 4 | 
posed to have been begun by Andrea da Pisa. — 
fe 1355 he was hung as a conspirator from the — . 
“red columns” of the Doges’ palace. BS 
Paoletti, Rinascimento in Venezia, Vol. I., p. 3 
10 (1893); C. C. Perkins, Italian Sculptors. a 
CALIARI, PAOLO. (See Veronese.) 
CALIDUCT. A hot air flue. In the an- 
cient Roman systems of furnace heating, the 
caliducts were terra cotta flues, or were built up 
with brick partitions and tile facings. Inmodern 
work the flues are usually of bright tin or gal- 
vanized iron. (See Furnace ; Warming.) ; 


CALKING. (See Caulking, ) Bs 

CALLAESCHRUS (Kallaeschros). (See 
Antistates.) , a 

CALLE. In Italian, a street; especially in 


Venice, where the streets, having no carriage way 
and being paved from house to house with — 
smooth blocks of stone, have no need of width a 
and are what would be called in English alleys. 
424 


Baltard (see Baltard, V.) in 
the construction of the Halles 
_Centrales (Paris). 


- Teccizcalli, House of Shells ; 


_ Teotl, the Highest Being), etc. 


CALLET 


The few wider thoroughfares in Venice take 
different names, as Via, and, on the water- 
fronts, Fondamenta, Riva. (See also Rio 
Terra.) ) 

CALLET, FELIX EMMANUEL. (See Cal- 
let Pére.) } 

CALLET “PHRE”; architect; b. March 10, 
1755 (at Paris); d. about 1850. 

He filled the office of commissaire voyer of 
the city of Paris from 1796 to 1828, and formed 
a remarkable collection of works on French 
architects and architecture. 
This included the famous 
series of the works of Jacques 
(I.) Androuet du Cerceau 
(see Androuet du Cerceau, J., 
I.), which was sold to the 
city of Paris and destroyed 
with the Hotel de Ville in 
1871. He is best known by 
his Notice historique sur la 
vie artistique et les ceuvres 
de quelques architectes fran- 
¢ais. His son, Félix Em- 
manuel Callet, assisted Victor 


Ch. Lucas in La Grande 
Encyclopédie ; Lance, Diction- 
naire ; Callet, Notice historique 
sur quelques architectes fran- 
¢ais. 


CALLI. In the Nahuatl, 
or Aztec, language of Mexico, 
a house. Prefixes were used 
to designate different kinds of 
houses, as Concalli, store- 
house; Tezcalli, a kitchen ; 


Tieplantlacalli, stone house ; 
Teocalli, House of God (from 


The last term is now employed 
as meaning the mound upon 
which thetemplestood, as well 
as the sacred building itself. 
(See Mexico, Architecture of ; 
Part I. ; Mound.) —F.S. D. 
CALLIAT, PIERRE VICTOR; architect ; 
b. Sept. 1, 1801 (at Paris); d. Jan. 12, 1881. 
_Calliat was a pupil of Chatillon and the 
Ecole des Beaux Arts (1823). In 1832 he 
won the Prix Départemental. Calliat restored 
the church of 8S. Gervais (Paris) in 1862. In 
1850 he founded the Encyclopédie d’ Architec- 
ture which he conducted in association with A. 
E. Lance. (See Lance.) 
Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 
CALLICRATES. (See Ictinus.) 
CALLIMACHOS (Kallimachos); sculptor. 
Kallimachos was a younger cotemporary of 
425 


CALVARY 


Phidias (see Phidias) who is usually associated 
with Calamis (see Calamis) on account of the 
grace and delicacy of his style. He was chiefly 
noted for the beauty of his decorative work. 
He made for the Erectheum at Athens a bronze 
lamp, which was kept always lighted, and a 
golden palm tree. Vitruvius (IV., 1, 9) credits 
him with the invention of the Corinthian Capital. 

Brunn, Geschichte der Griechischen Kiinstler ; 
Vitruvius, ed. Marini. 


CALOTTE. In French, originally a cap or 


CALVARY AT PLOUGASTEL, NEAR BREST IN BRITTANY. 


similar covering; hence a hollow, or rounded 
concave member; and also a covering as of 
metal ; especially, — 

‘A. A cupola or part of a cupola, as the 
upper portion of a spherical vault, and, often, 
an inner cupola of light material. 

B. A half cupola, as the head or semidome 
of a niche. 

C. The leaden capping or sheathing of a 
spire or pinnacle. 

CALVARY. A sculptural representation of 
the Saviour’s passion, usually as the culmination 
of a series of representations of the fourteen 

426 


CALVES’ TONGUE 


“‘Stations of the Cross,” either in a church or 
in the open air, as in many Breton cemeteries, 
in the streets of some Spanish cities, and the 
Sacro Monte at Varallo in Piedmont. In the 
more important examples, the scene of the 
Passion crowns a steep natural hill or rock, and 
is reached by stairs or steep paths flanked by 
chapels with the scenes of the stations. Many 
altarpieces of the fourteenth and fifteenth cen- 
turies are carved as Calvaries, with the Stations 
depicted upon the walls of the side aisles. 

CALVES’ TONGUE. A _ small pointed 
member in relief; used with others in the Calves’ 
Tongue Moulding. (See Moulding.) 

CAMAIEU. In French, a cameo; hence, in 
French and adopted into English, painting in 
monochrome ; especially that done with the 
desired effect of giving a somewhat deceptive 
appearance of relief. 

CAMARON, NICOLAS ; sculptor and ar- 
ehitect; .b. 1692 d.slyGT: 

Camaron executed the choir stalls of the 
cathedral of Segorbe (Valencia, Spain) as well 
as the great retable of the church of the Jesuits 
in that city. 

Bermudez, Diccionario Historico. 

CAMBER. A slight rise or upward curve 
of an otherwise horizontal, or apparently hori- 
zontal, piece or structure. In a steel truss hav- 
ing apparently parallel, horizontal chords, the 
pieces composing the upper chord are usually 
made slightly longer between joints than the 
corresponding parts below ; the result being a 
slight invisible camber, by which the tendency 
to sag is overcome. A so-called flat arch is 
usually built with an intrados having a camber. 

CAMBER PIECE; SLIP. A piece of wood 
having its upper surface slightly curved upward ; 
used as a centering in building flat arches so as 
to give the intrados a slight camber ; sometimes 
a mere board with one edge cut to a convex are 
of a very long radius, or a barrel stave. 

CAMBICHE. (See Chambiges.) 

CAMBODIA, ARCHITECTURE OF. (See 
Farther India, Architecture of.) 

CAMBRAI, JHAN DE. 
Cambrai.) 

CAME. Originally, the amount of lead (50 
pounds) allowed for leading 100 square feet of 
stained glass. This was cast into slender rods 
which were converted into window leads by being 
drawn through a steel plate (called in England 
a “‘vice”’) having a perforation of the required 
I-shaped form. In time the slender rods before 
being thus drawn were called cames, and are 
still so called in Great Britain. In the United 
States the word is applied to the window leads 
after drawing, ready for use by the glazier. 

CAMERLAIN, JOSEPH; architect and 
sculptor. 

Camerlain was educated at the Academy of 
Antwerp and at Paris. In 1806 he went to Saint 

427 


(See Jean de 


CAMPANILE OF 8. MARK | 


Petersburg and in 1816 was sent to Tiflis as 


chief architect of Georgia. 

Immerzeel, Hollandsche en Vilaamsche Kunst- 
schilders, Beeldhouwers, etc. 

CAMERON, CHARLES ; architect. 

Cameron was an English architect who prac- 
tised in the latter part of the eighteenth century. 
He published The Baths of the Romans, ea- 
plained and illustrated with the Restorations 
of Palladio corrected and improved (London, 
1 vol., folio 1772). 

Redgrave, Dictionary of Artists. 

CAMP. A. The location of a temporary 
habitation, especially of a large number of men. 


J. By extension from the place to the shelters 


erected for temporary occupancy, the tents or 
huts taken collectively which serve a military 
force, a number of workmen engaged in tem- 
porary occupation in a wild country, or the like. 

C.. By further extension, and in a somewhat 
jocose or familiar sense, a single building or a 
principal building with its outhouses and the 
like, intended for temporary residence, as during 
the hot season, and usually rough and slightly 
built. 

CAMPANATO, SIMONE; bronze founder. 

Simone Campanato cast the great bell on the 
clock tower (torre dell’ orologio) of the Piazza 
di 8S. Marco in Venice, which was placed in 
position Dec. 1, 1497. This bell was probably 
designed and modelled by Alessandro Leopardi. 
(See Leopardi, A.) 


Paoletti, Rinascimento in Venezia. 


CAMPANILE (pl. Campanili). In Italian, 
a bell tower ; hence, a bell tower of Italian design 
or general character, especially a church tower 
more or less completely separated from the rest 
of the building, and generally having no but- 
tress nor any marked break in its outline, which 
is square, unbuttressed, plain, and with nearly 
all its decorative effect near the top in connec- 
tion with the belfry chamber. Such towers are 
abundant in Italy during all the medizeval epoch, 
and their general character was preserved in the 
Renaissance and post-Renaissance styles. Among 
the largest existing are those of the cathedral 
of Cremona in Lombardy, of S. Mark’s church 
in Venice, and of the Piazza dei Signori in Verona. 
The exquisitely graceful campanile of 8. Zeno of 
Verona has a two-story belfry, and it has been 
noted by recent observers that its sides are not 
strictly vertical, but have aslight entasis. (Com- 
pare Beffroi; Belfry ; Bell House ; Bell Tower; 
and see Italy, Architecture of.) (Cuts, cols. 
429, 430; 431, 432; 433.) 

CAMPANILE OF GIOTTO. At Florence, 
the bell tower of the cathedral. (See Giotto ; 
Giotto’s Campanile.) 

CAMPANILE OF S. MARK. At Venice; 
dependent upon, or belonging to the famous 
church of 8S. Mark, but separated from it by 

428 


Pie Ati 


CAMPANILE 


That of Florence cathedral ; begun in 1334, and, 
as it is thought, under the direction of Giotto di 
Bondone. He died in 1336, and the work was 
carried on by Taddeo Gaddi and others, and fin- 
ished about 1350, the idea of the spire having been 
abandoned. ‘The hexagonal panels in the ground 


story and the lozenge-shaped panels of the second 
tier are filled with bas-reliefs; the larger ones 
being of great expressional interest. The niches 
above are filled with statues, one of which is 
thought to be by Giotto. 


othr 


CAMPBELL 


perhaps two hundred feet of open ground — part 
of the Piazza di 8. Marco. The tower is early 
medizeval work crowned by a belfry and square 
spire of the sixteenth century which reaches a 
height of 325 feet from the pavement. The 
ascent is by a continuous inclined plane built 
between an inner and an outer wall, and turning 
with a platform at each angle of the tower. 

CAMPBELL, COLIN;; architect; d. Sept. 
13, 1727. 

Nothing is known of Campbell’s birth and 
education. He was a protégé of Richard Boyle, 
Earl of Burlington (see Boyle, Rich- 
ard). His most important work was 
Wanstead House (Essex, England), 
built about 1715-1720, destroyed 
1822. Campbell assisted Lord Bur- 
lington in the _ reconstruction of 
Burlington House, London. In 1726 
he was appointed surveyor of the 
works at Greenwich Hospital, Lon- 
don. At the suggestion of Lord 
Burlington, he published, in three 
volumes, three hundred illustrations 
of English buildings under the title 
Vitruvius Britannicus, or the Brit- 
ish Architect. Another edition, with 
two additional volumes by John 
Woolfe and James Gandon (see Gan- 
don), was published in 1767. On 
the title-page of Vitruvius Britan- 
nicus the name is spelled Colen. 

Walpole, Anecdotes of Painting ; 
Redgrave, Dictionary of Artists; Ste- 
phen, Dictionary of National Biogra- 
phy ; Campbell, Vitruvius Britannicus. 

CAMP CHILING. A ceiling of 
which the central portion is flat, the 
sides sloping down to the walls as if 
following the slope of the 
rafters, — such as might oc- 
cur beneath a roof constructed 
with collar beam trusses. 

CAMPEDRONI, ANTO- 
NIO ; sculptor. 

Campedroni was born in ! 
the island of Majorca (Spain), , an 
and learned sculpture from Hane a 
his father Francisco. In 1330 — 
he was appointed chief sculp- 
tor of the decoration of the 
cathedral of Palma (Majorca). 

Vifiaza, <Adiciones al Dic- 
cionario historico. 

CAMPEN, JACOB VAN;; architect; d. 
sept. 13, 1857. 

The architect Jacob van Campen appears to 
have been a different person from the painter of 
the same name. He was born near the end of 
the sixteenth century at Amersfoot, in Holland, 
and probably studied in Italy. With Daniel 
Stalpert he designed and built the town hall 

429 


CAMPIDOGLIO 


at Amsterdam, begun in 1648, finished in 1655. 
A monograph describing the work was published 
by Van Campen: Afbeelding van’t Stadthuys 
van Amsterdam (Amsterdam, 1861, folio). He 
built the monuments to the Admirals van Galen 
and Tromp and numerous residences in Holland. 


Weyerman, De Levens Beschryvingen der Neder- 
landsche Kunst- schilders, etc.; Kramm, Hol- 
landsche en V la- amsche Kunstschilders, etc. 


CAMPANILE: CHURCH OF S. GIORGIO AL VELABRO, RoME; 7TH OR STH 


CENTURY. 


CAMPIDOGLIO. At Rome, the Capitol, or 
Capitoline Hill. The small open place on the 
top of the Capitoline Hill, between the northern 
crest where the citadel once stood and the 
southern crest where stood the Temple of 
Jupiter, is called Piazza del Campidoglio. It 
represents nearly the old asylum, properly so 
called. It was laid out nearly in its present 

430 


CAMPIDOGLIO 


form at the close of the fourteenth century, 
when the Palace of the Senator, so called, was 
built upon the substructure of the old Tabu- 
larium. In 1538 the equestrian statue of Mar- 
cus Aurelius was moved from the neighbourhood 
of the Lateran Palace to the centre of the square. 


CAMPANILE: CATHEDRAL OF CREMONA, LOMBARDY ; 
CALLED IL TORRAZZO (THE GREAT TOWER), AS 
BEING THE HIGHEST IN ITALY — ABOUT 400 FEET; 
c. 1280. 


Soon afterward the Palace of the Senator was 

altered according to the designs by Michelangelo, 

who added the colossal order of pilasters standing 

on a high basement, the entrance doorway, and 
431 


finished until after the designer’s death. 
facade encloses the square on the southeast 
the southwest and on the northeast are the t 
fronts of the Palace of the Conservators and 
Capitoline Museum. The former of these ° 
built from designs by Michelangelo, but some- 
what altered by his successor and finished about. : 
1595. The other front, almost exactly like thi , 
in design, was not finished until 1650. All these 
facades are of singular interest, as showing the 


CAMPANILE: PALAzzO SCALIGERI, VERONA. 


great genius who was chiefly instrumental im 
recommending it to the architects of Europe. 
The singular magnificence of effect which it has 
in the hands of an imaginative and inventive 
artist is well shown in these fronts. 

CAMPIONE, BONINO DA. (See Bonino 
da Campione.) 

CAMPIONE, MARCO DA. 
Marco. ) 

CAMPIS, JOHANNES DE. 
champs, J ehan.) 

CAMPO. In Italian, primarily a field. By — a 
extension, an open place in a town, sometimes such 

432 


(See Frisone, 


(See Des- a 


CAMPO DI MARZIO 


a place smaller and less architecturally important 
_ than a piazza. Thus, in Venice, while there is 
only one large and one small “piazza,” there 
are many campi in different parts of the town. 

CAMPO DI MARZIO. In Italian, same as 
Champ de Mars. 

CAMPO SANTO. 
consecrated field, —that is, a burial ground ; 
used in English for those of Italy, — of which the 
most famous is that of Pisa, —and more rarely 
for a much elaborated graveyard anywhere, with 
cloisters or roofed galleries containing tombs or 
similar architectural additions. 

That of Pisa is re- 
puted to have been 
filled up with earth 
brought from Pales- 
tine. This event oc- 
curred in the twelfth 
century, but the high 
and wide cloister now 
surrounding the burial 
ground was built near 
the close of the thir- 
teenth century, the 
pseudo-Gothic tracery 
of the great openings 
being of the fifteenth 
century. This cloister 
is filled with monu- 
ments which have been 
brought from many 
parts of Tuscany ; the 
walls are covered with 
frescoes of peculiar im- 
portance. The Campo 
Santo at Genoa is en- 
tirely modern, at least 
in its present situation, 
about two miles east 
of the town. The en- 
closure is about 1200 
feet square within the 
cloisters, and _ these 
latter are very broad 
and high and elaborate 
in their structure. The 
special interest which 
this cemetery has is 
in the very remarka- 
ble private monuments which it contains. The 
excellent lighting and placing which is possible 
in the sheltered and yet open ambulatories has 
encouraged the people to erect memorials of the 
most surprisingly vigorous, novel, and often at- 
tractive sculpture. Personifications, angelic fig- 
ures, and the like are, of course, common, but there 
are also many portrait statues and groups in very 
novel arrangement and of unusual significance. 

CAMP SHEATHING; CAMP SHED- 
DING ; CAMP SHEETING. A construction 
of sheet piling or sometimes of horizontal plank- 

433 


CAMPANILE: CHURCH OF 
S. Maria MAGGIORE, 
BERGAMO, LOMBAR- 
DY; 14TH CENTURY, 
EXCEPT THE WOODEN 
Roor. 


| joining a heavy structure. 


In Italian, a sacred or | 


CANADA 


ing spiked to guide piles, employed to enclose 
and confine the compressible soil under and ad- 
The term is also (in 
England) incorrectly applied to the stringpiece or 
cap sill of a wharf, properly called a camp shot. 

CAMP SHOT. (See Camp Sheathing.) 

CAMPUS MARTIUS (Latin). Martian 
Field or Field of Mars. In Rome, a tolerably 
level tract lying northwest of the early city and 
the capitol, filling the peninsula formed by the 
Tiber, which there makes a great turn, first to 
the east and then to the south. Upon this many 
of the important monuments of the ancient city 
were built,—such as the Pantheon, a great 
circus, the forums of Antoninus Pius and Marcus 
Aurelius, with their memorial columns, and the 
Mausoleum of Augustus. The name is the origin 
of some modern appellatives. (See Champ de 
Mars.) 

CANACHUS (Kanachos) ; sculptor. 

A contemporary of Agelaidas of Argos, he 
represents the school of Sicyon just before the 
Persian wars. His most important work was a 
statue of the Didymean Apollo in the temple of 
that deity at Miletus in Asia Minor. 

Collignon, Histoire de la sculpture grecque ; 
Mitchell, History of Greek Sculpture. 

CANADA, ARCHITECTURE OF. That 
of the British possessions to the north and 
northeast of the United States. The work of 
the aboriginal tribes included architectural fea- 
tures of great interest. Those still extant are 
only found on the Pacific coast, and chiefly on 
the Queen Charlotte Islands and amongst the 
Haida Indians. From Dr. G. Dawson’s Report 
of 1878, Geological Survey of Canada, we 
find that the general type of house is the same 
amongst all the tribes ; but amongst the Haidas 
the houses are more substantial, greater care is 
given to their mechanical accuracy of construc- 
tion, and in ornamentation they indicate a higher 
measure of originality. The special feature is 
their symbolical posts called kexen, which are 
of great number, size, and elaboration. They 
vary in height from 30 to 50 feet, with a width 
of 3 feet or more at the base, and are tapering, 
Through the base of these posts access is ob- 
tained by oval holes to the houses, which are 
as a rule plain. Carved posts called wat are 
also erected in memory of the dead, and are 
placed in front of their houses, but are not 
so elaborately carved as the house posts. The 
carving usually consists of figures of men and con- 
ventionalized representations of animals placed 
one above the other, and are more generally 
known under the title of ‘totem poles.” The 
system of totems extends through many tribes, 
forming divisions or clans expressed by the sym- 
bolism of the eagle, wolf, crow, black bear, fin 
whale, etc., and many of them are exceedingly 
curious and interesting, and worthy of study. 
These villages are becoming more and more de- 

434 


CANADA 


serted as the Indians are dying out, and their 
carved posts are falling into decay. 

In treating of Canada, and more especially 
-eastern Canada, which was the only portion in- 
fluenced by architecture until somewhat recent 
times, we find no evidence of a universal dis- 
tinctive style of architecture ; yet we find in the 
past much of historical interest, each régime 
having left its impress on the structure of the 
country. Canada covers so large an area that as 
its climate greatly varies, so its different geo- 
graphical divisions show certain distinctive char- 
acteristics in their buildings. 

The French régime in what was formerly 
Lower Canada is still commemorated by many 
solid old stone houses, with high, steep roofs, gable 
ends, moulded springer stones, and small dormers, 
which remain all over the country and in the 
cities of the province. The simple village church, 
with its quaint tin-covered spire or belfry aged 
to a beautiful golden hue, still charms by its 
suitability and appropriateness. 

In Acadia and the maritime provinces the 
evidences of British influence are stamped very 
closely on the older architecture. 
buildings are either translations in wood of exist- 
ing buildings in England, such as S. Paul’s 
church in Halifax, built in 1750, or are closely 
modelled on such buildings. Many of these are 
of stone, most solid and substantial in character 
and excellent in design. The Houses of Legis- 
lature for Nova Scotia and Government House in 
Halifax, built early in the nineteenth century, 
may be cited as examples. 

Coming to a more recent period, between 1840 
and 1850, a number of refined and excellent 
buildings were erected in Montreal in the Greco- 
Roman style,—such as the old court house, 
the banks of Montreal and of British North 
America, and others, — but all these were the 
work of English architects who came out for a 
time. Since confederation, Canada has made 
extraordinary progress, and the completion of 
the Canadian Pacific Transcontinental Railway 
has united the dominion into a homogeneous 
whole. This has had an immediate effect on 
its current architecture. Distinctive provincial 
features are disappearing, and modes of construc- 
tion and design prevalent in the Old World 
and in the United States are taking their place. 
Gothic, Colonial, Romanesque, Renaissance, have 
all had their advocates more or less skilled. In 
ecclesiastical architecture amongst Protestants, 
Gothic and Romanesque styles are almost uni- 
versal, while among the Roman Catholic com- 
munity the tendency is largely toward neoclassic 
of some type. 

In civic architecture the Dominion Houses of 
Parliament at Ottawa are probably the most 
notable example of a successful adaptation of 
Gothic to modern requirements. Amongst the 
important examples of Romanesque work may be 

435 


The earlier. 


a 
Pa 
iy ou 5 OAs 


CANALE DI 8. “MARCO” akc 
cited the new city hall at Toronto, the eee 


Ey, Pin: 


of Parliament in the same city, and the Library 
and Physics Buildings of McGill University, is 


Montreal. In Renaissance — French, Italian, 


and English — there 


less successful, the new Houses of Legislature 


for British Columbia at Victoria, several bank — 
buildings in Vancouver, various mercantile and — 
civil buildings in Toronto and Montreal, includ- 
ing the city hall in the last-named place, Laval 


University, and the more recent buildings at 
McGill University, and in Quebec the Houses 
of Legislature. Lately a phase of Scotch Baro- 
nial has been introduced very successfully in the 
Royal Victoria Hospital, Montreal ; 


tation of the chateau architecture of the Loire 
Valley. — ANDREW T. TayLor. 

CANAL. A. A channel or groove; usually 
other than the channel of the Doric column or 
the flute of the Ionic, —as below the corona of 
a classical cornice, acting as drip, or as the nar- 


row separation between two leaves or similar ~ 


ornaments in a sculptured moulding. 
B. An artificial water channel, usually of 
considerable size, and without roof or cover, but 


having generally carefully finished straight par-— 


allel sides. In decorative gardening the canal 
is generally a long and narrow piece of placid 
water along which the current passes slowly ; 
but there are exceptions. Thus in the English 
Garden at Munich the waters of the Iser are 
partly turned into watercourses of uniform width 
with scarped and regulated banks in which the 
current is very rapid. The canal used in com- 
merce for the cheap transportation of freight, and 
formerly for passengers, does not enter into the 
scope of this Dictionary. (See Canale.) 

CANALAZZO. Saine as Canal Grande, 
the popular Venetian name. 

CANAL#. In Italian, a waterchannel. The 
common translation of this word by ‘canal ” 
often causes confusion, as when the water streets 
of Venice, and especially the largest of them, are 
called by that name. The Venetian term is Rio 
for all but the largest, the four most important 
of which are given immediately below. 

CANALE, or CANAL’, DELLA GIU— 
DECCA. The water street which separates 
the Island of the Giudecca from the Island 
of the Rialto. This water way varies from 700 
to 1200 feet in width, and connects with the 
Canale di 8. Marco, forming with it the harbour 
of Venice. 

CANALE DI S.MARCO. The great brea 
stretch of deep water lying between the Molo 
and the Riva degli Schiavoni Maggiore on the 
north and the islands of the Giudecca and of 
S. Giorgio Maggiore on the south. This is the 
anchorage for large vessels, and forms with the 
preceding the principal harbour of Venice. It is 

436 


are many examples, ss 
amongst which might be named, as more or — 


and the HS : 
Chateau Frontenac at Quebec is a clever adap- 


Face 


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ay 


cents 


‘ 


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| | VINATTAONVO ote 


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| CANAL’ GRANDE 

1200 feet wide in the narrowest part, and widens 
_ rapidly as it turns to the southward, east of the 
islands named above. 

CANAL’ GRANDE. The principal water 
street of Venice, having the form of an S reversed 
and a length of nearly a mile from the Dogana 
di Mare to the lagoon at the northwest of Venice. 
It is narrowest at the Rialto Bridge, — about 
130 feet, — but is nowhere more than 250 feet 
wide, except where it enlarges greatly at the 
point of connection with the Canale di S. Marco. 
The awkwardness of calling this the “Grand 
Canal” is apparent, for the Venetian term 


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CANDELABRUM 


of detail, and especially for the graceful, well- 
proportioned, and beautifully adorned court with 
a two-story arcade. The name is derived from 
the establishing within its walls, not long after 
their completion, of the papal vice-chancellor’s 
offices. 

CANCELLUS (pl. Cancelli). In Latin, 
usually in the plural, any barrier or screen 
formed with bars; particularly the bar between 
the court and spectators in a pagan basilica, and 
between the clergy, or clergy and choir, and the 
congregation in a Christian basilica, whence 
Chancel. The cancelli of antiquity might be 


‘eS 
Hh = 


CANDELABRUM: THREE WROUGHT-IRON CANDELABRA FOR CHURCH USE; 14TH AND 15TH CENTURIES. 


-merely means the wide channel or wide water 
way ; but no change in English nomenclature is 
likely to take place. 

CANAREGGIO (CANALE REGGIO, or 
Royal Channel). Much smaller than the three 
Venetian ‘‘canali” named in previous articles ; 
leading from the Canal’ Grande to the lagoon 
at the north of the city. 

CANCELLERIA. In Italian, a chancery, or 
the residence of a chancellor. 

Palazzo della Cancelleria. A private pal- 
ace in Rome, built between 1486 and 1495, and 
originally by an architect whose name has not 
been discovered. The court is probably from 
the design of Bramante, but the entrance gate- 
way was later, and has been ascribed to Domenico 
Fontana. The building is famous for its delicacy 

437 


of bronze, iron, stone, or wood. 
Screen ; Rood Screen.) 

CANDELABRUM. A. In Latin, a lamp- 
stand. Some of those known to us are very 
small and low; but those which are of interest 
architecturally are high and of considerable pre- 
tensions. Some of these are of bronze, and very 
slender ; but others are cut in marble or fine- 
grained stone, and are sometimes 5 or 6 feet high, 
and very massive. The forms of these last have 
entered somewhat into neoclassic decoration. 

B. A candlestick made decorative by wrought 
work in metal, enamel, or the like ; especially 
one having several sockets for candles, and of 
large size. (See Girandole.) 

CO. A modified column, small and decorated, 
and usually engaged. The typical form is that 

438 


(See Choir 


CANDELABRUM COLONETTE 


of a rapidly tapering shaft with a florid capital, 
the whole emerging from a cluster of leafage 
below. 

D. By still further extension, an upright 
piece of scroll work in painted decoration, mosaic, 
or the like. To receive this title, which is vague 
in its application, the scroll pattern should have 


CANDELABRUM OF MARBLE; BAPTISTERY, 
FLORENCE. 


a formal central rib nearly straight and nearly 
vertical, from which the scrolls are thrown off on 
either side. 

CANDELABRUM COLONETTE. 
as Candelabrum, C-. 

CANDID, PETER. (See Witte, Peter de.) 

CANDLE BEAM. A horizontal beam, plain 
or decorated, upon which are displayed the can- 

439 


Same 


CANO 


dles offered before a shrine or kept burning for 
any liturgical purpose. These are usually held 
by prickets, each of which has a saucer or tray 
to hold the drippings. (Compare Rood Beam 
for a secondary and ornamental use.) 

CANDLE POWER. The English unit of 
illuminating power. A lamp or light of any 
kind is of one candle power when it gives the 
same amount of light that is given by a sperm 
candle weighing six to the pound, and burning 
at the rate of 120 grains an hour. Standard 
illuminating gas, burning 5 feet an hour, gives a 
light of 16 candle power. The ordinary incan- 
descent electric lamp is of 16 candle power. The 
electric arc lamp is usually either about 1200 or 
2000 candle power. 

CANEPHORA ; CANEPHORE. Literally 
a basket carrier. The term is applied to figures 
of maidens bearing baskets of offerings and uten- 
sils in the sacred Athenian processions as repre- 
sented in Greek sculpture ; and thence a female 
figure with a basket-formed capital upon the 
head, used as a pillar; a Caryatid. 

CANINA, LUIGI; architect and archzolo- 
gist; b. Oct. 23, 1794 (at Casale in Piedmont) ; 
d. Oct. 17, 1856 (at Florence). 

About 1826 Canina was commissioned by the 
Prince Camillo Borghese to enlarge and restore 
the Villa Borghese (Rome), which was built for 
Paul V. (Pope 1605-1621). He directed the 
excavations undertaken by Leo XII. (Pope 
1823-1829), Pius VIII. (Pope 1829-1830), 
and Gregory XVI. (Pope 1831-1846) in the 
Roman Forum, the Appian Way, and the Cam- 
pagna. The results of his archeological investi- 
gations were published in numerous works, which 
are almost wholly discredited because of the large 
part which conjecture had in their preparation. 
The tendency of modern investigation has been 
to prove them erroneous in almost every re- 
spect. 

Raggi, Della Vitae delle Opere di Luigi Canina ; 


Folchi, Discorso in Encomio del Commendatore 
Luigi Canina. 


CANO, ALONZO; painter, architect, and 
sculptor ; b. March 19, 1601 (at Granada) ; d. 
Oct. 5, 1667. 

He learned the elements of architecture from 
his father, Miguel Cano, and studied sculpture 
with Juan Martinez Montanes. His family 
having moved to Seville, he received instruction 
in painting from Juan del Castillo of that city 
and Francesco Pacheco. In 1628 he continued 
the construction of the retable of Lebrija begun 
by his father. In 1637 he went to Madrid to 
decorate the palace of the Duke of Olivarez. In 
1650 he was employed on the cathedral of 
Toledo. Although Cano did not study in Italy, 
his work shows the influence of the Italian 
masters of the period. 

Bermudez, Diccionario Historico; Stirling- 
Maxwell, Annals of the Artists of Spain. 

440 


CANO 


CANO, MIGUEL. (See Cano, Alonzo.) 
CANOPY. A rooflike structure usually 
supported on pillars or projecting from a wall, 
and serving rather a decorative than a protective 
purpose. It may be movable, as when carried 
above an important person in a procession, and 
may consist of an awning of silk or other mate- 
rial supported on poles ; or it may be of light 
material and permanently placed, as above a 
bedside, whether supported by the posts or hung 
from the ceiling ; or it may be of solid material. 
In a Gothic niche, the canopy is the most im- 
portant part. (See Baldachino ; Ciborio.) 


CAP 


CANTHARUS. A. In Roman antiquity, 
a two-handled cup ; hence that part of a fountain 
which holds the water, or the upper basin only. 

BL. A basin or fountain of ablutions in the 
atrium of a medizeval or early Christian basilica. 

CANTILEVER. A member intended to 
support an overhanging weight, like a bracket ; 
but generally of large size and having a projec- 
tion much greater than its height ; especially, a 
projecting beam — one which is fixed in a wall 
or other support at one end, the other end being 
unsupported. Applied to a bridge or a beam, 
it means an end projecting beyond the support. 


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CANOVA, ANTONIO; sculptor; b. Nov. 
ee a7: d, Oct, 12,1822. 

Canova was born at Possagno near Treviso, 
Italy. His most important work in Rome is 
the monument of the Pope Clement XIII. in 
S. Peter. He designed also the monument to 
Clement XIV. in the church of the 8. Apostoli. 
In the last years of his life he erected a temple 
(the church of la Triniti) at Possagno, in which 
he endeavoured to combine the rotunda of the 
Pantheon with the facade of the Parthenon. 

Meyer, Canova, in Knackfuss, Kiinstler Mo- 
nographien ; Quatremére de Quincy, Canova et ses 
Ouvrages. 

CANT (n.). A. The angle or inclination of 
a piece or member to the general surface, es- 
pecially to the horizontal, hence, — 

. A portion or surface which makes an 
oblique angle with adjoining parts, especially a 
slope of considerable relative extent. (Com- 
pare Bevel.) 

CANTALIVER. (Same as Cantilever.) 

CANT BOARD. A board set at a slope, 
especially when so placed to shed water, as for 
a coping. 

CANTERBURY, MICHAEL DE. (See 
Michael de Canterbury.) 

441 


In the illustration, the girder forming canti- 
levers being symmetrical, half the entire load is 
carried by each pier, under columns 21 and 26 ; 
the weights of columns 33 and 23 balancing 
each other. When the girder projects at only 
one end, as at the north, the weight of column 
33 on the cantilever would produce a downward 
pressure on the pier at column 21; and an up- 
ward tendency at column 26. 

CANTING. A. Sloping or tipping, espe- 
cially from the horizontal. 

Bb. The cutting away of the corner of a rec- 
tangular beam or sill so as to form a bevelled or 
oblique plane intermediate between the original 
faces. (Compare Chamfer.) 

CANTONED. Provided or adorned at the 
exterior corners with projecting members such 
as pilasters, engaged columns, or quoins. 

CANTORIA. In Italian architecture, a 
tribune gallery or balcony for the singers in a 
church. 

CAP. The crowning or terminal feature 
of a vertical member of any structure, either 
fitting closely upon it or extending some- 
what beyond it in horizontal dimensions ; thus 
distinguished from a Finial. The capital of 
a column, pilaster, or pier, the surbase or 

442 


CAPARRA 


cornicelike finish of a pedestal, the cast-iron 
head of an iron or timber post, the crowning 
horizontal timber of a stud partition, a timber 
bolster on a post to diminish the unsupported 
span of the superstructure, are alike called 
caps, and the term is also used of a wall 
coping, door lintel, or handrail as of a bal- 
ustrade. (See Capital.) | 

CAPARRA (NICOLO GROSSO) ; iron 
worker. 

Caparra revived the art of working in wrought 
iron, which had fallen into disuse during the 
early Renaissance period. His most famous 
works are the iron lanterns and torch holders 
of the Palazzo Strozzi in Florence, which were 
placed in position Nov. 16, 1500. 

Miintz, Renaissance ; Ricordi di Architettura. 

CAPELLA. In Italian, a chapel. (See titles 
below.) 

CAPELLA COLLEONI. 
Chapel under Chapel.) 

CAPELLA DI GIOTTO. (See Arena Chapel, 
under Chapel.) 

CAPELLA MALATESTIANA. (See Tem- 
pio Malatestiano.) 

CAPELLA DIS.MARIA DELLA SPINA. 
(S. Maria of the Thorn.) Pisa; built on the 
quay or Lungo Arno and partly overhanging 
the water ; much injured by restoration. 

CAPELLA DEI PAZZI. At Florence, con- 
nected with the church of 8. Croce and built 


(See Colleoni 


by Brunellescho in 1425, and assumed to be | 


his earliest work in the classical taste of which 
he was the first exponent in modern times. 
The building itself is very small and its chief 
importance lies in its vestibule of entrance, or 
narthex. 7 


CAPELLA SISTINA. (See Sistine Chapel, 


under Chapel.) 

CAPITAL. The topmost member of a col- 
umn, if separated from the rest of the column by 
distinct architectural treat- 
ment. By extension, also, 
the uppermost member of an 
Anta, Pilaster, or Respond 
when treated as a separate 
architectural feature and to 
correspond with the capitals 
of columns, though not neces- 
sarily precisely similar in de- 
sign. The earliest columnar 
architecture which we know, 
that of Egypt under the Old 
Empire, has capitals which 
do not expand at the top; 
and which have no construc- 
tional reason whatever, but are wholly decorative 
in character. Those of Grecian Doric of the 
sixth century B.c. are widely spreading; but 
their spread serves no practical purpose except 
in the direction of the axis of the epistyle, 
and here, very little. The design in the one 

443 


CAPITAL: Lotus 
Bup CAPITAL 
FROM TEMPLE 
AT Luxor. 


case is that of a budlike termination of the ae 


column, swelling out rapidly below and falling 
in again less rapidly, | 

so that the top is 
even smaller than the 
necking or top of the 
shaft. (See Egypt, 
Architecture of.) In 
the other case, the 
design was of a very 
decided projecting 
mass, pleasantly 
rounded in every di- 
rection, but still cut- 
ting boldly the up- 
ward lines of the 
shaft. The difference 
is radical, but it is a 
purely artistic differ- 
ence. In Japanese post and beam construction, 
even on the largest scale, there is nothing that 
can be called a capital, but the upright post 
supports the lintel without intermediary mem- 
ber, or it has a metal 
socket into which it 
fits, or it terminates 
at top in a series of 
brackets. In the ear- 
liest stone building of 


CAPITAL: PAPYRUS CAPI- 
TAL FROM RAMESSEUM, 
THEBES. 


know as Buddhist ar- 
chitecture, the columns 
are hardly separated 
in treatment from the 
clustered shafts, verti- 
cal mouldings, and 
rounded piers which make up the great mass of 
the pagoda or cave temple. The capitals of 
isolated columns are, therefore, rather of the 
nature of mouldings, and enrich whole bands or 
string courses which have 
been carried around those 
separate vertical members in 
partial imitation of the bands 
which adorn the walls. It 
seems doubtful whether As- 
syrian architecture or that 
of the Mesopotamian plain 
at any period in antiquity 
was columnar in its char- 
acter, but the architecture 
of the earlier Persian em- 
pire contains columns whose 
heads are decorated with 
sculptured beasts, not in re- 
lief, but in bold separate 
projection — heads of lions, 
heads and fore legs of horses, 
and the like. These double 
capitals, as they are often 
called, serve the purpose merely of carrying be- 
tween these two projections the longitudinal 
444 


CAPITAL FROM THE TEM- 
PLE OF KARNAK. 


CAPITAL: HATHOR 
CAPITAL AT DEN- 
DERAH, UPPER 
EGYPT. 


CAPITAL as 3 


India, that which we 


Bi 


\P 


Re ate rt eS ee 


ae 


” 


CAPITAL 


girder which carries a roof, and the capital is 
again a purely ornamental feature used to dec- 
orate that important point of the columnar 
structure where the vertical passes into the hori- 
zontal. It has been urged that the Ionic capital 


CAPITAL FROM BEToursA, SYRIA. 


took its origin in a short longitudinal piece 
forming two corbels, and intended to diminish 
the unsupported reach of a lintel, girder, or 
beam between two posts. That is to say, the 
theory is that the Ionic column is the develop- 
ment in stone, and in highly specialized archi- 
tectural form, of a short 
transverse piece of wood 
put at the head of a 
wooden post in order to 
help that post carry the 
girder which rests upon it. 
Recent discoveries of early 
capitals adorned with vo- 
lutes, those which are 
called now proto- Ionic, 
have made this theory im- 
possible, and it is clear 
that the Ionic capital also 
is of purely decorative 
character. It is curious 
that the general form and 
the general system of 
adornment which rises be- 
fore the modern mind 
when the word “capital” 


aT poetry T nC Ra te hc ee 


| Saad ee se 
i 4 ‘' j 


CAPITAL 


Roman sources. Throughout the Middle Ages 


the capital was more or less a reminiscence of 
the Corinthian form. The capitals of Byzantine 
architecture are closely studied from it, even 
although their general curves may have been 
The capitals of the 


convex instead of concave. 


CAPITALS FROM HOUSES NEAR SERDJILLA, SYRIA; 
c. 400 A.D. 


Romanesque and Gothic styles in like manner 
were, except in a few isolated cases, — such as 
the moulded ‘ Karly English” capital, — similar 
modifications of the foliated bell. In this con- 
nection, too, the capital was found to be capable 
of doing what it has been rashly stated that 
capitals were originally intended for, namely, to 


is mentioned, first take 


shape in what is known as 


the Corinthian capital, an 
invention of the latest days 
of unmodified Grecian de- 
sign. Ever since this first 
calling into being of the capital, consisting of 
the smoothly rounded bell upon the surface 
of which is applied elaborate foliated ornament 
in high relief, that type has been the one resorted 
to by all styles of architecture which have not 
drawn their inspiration directly from Greco- 
445 


GOUZA, SYRIA. 


THUS AFFORDING A LARGE BEARING FOR THE LINTELS. 


CAPITAL WITH GREAT PROJECTION IN THE PLANE OF THE WALL ABOVE, 


From Ba- 


gather upon the top of the shaft the super- 

incumbent load when much larger in horizontal 

diameter. Thus, in many Gothic churches, a 

pier of about three feet in diagonal dimension 

will be found resting upon the abacus of a 

capital, which in its turn rests upon a shaft not 
446 


CAPITAL FROM ToMB IN NORTH SIDE OF CHOIR, CATHEDRAL OF ROUEN. 


NOIDA 
Zs 


f il 


i 


CAPITAL: IONIC CORNER CAPITAL FROM ERECHTHEUM. CAPITAL: CORNER CAPITAL FROM TEM- 


PLE OF ATHENA NIKE; CLOSE OF 5TH 
CENTURY, B.C. 


447 448 


1 aie ee ee Bat oe ig 


CAPITAL 


more than a foot in diameter; the bell of the 
capital being carefully and successfully designed 
to carry, by 
means of its 
spreading form, 
the heavy mass 
above by visible 
and natural gra- 
dations of the 
slender upright 
of stone which 
really supports 
it. Even in these 
capitals, how- 
ever, the abacus 
projects some- 
what beyond 
the vertical faces 
of the superin- 
cumbent load ; 
these slight pro- 
jections having 
been always con- 


x architectural de- 
a signer an essen- 
> * tial part of the 
— capital of col- 
. Ee umn or pilaster. 
at Since the time 
2 Caprran: SHAFT FROM NortH of the Greeks 
% TRANSEPT, WINCHESTER CA- g]] eolumnar ar- 
oa THEDRAL. 

Z ‘ : chitecture has 
is made much of its capitals, and these have been 
8 important elements of the general design. (Cuts, 
Hi) cols. 450; 451.) 


Double Capital. A. One furnished with a 
Dosseret, A. 
B. One as described in the account of Persian 


columns in the article above. 


CaPpiTat: S. Nicouas, Buois; c. 1200. 


Upper Capital. (Same as Dosseret, A.) 
CAPITAL OF A TRIGLYPH. (See Tenia.) 
449 


sidered by the. 


CAPITOL 


CAPITOL (Capitolium). A. In Roman 
archeology, the Temple of Jupiter upon the 


, CAPITAL: SOISSONS CATHEDRAL; C. 1212. 


hill at the northwestern end of the Roman 
forum, which was called from it the Capitoline 
Hill. Hence, the hill itself; this hill had two 
peaks which are still noticeable, having between 
them the modern square called the Campidoglio, 


CAPITAL: NORMAN 
CUSHION CAPI- 
TAL; CASSINGTON, 
OXFORDSHIRE. 


CAPITAL: NORMAN; 
STEETLEY, DER- 
BYSHIRE. 


which was formerly the asylum proper; it is 
now generally thought that the southwestern 
peak was the site of the temple and the north- 
western peak the site of the citadel, or Arx. 
The name capitolium was extended to the en- 


CAPITAL: EARLY CAPITAL: EARLY 
ENGLISH; HAMP- ENGLISH, HASE- 
TON PoyLk, Oxon. LEY, Oxon. 


tire hill, and this hill was itself surrounded by 
a wall in very ancient times, and was a fortress 
450 


a ob Wied See lee i ~~ Ls " ‘ » ¥ 


CAPITOL 


within the greater fortress of Rome, and enclos- 
ing the earlier and smaller fortress of the Arx. 
Throughout antiquity, the hill was conveniently 


~ accessible only from the side of the forum, and 


SSF 
O-gEwitT. a 


CAPITAL: HARRINGTON, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE ; 
c. 1300. 


CAPITAL: CHAPTER HousE, SOUTHWELL. 


this by the steep street up which passed the 

triumphal procession of a victorious general. 

In modern times, a flight of one hundred and 

twenty-four steps leads to the church of Ara 

Coeli which stands on the site of the Arx; a 
451 


CAPITOL 
sloping ramp with steps at intervals leads up 
to the Campidoglio, and, from this, access is 
easy to the capitolium proper, or site of the 
Temple of Jupiter, which has been occupied 
by private buildings. 

B. In modern times, and especially in the 
United States, a building in which meets a legis- 
lature ; as the legislature of the United States 
or of one of them. The Capitol at Washington 
was built in 1827, and consisted of a centre and 
two wings with three low domes, the Senate 


occupying the northernmost, and the House of 


Representatives the southernmost wing. Be- 
tween 1851 and 1865 the building was greatly 
enlarged by the addition of new wings, into 
which moved the two Houses of Congress ; anda 
lofty dome composed chiefly of cast and wrought 
iron was built at the same time, reaching a 
height of two hundred and ninety feet. The 
Capitol was built with its principal facade to 
the east, and it was thought that the city would 
grow up on that side, leaving the White House 
at some distance in the country ; but the growth 
of the city has been generally to the west of 
the Capitol. 

The building is not as elaborate as the West- 
minster Palace, having fewer committee rooms, 
lunch rooms, libraries, and the like; and the 


Library of Congress, which is large, occupies a 


separate building since 1897. It is divided 
into three main blocks, that of the Senate 
toward the north and that of the House of 
Representatives toward the south, being the 
wings added before 1865, while the central 
block contains the Rotunda, the Supreme Court 
room, which occupies the old Senate Chamber, 
and the Statuary Hall, which occupies the old 
House of Representatives. The present Hall 
of Representatives is 140 feet long and 93 feet 
wide, but only 30 feet high, its glass roof pre- 
venting, to a certain extent, the appearance of 
insufficient height. This ceiling affords light to 
the whole floor and the galleries. The galleries 
do not project over the floor of the House, but 
are supported in front on walls, beyond which, 
and beneath the galleries, are committee rooms 
and the like. These galleries are open to vis- 
itors and will hold 2500 persons at one time. 
The floor of the House affords room for desks 
and arm chairs for all of its members, 356 in 
number, and it is customary for them all to be 
in place, except for the accidents of illness or 
absence. The Senate Chamber is similar to the 
Hall of Representatives in all respects, but 
smaller. The desks and chairs, committee- 
rooms, galleries, and glass roof are all repeated. 
There is nowhere in the interior of the Capitol 
any great delicacy or refinement of design, and 
heavy expense for artistic decorations has been 
avoided, except for the wall paintings in the 
Rotunda, which are generally unimportant as 
works of art. 
452 


Se he 


a ee ee 
7 ~ . = “ 
. s 


-Caprino.) 


~~ sl ip PS = hie _- oa _— wi 7 1 
av) 5 i ae lms »= J ir “4G - | 
b ah } . te a 7 h A 

; ¥ 4 “Sy ties <5 ee - i =) oN. d af : 

. a . 7 4% 4 a e = rm J ' 
. te 9 Hs = ww < 4 ke =e 
; ‘ ‘ = y . te’ 
> j sae Sy bs? = rk = .Y qd eee, eg 
a i" ‘ i Pee 5 a hal Vso 


6 


CAPITOLE 


ss GAPITOLE. In the south of France, a 
pbuilding supposed to represent the Capitol of 


Rome, or of a province; it being assumed that 
the principal building of any Roman colony 
would have that name. The best known -of 


_ these buildings is the one at Toulouse (Haute 


Garonne) ; it is the palace of the municipality, 
or Hotel de Ville. The exterior was built in 
the middle of the eighteenth century. 

CAP PIECE. Same as Cap in its general 
signification of a part of a frame, a wall, or the 
like. 

CAPRINO, MEO DEL. (See Meo Del 

CAR. The platform or enclosed chamber of 
an elevator or lift. | 

CARACCI, AGOSTINO; b. Aug. 16, 1557 ; 
d. March 22, 1602. 

CARACCI, ANNIBALE; b. Nov.-2, 1560; 
d. July 15, 1609. 

CARACCI, LUDOVICO; b. 1555; d. 
1610. 

These three painters, of whom Ludovico was 
the oldest and the uncle of the other two, were 
of very great celebrity in the seventeenth cen- 
tury and down to the middle of the eighteenth ; 
their more important works, especially those of 
Annibale, being still cited in old-fashioned books 


of instruction and reference as ranking with the 


first paintings in the world. Modern opinion 
has turned in a very different direction, and, 
while admitting the immense abilities of these 
painters, is inclined to rank them much lower 


- in the scale of good taste and true artistic 


power. ‘They did some mural and decorative 
work, especially in Rome. 

Bolognini, Vite dei Pittori ed Artifict Bolo- 
gnesi; and in the General Bibliography, Bryan ; 
Scribner ; Seubert. 

CARADOSSO. (See Foppa, Ambrogio.) 

CARAVANSERAI. In Turkey and Persia 
a building for the lodging of travellers and usu- 
ally erected by a monarch or wealthy benefactor 
as a work of public beneficence, upon a fre- 
quented caravan route. Those of Persia are 
the finest, usually enclosed by a solid wall, 
entered by an imposing gateway, and provided 
with a great number of vaulted lodging cham- 
bers in one or two stories, with a fountain of 
ablutions, latrines, a prayer platform and sta- 
bling for camels and horses. (See Khan.) 

CARBONEL, ALONZO; sculptor and ar- 
chitect ; d. September, 1660. 

He designed the altar and pavement of the 
church of the monastery of the Escorial. At 
the death of Juan Gomez de Mora, Carbonel 
was made chief master of all the royal works. 

Bermudez, Diccionario Historico; Carl Justi, 
Diego Velasquez. 

CARCASE; CARCASS. A building, or 
any part or element of a building, finished as to 
its main construction. This term is evidently 

453 


CARISTIE 


of loose application ; thus, the carcass of a house 
might be either the framing and floor timbers 
without siding, flooring, or roofing, or the build- 
ing with those additions, but without inside trim, 
window sash, ete. 

CARCASS FLOORING. The naked fram- 
ing of a floor, comprising all the supporting 
timbers, but without either ceiling or floor 
boards. (English usage.) 

CARCASS ROOFING. The naked frame- 
work of a roof, without its sheathing or roof 
covering. (English usage.) 

CARCER. A. In Latin, a prison; hence 
in modern European languages any room or 
building answering the purpose of a prison. 
Often used jocosely, as by the students of the 
German universities. 

B. (In the original Latin meaning, an en- 
closed or confined space.) One of the chambers 
at the starting place of a Roman circus. Each 
one seems to have been reserved for a single 
chariot and its horses, and it was from these 
carceres that the chariots all started together 
at the signal. (See Circus.) 

CARDI, LUIGI (CIGOLI) ; architect, 
painter, poet, musician, anatomist; b. 1559; 
d. 1613. 

Cardi was born at the village of Cigoli, near 
Florence, and was a pupil of Buontalenti (see 
Buontalenti) in architecture. He built the 
Loggia de’ Tornaquinci, the portal of the con- 
vent of S. Felicita, and the Palazzo Renuccini 
in Florence. In Rome he began the palazzo in 
the Piazza Madama (now dei Senatori), which 
was finished by Marucelli. 

Gurlitt, Geschichte des Barockstiles in Italien; 
Milizia, Memorie. 

CARILLON. A chime of bells. The French 
term signifying a number of bells grouped to- 
gether, and so differing in size and tone as to be 
capable of producing musical combinations of 
sound. In English, as in French, the term is 
extended to mean the sound itself, especially 
when a large number of bells is employed. 
The most remarkable carillons are those in. 
Belgium and the Netherlands. It is stated 
that a church in Delft had once a thousand 
bells, but the chimes now existing have a much 
less number. Several of those in Belgium are 
of more than 150 bells, the smallest of which is 
scarcely larger than the dinner bell of a country 
tavern. Ordinarily the hammers of the bells are 
moved by means of wires attached to a piece of 
machinery with a revolving drum. The min- 
gling of sound is not very artistically planned, 
and is rather a pleasant jangle of separately 
agreeable notes than a concerted piece of music. 
In some of the towns of Belgium the carillon is 
rung every quarter of an hour. 

CARISTIB, AUGUSTIN NICOLAS ; ar- 
chitect and archeologist ; b. Dec. 6, 1783; d. 
Dec. 5, 1862. 

454 


CARISTIE 


The earliest-known Caristie was Michel Ange, 
an Italian, who built the college of the Jesuits 
at Autun (France) in 1709, and rebuilt the 
church of the Celestins at Amiens (1726-1732). 
The father of Augustin Nicolas was an architect 
in Dijon at the end of the 18th century. A. N. 
Caristie went from Lyons to Paris to study with 
A. L. T. Vaudoyer (see Vaudoyer, A. L. T.) and 
Ch. Percier (see Percier), and won the Grand 
Priz« de Rome in 1813. In 1824 he was com- 
missioned by the minister of the interior to 
examine the condition of the Roman triumphal 
arch at Orange, and to report concerning the 
means required to restore and preserve it. He 
investigated also the Roman theatre at Orange. 
Caristie published his results in two works, 
Notice sur ? Etat Actuel de Arc Wd Orange 
et des Thédtres Antiques V@ Orange et d’ Arles, 
etc. (4to., Paris, 1839), and Monuments An- 
tiques Q Orange: Arc de Triomphe et Thé- 
dtre (large folio, Paris, 1856). He completed 
the restoration of the arch in 1829, and ex- 
hibited his drawings in the Salon of 1831. In 
1824 he was charged with the design and con- 
struction of the Mausoleum to the victims of 
Quiberon, and in 1827 appointed architect of 
the presbytery of the Madeleine (Paris). In 1842 
he undertook the restoration of the chateau of 
Anet, especially the great portal and chapel. 

César Daly, Notice nécrologique in Revue Gé- 
nérale; Ch. Lucas, A. N. Caristie in La Grande 
Encyclopédie ; Baltard, Notice sur Caristie. 

CARISTIE, MICHEL ANGE. (See Ca- 
ristie, Augustin Nicholas.) 

CARL. (A German form of the name Carolus; 
in English, Charles.) For words beginning with 
this proper name, such as Carlsbriicke, see Karl. 

CARNEL. Same as Crenelle, in the sense of 
an embrasure of a battlement. 

CARPACCIO, VITTORE; b. in the middle 
of the fifteenth century: d. after 1522. 

A painter whose principal pictures are in the 
academy of Venice, but who has left in the little 
chapel of S. Giorgio dei Schiavoni a series of 
small wall paintings of very original and unusual 
character. These have been praised in the most 
enthusiastic way by some English critics. The 
large paintings illustrating the life of S. Ursula 
have been moved from the suppressed scuola 
named from that saint. It is to be noted that 
the wall pictures of the Venetian school were 
commonly painted upon canvas, and easy of 
removal; that school, with all its magnificent 
achievement, having failed to discriminate as 
closely as the Florentines or as Correggio be- 
tween the mural painting proper and the large 
removable painting in a frame. 

(See, in General Bibliography, Bryan; Seu- 
bert.) 

CARPEAUX, JEAN BAPTISTE; sculp- 
tor; b. May 11, 1827 (at Valenciennes, Nord, 
France) ; d. Oct. 12, 1875. 

455 


CARRIAGE 

Carpeaux was the son of a poor mason of 
Valenciennes (Nord, France), and studied first at 
the academy of that town. Oct. 2, 1844, he 
entered the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris. 
He was a pupil of Duret, but was influenced 
much more by Francois Rude (see Rude) and 
David d’Angers (see David d’Angers). In 1854 
he won the Grand Prix de Rome with his fine 
statue of Hector and Astyanax. Carpeaux exe- 
cuted the sculptural decoration of the Pavillon 
de Flore at the Tuileries (Paris). His famous 
group of La Danse on the facade of the Grand 
Opera house (Paris) was placed in position in 
1869. The Fontaine de l Observatoire in the 
Luxembourg garden was exhibited in plaster at 
the Salon of 1872 and finished in bronze in 
1874. The animals are by Frémiet. 

E. Chesneau, Le Statuaire J. B. Carpeaux ; 
Paul Mantz, Carpeaux in Gaz. d. Beaux Arts, 
1876; Jules Claretie, Peintres et Sculpteurs Con- 
temporains, first series. 

CARPENTER. A workman in wood ; espe- 
cially one who does the larger and rougher work, 
as of building construction, and as distinguished 
from a joiner and cabinetmaker. 

CARPENTER, JOHN;; bishop; b. 1476. 

In the reign of Henry VI., John Carpenter, 
Bishop of Worcester, formerly president of Oriel 
College, was interested in the construction of 
S. Mary’s church, Oxford, and was a principal 
benefactor of that work. 

Pugin, Specimens of Gothic Architecture, Vol. 
Ih oe 

CARPENTRY. The work of a carpenter. 
Also, the result of such work ; building in wood, 
or woodwork in general. Carpentry is some- 
times distinguished from Framing as referring 
rather to the smaller members of a building, as 
window frames, stairs, if not highly finished, 
flooring, and the like; it is distinguished from 
joinery and cabinetmaking as being rougher 
and dealing rather with the essential parts of a 
structure than the more decorative parts, with- 
out which the building might still exist. 

CARPION (KARPION). (See Ictinus.) 

CARR, JOHN; architect: b. May 15, 1723; 
d. Feb. 22, 1807. 

Carr began as a mason, settled in York 
(England), and gradually acquired considerable 
reputation as an architect. He built the court- 
house at York and a large number of fine 
residences in the neighbourhood of that city. 
He was twice lord mayor of York (1770 and 
1785). 

CARREFOUR. An open place from which 
a number of streets or avenues radiate. The 
proper signification of the French term is the 
place at the meeting of any streets, but in its 
English use the idea of the large open space is 
always retained. 

CARRIAGE. A. An inclined beam or 
stringpiece for supporting a stair. 

456 


according to circumstances. 


«CARRIAGE HOUSE 
_ B. Inalumber mill, the movable framework 
which carries the log or plank and feeds it to 


the saw or plane. 
CARRIAGE HOUSE. A building, or a 


_ part of one, for the shelter of wheeled vehicles 


when not in use; especially those of some 
elegance. Such a place is the almost universal 


accompaniment of a stable, and is usually 


arranged under the same roof with the stable 
proper. Sometimes, on a hillside, the carriage 
house is above and the stable on a lower level. 


Where space is not limited, or where great ex- . 


pense and display are proposed, carriage houses 
are sometimes separate buildings. The harness 
room is generally attached to it, as is a place 
for the washing of carriages and the like. (See 
Stable.) 

CARRIAGE PORCH. A deep and broad 


_ porch into or through which a carriage may be 


driven, permitting its occupants to dismount 
under cover. Before public buildings in cities 
they are commonly constructed of iron and 
glass ; in the country they are of wood or stone 
Often miscalled 
in the United States Porte-cochére. (See 
Marquise.) — A. D. F. H. 

CARRY UP. To build up vertically, as a 
wall, and distinguished from extending such 
a wall or other structure horizontally. Thus a 
building law may limit the height to which 


side walls may be carried up in advance of and. 


independently of the front wall; and a contract 


2 _ may specify that the whole wall shall be car- 
ried up of a uniform thickness. — A. D. F. H. 


CARTER, JOHN; architectural draughts- 
man; b. June 22, 1748 (in Ireland); d. Sept. 
Biol 7. 

Carter illustrated Richard Gough’s Sepul- 
chral Monuments and History of Croyland 
Abbey and published Specimens of Ancient 
Sculpture and Painting now remaining in 
England (2 vols., folio, 1780, etc.). 

Redgrave, Dictionary of Artists; Avery Archi- 
tectural Library Catalogue. 

CARTON PIERRE. A solid material for 
building purposes, wall decoration, and the 
like; a variety of papier-maché especially 
intended to imitate stone carving. 

CARTOON. A drawing or transfer of a 
drawing upon a large sheet or sheets of paper ; 
especially in Fresco Painting, Fresco Secco, Mu- 
ral-Painting of other kinds, in Mosaic and in 
ornamental glass work (see Window), the out- 
line in full size more or less filled in with the 
details of drapery or the like, which is used in 
the actual preparation of the final painting, 
mosaic, etc., either by exact copying or by 
tracing or pouncing. 

CARTOUCHE. A. An ornament which, 
like an escutcheon, a shield, or an oval or ob- 
long panel, has the central part plain to receive 
armorial bearings, a cipher, an inscription, or 

457 


y ba Tape ms Fi i pie. Jakes Ae ee | a = hae -— 


CARYATID 


an ornamental or significant piece of painting 
or sculpture. Frequent in French Renaissance 
and modern architecture. The term in French 
denotes such compartments of any shape and 
filled with any decoration, and is nearly equiva- 
lent to Medallion, used in an architectural sense. 
In English the late neoclassic device of a slightly 
convex surface, circular or oval in form, is most 
commonly referred to as a cartouche. 


D PS 
‘iA : te PAs) ya 
}» ie NY PEGS, SM 2 
\ RR \ SS C3) G) BS ea ae 
1" dy Se Pesca wee > H 
( a AY ei 
| Ne fs ay, 
ag TNS aa 
Yo” yest 
N DAW! nba oo SG Me 
j S\ / Arak Sn, Za 
i . 


CARTOUCHE: CARVING IN Woop; CHATEAU D’ANET. 


B. An oblong figure with rounded ends, 
enclosing the hieroglyphics of a royal or divine 
name, on Egyptian monuments. 

CARVING. A. Cutting in wood, stone, or 
other resistant material requiring the use of 
a sharp tool; especially, ornamental cutting, 
whether in relief or in intaglio. The distinc- 
tion between carving and sculpture is wholly 
that of importance and dignity ; thus, the fig- 
ure subjects in Gothic work are hardly ever 
spoken of as carving, whereas the leaf orna- 
ments in bands and cornices are often so desig- 
nated. (See, for the treatment of the whole 
subject, Sculpture. ) 

B. A work or piece of sculpture as described 
in A.—R. 8. (Cut, cols. 459, 460.) 

CARYATIC (adj.). Of, or pertaining to, or 
resembling, Caryatides. A caryatic order is a 
caryatid with the entablature it supports. 

CARYATID (pl. Caryatids or Caryatides). 
A sculptured female figure used as a support- 
ing member, in place of a column, or the like. 
Vitruvius (I. 1) speaks of them as somewhat 
common, ‘‘ those draped matronal figures crowned 
with a mutulus and cornice” (Gwilt’s transla- 
tion), but only a very few instances are knowr 

458 


af » 
oat 
sy he wis 


CARYATID CASA GRANDE 
to us in antique work. Much the most impor- | ures discharging the same office, see Atlas 1 
tant instance is that of the porch called Pan- | Telamon ; see also Persian Order, under Order.) 
drosium, forming part of the Erechtheum at CASA. In Italian architecture, a house, or 
Athens. The caryatids here are free; that is to | in modern usage, a building of almost any sort, 


eae 
oS As ‘ye 


CARVING: PANEL FROM THE CLUNY MUSEUM. 


say, they take the place of columns ; others are | even applied to a large, new business building 
backed up by pilaster-like piers, such as the one | of many stories. In Venetia, corresponding very 
in the British Museum, which was found near the | nearly with palazzo as used elsewhere in Italy, 
Appian Way in the last century, its original | as applied to large private houses. (See Ca’.) 


CARYATID PORCH (SO-CALLED), SouTH SIDE oF ERECHTHEUM, ATHENS. 


position not being known. The Incantada at CASA GRANDE. An ancient ruin in Ari- 
Thessalonica had caryatids in its attic; some | zona, near Florence. It is the only one remain- 
of these are now in the Louvre. (For male fig- | ing of numerous like structures, now shapeless 


459 460 


me five acres. 
 Chichilticalli of Coronado’s expedition of 1540, 


- CASA GRANDE 
iA stood in an area of about sixty- 
It was long believed to be the 


but latterly this opinion has been completely 


abandoned. The first recorded visit was made 
by Father Kino (Kuehne) in 1694, and it was 
then a ruin.. 


The earliest description is by 
Captain Mange, who accompanied Father Kino 
on a second visit in 1697. He states that the 
central part was of four stories, and the remainder 
of three ; and also mentions twelve other build- 


ings, half destroyed, the roofs having been 
burned. Three stories only are now determin- 


able at the highest central portion. That it is 
the work of American Indians of the Pueblo 
type is certain. By Bandelier it has been as- 
eribed to the stock from which the present 
Pimas are descended. 

The Casa Grande was a communal dwelling. 
The dimensions on the ground are about 43 by 


42§c 


59 fh 
—_—t+- *« 


kes GRANDE: Guan are AND SKETCH OF 
WALLS. 


_ 59 feet. Pieticions 3 or 4 feet thick separate 

the interior into five divisions, one at each end 
running transversely and wholly across the edi- 
fice, and three occupying the middle, parallel 
with each other and with the length of the 
building. The end divisions are about 10 by 
- 35 feet, and the middle ones about 94 by 25 feet 
each. Doors connected the rooms on each floor, 
and there were other apertures. The tops of 
the walls are still approximately level, and the 
outer ones are 31 to 44 feet thick at the bottom ; 
while at the top all are about 2 feet thick, the 
reduction having been accomplished by interior 
setbacks at floor levels and by exterior batter. 
The outside is rough, but the inner wall surfaces 
are generally quite smooth. Floor joists were 
3 or 4 inches in diameter, as shown by the im- 
pressions left in the walls, where also are im- 
pressions of smaller poles and reeds. The walls 
are formed of large blocks of adobe clay almost 
as hard as sandstone while dry, and therefore 
exceedingly durable in the arid region where 
they stand. (See Cajon.) Modern vandalism 
has done more to destroy Casa Grande than 
time, but the United States government has re- 
paired it and made a reservation there. It is 
possible that there may have been a story of 
jacal construction. Floors, roofs, and other finish 
were essentially the same, as far as can be deter- 
mined, as the ordinary Pueblo style, the manner 
of constructing the walls being the chief differ- 

461 


CASE 
ence between this and many Indian houses now 
occupied. (See Communal Dwelling; Jac:l ; 
Pisé.) 

Bandelier, Report, Part II.; Bureau Eth. “Row. $4 


13 and 15; Fewkes, Journal of Am. Eth., Vol. II. 
ena 6. p: 


CASAS GRANDES. An ancient ruin in 
Chihuahua, Mexico, near the modern village of 
the same name. It comprises the best preserved, 
and probably largest, of a number of groups lying 
in the wild country round about. Numerous 
houses were of one or two stories, but others 
were as high as five stories. Many walls are 
still standing which vary in thickness from 16 
inches to 4 feet, and in places reach a height of 
35 feet. The construction is similar to that of 
Casa Grande and other ruins of the Gila Valley 
in Arizona, — that is, rammed adobe clay. The 
rooms are larger than are found in ruins in the 
north of Arizona and New Mexico. Doorways 
were large, and the apertures that were probably 
windows were sometimes round or oval, some- 
times rectangular. lLintels were of wood about 
6 inches thick. Upper floors and the roofs were 
of beams 5 to 7 inches in diameter, covered with 
poles and earth in a manner similar to all Pueblo 
roof architecture. Narrow streets separated the 
various groups of buildings. Some houses may 
have been set aside—as in the towns farther 
south — as religious structures or for other uses, 
but the majority were doubtless communal dwell- 
ings. The builders and occupants were Indians 
of the Pueblo type, probably closely allied to 
those who erected the buildings of the Gila 
Valley, though apparently somewhat farther 
advanced in culture. Bandelier estimates the 
former population of Casas Grandes at about 
4000. — F. 8. DELLENBAUGH. 

CASCADE. In the architectural sense, an 
artificial waterfall so arranged as to form part 
of an architectural or decorative composition. 
The most important example is that in the 
garden of the Royal Palace, at Caserta, near 
Naples. (See Chateau d’Hau.) 

CASCALLES, JAIME; architect and sculp- 
tor. 

Cascalles made, about 1366, in the chapel of 
S. Benito, at the monastery of Polbet (Ciudad 
Real, Spain), the monuments of the children of 
Don Pedro IV., King of Aragon. Some inter- 
esting fragments remain. 

Vifiaza, Adiciones al Diccionario Historico. 

CASE. A. A box, enclosure, or hollow re- 
ceptacle, as the space in which a stairway is 
built: a staircase. 

B. Same as Casing. 

C.. The carcass or structural framework of a 
house or other building. (Rare in United 
States.) 

Door Case. <A frame consisting of jamb 
pieces and lintel or head framed or nailed to- 
gether, to one side of which the door is hung, 

462 


a eee 


CASE-BAY 


and in which it closes; that face of the frame 
or case having a rebate so that the door when 
closed into the rebate shall be flush with the 
wall, or in a plane parallel with the face of the 
wall. In thin walls and partitions the case is 
as thick as the partition, and finished with a 
trim on either side the latter. In thick walls 
the case finishes with a trim on one side, and a 
bead or moulding against the masonry or plas- 
tered jam on the other. 

CASE-BAY. Any one division of a roof 
or floor comprising two principals (rafters or 
girders), and the purlins or joists between 
them, except that next the end wall or gable, 
called the tail-bay, in which one end of the pur- 
lins or joists is carried by the wall. (See Bay.) 

CASEIN PAINTING; CASEHINE 
PAINTING. Painting with the use of casein, 
one of the constituents of milk, which combines 
chemically with quicklime. This combination 
can be diluted with water, and, when dry, is 
very hard and insoluble. It follows, then, 
that this medium can be employed on freshly 
plastered walls. It can also be used on dry 
plaster. Casein is prepared from cheese by 
trituration, but even fresh white cheese may 
be used instead of pure casein without further 
treatment. To prepare the pigments, first stir 
up three parts of cheese and one of fat slaked 
lime. The quantity of colour to be added must 
be learned by experience. Earth colours and 
metallic oxides should be used, and for white, 
oxide of zinc or sulphite of baryta, or whiting. 
The medium must be freshly prepared every 
day, and this is probably the reason why the use 
of it is infrequent. Even the small amount of 
casein to be found in milk unmixed with quick- 
lime makes it an excellent medium, more or less 
insoluble. The Italians use it as a medium 
both on fresh and dry plaster, preferably on the 
former. (See Tempera.) 

—FREDERIC CROWNINSHIELD. 

CASEMATE. A. In fortification, a vaulted 
and supposed bombproof chamber, intended to 
contain a gun, and having therefor an em- 
brasure in the outer wall. The seacoast 
“castles” built between 1800 and 1865 were 
planned with as many as three stories of case- 
mates, and with a barbette platform on the 
summit. Modern fortification tends to abandon 
the use of this. 

B. Same as Casement, C; 
term. 

CASEMENT. A. A window having hinged 
or pivoted sash, opening either outward or 
inward. In North Germany many such 
windows open outward, and this is preferred, 
except where it is desired to put up secondary or 
outer fixed sash (forming “ double windows ”) in 
winter. English country houses were commonly 
fitted with light iron sash in very small case- 
ments. These also opened outward, and were 

463 


an erroneous 


CASINO | 
held by long hooks or some other form of sash- 
holder. This fashion has been revived of late. 
(See French Casement below.) 

B. One leaf or swinging frame forming part 
of such a window, and thus in British usage dis- 
tinguished from a sash. In the United States, 
usually called casement sash. 

CO. In medieval architecture, a deep, hollow 
moulding similar to the scotia of classic archi- 
tecture. 

French Casement. A casement having two 
meeting hinged leaves opening inward, secured 
usually when closed by an Espagnolette. This 
is almost the only form of window used in 
France, and is common throughout Europe. 
The difficulty of making such casements tight 
against driving storms is overcome in France by 
careful workmanship. The meeting rails form 
a large semicircular tongue and groove, forced 
tightly one into the other by closing. The sill 
joint is protected either by a drip moulding on 
the bottom rails overhanging the edge of the 
wooden stool, or by a hinged brass drip, which, 
on closing the window, folds down over the 
stool. In the United States French casements 
are chiefly used to give access to balconies or 
verandas. (Called often French Window.) 

CASERNE. A barrack for troops —a build- 
ing for the lodging of soldiers. The French 
term, rare in English; it is used, however, 
for those buildings of great architectural preten- 
sions which are not uncommon in the cities of 
the Continent. Of these one of the most noted 
is that facing the Champs de Mars, in Paris, 
which was built in the reign of Louis XV. as a 
military school, and several others of the eigh- 
teenth century. Also, the Caserne Napoléon 
and the Oaserne Prince-EHugéne, both built 
during the Second Empire. 

CASHEL. In Irish archeology, an enclos- 
ing wall of rough stone, intended either for 
defence as forming part ofa rude fort, or enclos- 
ing a church or several sacred buildings. By 
some writers the term has been adopted for 
general use as meaning an enclosure of rough 
stonework. 

CASING. In general, the exterior covering 
of a structure or member of a structure ; a shell 
or boxing of some superior material, as the ma- 
hogany casing of a ceiling beam. Specifically, 
in the United States the boxing or frame about 
an opening — that portion which is parallel to 
the general surrounding surface, and therefore 
usually at right angles to the jambs. It may 
be structural, as those parts which form the 
inside and the outside of a cased frame (see 
Frame ; Lining), or decorative, as the trim or 
architrave of a door. 

CASINO. (Italian diminutive, “little house,” 
from Casa.) 

A. In the Italian sense, a pleasure house in 
a garden, or in the grounds of a villa, usually 
464 


- ah, 


Bir CASPAR 

devoted to purposes of recreation and perhaps 
used to store works of art, as the casino of the 
Villa Borghese, or of the Vigna Papa Giulio, at 
Rome. Sometimes used also for residence. 

B. Hence, a building for recreation belonging 


place, or like public resort — e.g. that at Monte 
Carlo, or, in the United States, at Newport and 
Narragansett Pier. A casino in this sense is 
provided with music rooms, café and restaurant, 
rooms for cards and other games, smoking and 
conversation rooms, billiard room, verandas, and 
ornamental grounds. The building is usually 
large and complex ; the term therefore is unfor- 
tunate. 

C. In English and American usage at dif- 
ferent epochs a dwelling house whose design 
affects =the one-storied look of A. In the 

United States, before 1850, several such build- 
ings were put up two or three stories high, 
but having at least one front which pretended 
to be of a single ground story only. 

| —A.D.F. H. 
CASPAR, ADAM. (See Caspar, Eugenius.) 
CASPAR (CASPARIN I), EUGENIUS ; 
organ builder. 
The Casparini were a famous family of organ 
builders in the seventeenth century. Eugenius, 
: born at Sorau (Prussia), was the son of an organ 

a} | builder. After working in Bavaria he went in 

— ——s«16 44 to Italy and lived for many years in Padua. 

In 1694 he was called to Vienna. In 1697 he 
built the great organ in the church of 8. Peter 
and §. Paul at Gorlitz in Silesia, which was 

finished in 1704. This organ, the most famous 
work of Eugenius, is described by several au- 
thors. He built organs also for the churches 
| of 8. Giustina at Padua, of S. Georgio Maggiore 
at Venice, for the imperial palace at Vienna, 
and elsewhere. Eugenius was assisted by his 
son Adam. Adam’s son, Johann Gottlob, was 
also an organ builder. 
Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie. 
CASPAR, JOHANN GOTTLOB. 
cs Caspar, Eugenius. ) 
ae CASSOON. A deep ceiling panel, a caisson 
[me or coffer. (Rare.) 

CAST. A reproduction of the forms of any 
object, usually in a soft material which will 
harden after a time. The cast first taken, as of 
a bas-relief, a moulding, or the like, is usually 
called the mould ; and is, of course, the reverse of 
the original. That which is taken from the 
mould will, of course, be an exact copy of the 
original object. It is common to make casts in 
plaster and in sulphur, the latter having the 
great advantage that it does not shrink in set- 
ting ; and moulds of bas-reliefs and the like are 
made of gelatine, which is capable of easy ma- 
nipulation. The second cast, or reproduction of 
the original object, is most commonly of Plaster 
of Paris, and the study of architecture has been 

465 


(See 


to a club, or connected with a spa, watering- 


ee eee ok ae 


CAST 


largely aided by the use of such casts of archi- 
tectural detail. The eastern wing of the Tro- 
cadéro Palace in Paris is occupied by a collection 
of such casts, made with great care to facilitate 
the comparison of the sculptured and architec- 
tural detail of the different periods. Of pure 
sculpture, the largest collection of casts in the 
world is that at Berlin, and large ones exist in 
Dresden, Vienna, the South Kensington Museum 
in London, and in many other museums in 
Europe and the United States ; but of architec- 
tural details few considerable collections exist ; 
besides that at the Trocadéro there is one at the 
South Kensington Museum, and one at the 
Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. 
Many architects have some casts in their offices, 
these being more usually pieces of ornament in 
low relief or the like, things which are easy of 
distribution ; but it is evident that the detail 
loses its chief value when removed from its sur- 
roundings and from the other details which go 
to make up a complete whole. It is, therefore, 
of peculiar importance that collections should be 
made of pieces as large as practicable of the 
original structure. Thus, if a whole doorway 
with its sculptures, or a fifteenth century Italian 
pulpit complete in all its parts can be set up in 
plaster, it will be of more use to the student 
than many smaller fragments, however carefully 
chosen and perfectly made. 

Casts of sculpture or of architectural detail 
should always be coloured in close imitation of 
the colour of the original; because the forms 
which are appropriate for white or very light 
material may not be fit for work executed in a 
dark substance. Difficulty arises when the 
colour of the original is variegated. Thus, a 
diorite statue from Egypt would be hard to 
imitate in its colour; but no such difficulty 
exists in the case of statues or decorative work 
in basalt, bronze, red marble, or the like. If 
for any reason it is desired to set up in a gallery 
the absolutely unaltered cast as it leaves the 
mould, with all its seams and ridges unremoved, 
another should be prepared, carefully finished 
by skilful and conscientious hands, and coloured 
in close imitation of the original ; this finishing 
being done, of course, in the presence of the 
original and before the cast is delivered to the 
purchaser. Another use of casts is in the carry- 
ing out of proposed restoration. Modern ar- 
cheological feeling prohibits such restorations 
as were freely made as late as 1820, even in 
such important and carefully considered works 
of ancient art as the A%gina sculptures at 
Munich, and this is well; but there is nothing 
to prevent the carrying out in plaster of pro- 
posed or suggested schemes of completing a 
statue, a bas-relief, or an architectural detail. 
A slight beginning has been made at such work as 
this, especially in the Royal Gallery at Dresden. 

—R. 5S. 
466 


CASTELL 


CASTELL, ROBERT ; architect. 

Castell published, under the patronage of Lord 
Burlington (see Boyle, Richard), the Villas of 
the Ancients. He is supposed to be identical 
with the Castell whose sufferings and death in 
the Fleet Prison in 1729 are described by J. T. 
Smith (op. cit.). 

J. T. Smith, An Antiquarian Ramble in the 
Streets of London ; Castell, Villas of the Ancients. 

CASTELLAMONTE, AMADEO CONTE 
DI ; architect. 

An architect of the school of Pellegrino and 
Domenico Tibaldi (see Tibaldi). He entered 
the service of Carlo Emmanuele II., Duke of 
Savoy (1634-1675), and for him planned the 
Piazza di S. Carlo (1638), the Palazzo Reale 
(begun 1646), and the Ospedale Maggiore 
(1675), all at Turin (Italy). For the duke also 
he built the hunting seat and park near Turin 
called Veneria Reale (now destroyed). Castella- 
monte published a description of his park in 
the form of a dialogue entitled Veneria Reale 
(Turin, 1674, folio). 


Gurlitt, Geschichte des Barockstiles in Italien. 


CASTELLATE ; —ED (adj.). A. Provided 
or formed with castellations ; having embattled 
parapets consisting of merlons and peen les or 
embrasures. 

B. Resembling a castle, or made to resemble 


one in appearance. (See Castle; Crenelle ; 
Embrasure ; Parapet ; etc.) 

CASTELLET. Asmall castle. The English 
form of the French Chdtelet; rare. (Written 
also Castelet and Castlet.) 

CASTELLI, FRANCESCO. (See Borro- 


mino, Francesco.) 

CASTELLUM. A. In Roman archeology, 
a small fortified post, as at a point on a wall of 
defence. Thus, along the wall between the 
Roman province of Britain and the unconquered 
north of Scotland there was a castellum to every 
mile and a half on the average of the whole 
distance (nineteen forts in a length of twenty- 
seven miles). Other castelli were much larger, 
and the term seems to have been extended to 
fortresses of considerable size. The term was 
perhaps most commonly used as meaning a for- 
tress which was nothing else, rather than a 
walled and fortified town. 

B. Also, according to some writers, — as 
Vitruvius, —a distributing reservoir connected 
witha Ronan aqueduct, he full title being then 
Castellum Aquarum. — R. 8. 

CASTEL S. ANGELO. The Mausoleum 
of Hadrian as altered by the addition, in the 
Middle Ages, of a superstructure replacing the 
conical roof, and providing at the same time 
means of defence against a sudden attack, and a 
number of chambers for the residence of the 
Pope and his followers. The building was used 
as a citadel, and the means of escape thither 

467 


CAST IRON “ A = 
from the Vatican were made easy. 
Corridor. ) 


CASTILLE, COLIN (NICOLAS) ; carpen- 
ter (maitre menuisier). 


Dec. 30, 1507, he contracted to execute all 


the fine woodwork (menuiserie) of the chateau 
of Gaillon, near Rouen. Colin finished the doors 
of the cathedral of Rouen, Seine Inférieure, 
France, and in 1514 made a design for the 


/ central spire which was not executed. (See 


Becquet, Robert.) In 1518 he was called upon 


to build the organ loft (buffet d’orgues) at the — 


church of 8. Maclou at Rouen. The last pay- 
ment for his work was made in 1521. 

Deville, Comptes de Gaillon; Deville, Revue des 
Architectes de la Cathédrale de Rouen; Abbé 


Cochet, L’Orgue de Saint-Maclou in Bulletin 
Monumental, Vol. XIX. 


CASTING. <A. The art and act of making 
casts. 

B. Anything cast, whether of metal or other 
material, which has been melted and run into a 
mould ; or of plaster, cement, or the like, mixed 
with water, which has been allowed to set in a 
mould. (For a casting of plaster or similar soft 
material, see Cast.) Castings of bronze, brass, 
and zinc and the like are much used in the in- 
dustrial arts, cast bronze having been peculiarly 
the metal for fine art objects in use from time 
immemorial. It is usual to finish castings after 
they leave the mould ; and this is done with fine 
tools, files, and the like, and should be done by 
the artist himself who has made the original 
model. When a mould is made for casting, it 
must be so shaped that the hardened metal or 
other substance will leave the mould rightly, and 
will not tear it by breaking its particles away. 
For this reason the forms which are capable of 
being produced in an original casting are limited 
in their character, and the design for a casting 
must be different from that which is to be 
wrought by hammered work or in other ways. 
On these accounts, cast iron, being much too 
hard for successful finishing by hand, is hardly 
fit for delicate ornamentation ; and yet the Ber- 
lin iron work, originating in a patriotic move- 
ment in 1813, has much charm. Medals of 
bronze, silver, and the like are more often struck 
by a die,-but are sometimes cast ; and the beau- 
tiful large medals (medallions) of the Renais- 
sance are generally cast bas-reliefs of bronze. 

—R. 5S. 

CAST IRON. Iron which is shaped by 
being run into a mould while melted, as de- 
scribed under casting. In ordinary commer- 
cial usage a compound of iron and carbon ; 
the material which runs directly in liquid form 
from the blast furnace, and which hardens in 
the mould. From cast iron is made the purer 
iron which is used for working with the ham- 
mer, and also steel, Cast iron is brittle and 

468 


ae ee ‘ 
It connects 
with the Vatican by a private passage. (See 


a 


CASTLE 


hard, and is not capable of being welded, that 
is to say, of having two parts united when 
hammered together while hot, —the property 
in iron which is most important to it as a ma- 
terial for decoration. (See Metal Work.) 
CASTLE. A strong place; a building or 
group of buildings intended primarily to serve 
as a fortified post, 
such as, if held 
by a small garri- 
son, would enable 
such garrison to 
holdout for a time 
against much 
greater numbers. 
The term comes 
directly from the 


CASTLE 


A castle of the earliest type, as of the eleventh 
century, may be considered as a single strong 
tower accompanied by minor 
buildings, such as stables and 

perhaps a chapel, and well sur- 
rounded by a strong palisade. 
The tower itself 
was of stone with 
very thick walls 
and with no open- 


CastLE: Litrne WENHAM Hatu, SurFoik; 13rH Century. (SEE PLAN.) 


Latin castellum, which signified generally a 
fortified post on a Roman wall, or forming 
one of a chain of such posts. In medieval 
practice, however, each stronghold was inde- 
pendent of its neighbours, because in most 
cases it was the only strong place held by a 
baron or other feudal tenant of lands. In this 
connection it came to mean the principal resi- 
dence of such a feudal holder, and is in later 
times confused with Manor house exactly as in 
French the term Chdteau is confused with 
Manoir. 

Some strong castles were, however, held by 
occupants in the immediate service of the king 
or of a great vassal. Thus, in the struggles of 
the great vassals against the crown of France 
and in England in the reigns of John, of Henry 
III. and of Edward IJ., many castles became 
merely fortresses, without having the character 
of a manor house even in the smallest degree. 
Such castles would naturally be built in strong 
and defensible positions or at points valuable as 
commanding a road, a water course, or the like. 
The character of the building, however, is prac- 
tically the same throughout Western Europe at 
any given period, the changes in the system 
of defence coming slowly but almost simultane- 
ously throughout all the lands of Northwestern 
Europe. 

469 


ings below the third or fourth story except the 
door, and this door placed high above the 
surrounding level of the ground and to be 
reached only by a 
difficult and narrow 
stairway or by lad- 
ders. Such a tower is 
the well-known cas- 
tle of Conisborough 


see 
D 
z $ ° $s 7,0 ua 2 feRt 
‘ 


CASTLE: PLAN oF LITTLE WENHAM HALL, 
SUFFOLK. 


in Yorkshire, which was one of the largest for- 

tresses of this early time (circa 1100). Such a 

tower would contain but one chamber in each 

story, although a small oratory, closet, or private 
470 


CASTLE 


room might be opened in the thickness of the 
wall or of one of the great buttresses in some 
upper story. 

The castle of the time of Philip Augustus of 
France and Richard I. of England is well illus- 
trated by the strong post of Chateau Gaillard 
at the Andelysin Normandy. This fortress has 
been explained and illustrated by Viollet-le-Duc 
in the Dictionary of Architecture, s. v. Cha- 
teau, Donjon, Siege. Although special mili- 
tary and engineering skill may have been shown 
in this work, the arrangement of the buildings 
and the amount of space enclosed, the number 
of buildings included in the group, etc., may 
all be considered as typical. The writer cited 
has well pointed out that in the fortresses of this 
early time every separate tower was constructed 
as a strong post and arranged for long-continued 
defence, but that communication between tower 


AOS ee lady Ree ge 


CASTLE 
le-Duc. In this all the defence of the castle is 
carried on from a chemin-de-ronde, which is an 
almost wholly continuous gallery carried around 
the outer walls and at a height of some 120 
feet above the bottom of the ditch. Secondary 
chemins-de-ronde are carried along the walls 
and around the towers at a still greater height. 
The keep itself forms a part of the defences, and, 
while capable of holding out if the enemy should 
have gained a lodgment in the courtyards or 
in other towers, is much less detached from the 
rest of the work than would have been the case 
at an earlier epoch. 

The system of defence in all these castles is 
the same, however. Arrow bolts from cross- 
bows and stones dropped from a projecting gal- 
lery of defence (see Machicolation) were the 
chief active means of defence, and great height 
was given to the walls in order to increase the 


CASTLE AT Coca, NEAR SEGOVIA, SPAIN; 15TH CENTURY. 


and tower was purposely slow. When one of 
these was mined or taken by escalade the little 
garrison would be cut to pieces before it could 
escape to another part of the work. This fault 
was remedied at a later period, and the castles 
of the fourteenth century are most carefully 
combined into a single position of defence. Of 
these castles one of the most formidable seems 
to have been the castle of Coucy (Aisne) in 
northern France. This also has been well de- 
scribed in the work above cited, and these plans 
should be compared with the other elaborate 
fortresses erected by the Christians in Syria 
after the foundation of the Latin kingdom 
of Jerusalem. For these, and for the minor 
castles of the earlier period, see the Handbuch 
der Architektur, Part II, Vol. 4, lst Division, 
“Die Kriegsbaukunst.” The culmination of 
the medieval military architecture is to be 
found in the castle of Pierrefonds, northwest 
of Paris, which has been restored by Viollet- 
471 


violence of the blow of a descending heavy 
missile, such as a rounded stone. The passive 
resistance was afforded by the rocky site which 
made mining almost impracticable, or by the 
very deep ditches surrounding the work, which 
compelled the assailant to attack the rock itself 
beneath the ditch, and, finally, by the excellent 
masonry of the walls, often forming one solid 
mass, without open rooms within, for a consid- 
erable height. The attack and defence, there- 
fore, were mainly vertical, and we are to 
remember that the besieger might encamp close 
to the walls and still be out of reach of most of 
the missiles of the besieged. There remain, 
however, to be considered the military engines 
which threw large stones and great beams of 
wood pointed and shod with iron, and also, in 
some cases, barrels or crates of inflammable 
materials. The range of these engines was not 
very great, however, nor does it appear that the 
success or failure of an attack was generally 
472 


CASTLE OF ASIA 


dependent upon these in a very large measure. 
Escalade was resorted to in the case of a sudden 
surprise ; but when the castle was prepared for 
defence by means of wooden galleries, as described 
under Machicolation, this method could hardly 
be used. Wooden towers, carried on wheels and 
protected from fire by rawhides or other incom- 
bustible substances, were rolled up to the walls, 
and from their tops bridges were dropped, ena- 
bling the besiegers to rush upon the chemins-de 
ronde in considerable numbers. This must be 
considered as a variety of escalade, and could 
not be applied until the wooden galleries of 
defence were nearly demolished. 

A castle of the Middle Ages must be consid- 
ered not only as a fortified post, but also as a 
place of residence for a number of persons. As 
regards the dwelling of the lord and his family, 
this was simple, consisting of very few rooms, 
perhaps one large bedroom and two or three 
very small appendages. To a great extent the 
meals were taken in common with the perma- 
nent garrison, that is to say, the lord and his 
permanent force of retainers took their meals 
together in the largest hall which the castle 
afforded ; and the lord’s family would be present 
at such meals except in rare cases. Nothing in 


- the nature of sitting rooms or parlours existed, 


except as the lady of the castle might have a 
solar or bower. (See Hall; House; Manor 
House; Schloss; and the definitions of the 


terms used in this article.) 


For military architecture of the Middle Ages see 


‘Viollet-le-Duc’s Dictionnaire, articles Chateau; 


Donjon ; Siege; and Tour; also Salvisberg, Die 
Deutsche Kriegs-Architektur. The English books 
on castles and the like are more commonly treatises 
on the modern country houses of England and 
picturesque ruins, than an examination of the 
principles of fortification. —R. S. 

CASTLE OF ASIA; CASTLE OF 
EUROPE. ‘Two ancient fortresses on the Dar- 
danelles (Bosphorus) called also the Castles of 
the Dardanelles, and built by Mohammed IL., 
who captured Constantinople in 1453. That 
on the Asiatic side has been altered and mounted 
with modern guns. 

CASTLE HOWARD. A great country 
house and park in Yorkshire, England, built 
in 1702 from the designs of Sir John Vanbrugh. 

CASTLE RISING. Near King’s Lynn, 
Norfolkshire. A ruined castle of which the 
keep is of great antiquity, being considered of 
the pre-Gothic or so-called Norman epoch. Be- 
sides this, the chapel and the gatehouse at a 
little distance are in such condition that they 
can be studied. No excavation or archeologi- 
cal examination has been made. 

CATABASION. A reliquary or recess for 
relics under the altar in a Greek church. 

CATACOMB. In architecture, an under- 
ground cavern, usually wholly artificial in char- 
acter, or enlarged and shaped by art, and used 

473 


if enh hl cad, Us aie a J [i re . 
rae os 2 Aer wee Tae 


CATCH 


for the burial of the dead. The catacombs best 
known and most frequently cited for their tombs 
and for the mural paintings and relics which 
have been discovered in them are those of Italy ; 
but they exist in Cyrene, in Alexandria, and 
the Island of Melos, in the Grecian archipelago, 
and also in many parts of Sicily, as well as in 
Paris, where they occupy chambers excavated in 
the process of quarrying the soft limestone of 
the Paris basin. There is no absolute distinc- 
tion between the Columbarium of pagan times 
in and near Rome and the catacombs which we 
associate with Christian burial; but a distinc- 
tion may usually be made, based upon the more 
limited and exact boundaries of the columbaria, 
they being circular or nearly so, and surrounded 
on every side with the chambers for funeral 
urns, while the catacombs wander without ap- 
parent method in the form of long galleries at 
different levels, crossing each other at irregular 
angles, and giving out at unequal distances 
small burial chambers, or even small galleries 
without issue, which themselves give off burial 
chambers. The catacombs near the Via No- 
mentana, and those of S. Calixtus at Rome, 
are perhaps the best known. These are in the 
immediate neighbourhood of Rome. 

Many works have been devoted to the study 
of the catacombs, of which the most notable are 
G. B. de Rossi’s La Roma Sotterranea Chris- 
tiana, three volumes, 1864-1877. This, how- 
ever, is limited to the catacombs of Rome, 
while much the most important treatment of 
the subject has been hitherto limited to the 
pages of periodicals and reports of societies. A 
valuable book of moderate size is that by Victor 
Schultze, Die Katakomben, published at Leip- 
zig, 1882, and which gives a critical account 
of the large and costly works which have been 
devoted to the subject, in addition to an analyti- 
cal history of the catacombs themselves. 

CATACUMBA. A. A Catacomb, the Low 
Latin form of the word. 

B. The courtyard or atrium preceding a 
Christian basilica. 

CATAFALQUE. A temporary structure 
comprising a scatfold or platform and a canopy, 
the whole either stationary or on wheels, for the 
reception or public display of the remains or 
effigy of a deceased person, as for the funeral 
procession or ceremonies and “‘lying in state” of 
a personage of distinction. 

CATBAND. In the North of England, — 

A, A chain for closing a street. 

B. A bar for securing a door on the out- 
side. 

CATCH. A contrivance for automatically 
securing a door, shutter, or a similar movable 
leaf by the action of gravity or of a spring. In 
some of its more elaborate forms hardly to be 
distinguished from a latch or spring lock. (See 
Latch ; Lock.) 

474 


CATHAIR 


CATHAIR. Same as Caher. 

CATHEDRA. The official seat or throne 
of the bishop in a church. At Torcello, near 
Venice, is the only existing example of the an- 
cient seating of the clergy in tiers around the 
apse; the cathedra of marble occupies the 
centre, and is raised high above the other seats, 
with a flight of steps leading to it. Ancient 
bishops’ chairs of stone in their ancient place, at 
the rear of the apse, exist in the basilicas of S. 
Clemente and S. Lorenzo, at Rome; and a Ro- 
manesque stone cathedra is in the western apse 
of Augsburg cathedral. (See Bishop’s Throne.) 

CATHEDRAL (adj.). Having to do with 
the chair or throne (7.e. of a bishop). 

CATHEDRAL (n.) (more properly Cathedral 
Church). The church in which is set up the 
Bishop’s Throne or Cathedra. This church 
may be considered as the bishop’s Throne 
Room; or, if the Choir be considered as the 
throne room, then the cathedral with Chapter 
House and other accessories, and the actual 
residence of the bishop, together with the Clois- 
ters and other enclosed spaces, may be consid- 
ered as the Episcopal Palace, resembling a royal 
or grand ducal palace in having rooms for busi- 
ness and ceremony combined in the same build- 
ing with the residence of the prince and his 
officers and attendants. The cathedral itself is 
not necessarily large nor splendid, nor is there 
any architectural style or character which can 
be said to belong to it in a peculiar sense. In 
Athens, the old cathedral, which was used with- 
out interruption until the middle of the present 
century, remains one of the smallest churches in 
the world, and capable of containing a congre- 
gation of only a few score. The cathedral of 
that part of Venetia in which is situated the 
city of Venice was, for many years, a small and 
unimportant church, S. Pietro in Castello, sit- 
uated on a remote island; and the church of 
S. Marco, built and used as the chapel of the 
Doge, was made the cathedral after the destruc- 
tion of the Venetian Republic. In England, 
Saint Albans Abbey church, a Romanesque 
building of importance, having been preserved 
after the destruction of the monastery building 
(exactly as has been the case with Westminster 
Abbey), has recently been raised to the dignity 
of a cathedral; that is to say, a new see was 
established with its centre in the town and 
church of Saint Albans. The largest church 
in Christendom, 8. Peter’s, at Rome, is not a 
cathedral; the cathedral of thé Bishop of Rome 
is the ancient Lateran Basilica. 

Churches which have been cathedrals, and 
which have ceased to be so, as in consequence 
of the consolidation of two sees in one, some- 
times retain the name in the popular language ; 
and.as they often keep their canons and their 
ecclesiastical officers, except the bishop, they 
receive the name Collegiate Church. On the 

AT5 


ni cies: 


CATTANEO 


other hand, the name cathedral is not alwayeue 


given with any general consent to buildineele See 


which have been raised to that rank ; thus, 


Southwell Minster, which has been made the 


see of a bishop, is still called by its old name. 

It appears, then, that from the architectural 
point of view the cathedral requires no separate 
treatment ; 
be compared with other churches. There is, 
however, a cause for the rapid building of cathe- 
drals in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, 
and of the great size and splendour given espe- 
cially to these churches. This has been touched 
upon in the article Church Building; it is the 
communal or social character of the movement 
which united people of the towns with their 
bishop, and which resulted in the free using of 
large parts of the cathedrals, when finished, as. 
places of popular resort. The historical use of 
old 8. Paul’s in London as a place for meeting 
friends, buying, selling, and engaging servants,. 
and which lasted at least to Shakespeare’s time, 
is an evidence of this; and its influence is still 
seen on the continent of Europe, where not only 
are the cathedrals open more or less continually 
to all comers, but even the public is allowed to 
pass across from door to door, thus making a 
short cut through the most important church of 
the town. Important cathedrals are mentioned 
in the summary under Church, and many are 
instanced in such articles as Gothic Architec-. 
ture, Romanesque Architecture, and the essays 
on geographical divisions. — R. 8. 

CATHEDRAL CHURCH. 
Church ; see also Cathedral (n.).) 

CATHERINE WHEEL. In England, a 
circular traceried window with radiating bars or 
mullions. (See Rose Window ; Wheel Window, 
under Window; Gothic Architecture ; Tracery.) 

CATHUD. In Scotch usage, a large flat. 
stone set upright to form the back of a fire- 
place at a distance from the wall behind it, so 
as to allow of a seat between the wall and fire- 
back. 

CAT STEP. Same as Crow Step. 

CAT STONE. In Scottish archeology, an 
upright stone supposed to be erected in memory 
of a fight, and the name supposed to be derived 
from the ‘British Cad or the Gaelic Cath” 
(Wilson). These stones are often inscribed, 
sometimes in Roman characters, though it is not. 
evident that these inscriptions are of the same 
date as the first placing of the stones. (Com- 
pare Bauta; Tumulus.) 

CATTANEO, DANESE (DA CARRARA); 
architect, sculptor, and poet; b. about 1509 ; 
d. 1573. 

He was established first in Rome, but went to 
Venice with Giacomo Sansovino (see Sansovino) 
after the sack of Rome in 1527. He assisted 
Sansovino at the Doge’s palace, the Libreria 
di 8. Marco, the loggia of the Campanile and 

476 


(See under 


it is to be considered as a church, to 


As ., cic i Be 8 5 
4 wks ie —) Sa Atlee hidtiestaen we — 
Ieedsten? Vea eee : Peaeerees U 


. rae BrP i= te 
Bi dined i ie alias a 


tae ie 


= ie 
mE 


o he ‘Zecca (mint). Cattaneo wrote a poem in 


1». 


7. §©OATT STONE 


wwenty-four cantos entitled L’ Amor di Mar/isa. 


ss Miintz, Renaissance. 


CATT STONE. Same as Cat Stone. 


et + CAUKING. Same as Caulking. 


CAULICULUS. Literally a stalk. A 


a Latin term applied technically to each of the 
eight stems which in the Corinthian capital 


spring from the interspaces of the second or 


upper row of acanthus leaves, and bear a branch- 
ing pair of leaves forming a springing point for 
a pair of diverging scrolls or volutes. The 
term, though strictly referring only to the sup- 


porting stem, is frequently employed for the 


= stem and scroll together. (See Corinthian 
Order. Written also Caulicolus and Caulecole.) 


—A.D.F. H. 
CAULKING. 4. The act or method of 


securing the end of a timber, like a girder or tie 


beam, to another on which it rests at right angles 


ee (as the wall plate or sill) by means of a cog hold. 


B. The operation or method of rendering a 
joint tight, as against water or gas, by driving 


- into its interstices with a chisel or other tool 


some plastic or elastic substance, as oakum and 
tar in the decks of ships, lead in the hubs of 
soil pipes, etc. (See Plumbing.) 

 (C. In boiler work and hydraulic work a 
process for making a joint steam or water tight 
by upsetting the edges of the steel or iron 
plates. (Written also Calking, Cauking, Cock- 


ing, Cogging.) 


CAUS (also CAUX), SALOMON DE; 


engineer, architect, and landscape architect ; 


b. 1576; d. Feb. 27, 1626. 

He probably derived his name from the Pays 
de Cauz (littoral of the department of Seine 
Inférieure, France). He made a special study 
of mechanics and architecture, travelled exten- 
sively, and drifted to England where he became 
architect and engineer in ordinary to Henry, 
Prince of Wales. He was also drawing master 
to the Princess Elizabeth, and followed her to 
Heidelberg (Germany), where she married 
(April, 1612) the Elector Palatinate Friedrich 
V. Salomon laid out the great garden of the 


castle at Heidelberg, and probably made addi- 


tions to the castle itself. He returned to France 
about 1620, and acquired the title ingénieur et 
architecte du roi. In his Raisons des forces 
mouvantes Salomon describes a machine for 
raising water by means of the expansive power 
of steam, thus taking the first step toward the 
invention of the steam engine. His principal 
works are La Perspective avec la raison des 
ombres et miroirs (London, 1611-1612, folio) ; 
Institution Harmonique (Heidelberg, 1614, 
folio); Les Raisons des forces mouvantes 
(Frankfurt, 1615); Hortus Palatinus, ete. 
Léon Sagnet, Article Caus in La Grande En- 
cyclopédie ; Koch-Seitz, Das Heidelberger Schloss ; 
Pinor, Monographie du Chateau de Heidelberg. 


477 


ty aera 32 
ee ey: 
my 


CAVETTO 


CAVA, LA. (See Onofrio di la Cava.) 

CAVADIUM. In Latin, an inner court, 
as of a dwelling house (cavum edium) ; per- 
haps identical with the Atrium, when that had 
grown from the large sitting room, kitchen, etc., 
to a court of general communication, and often 
open to the sky, at least in part. There seems 
no sufficient reason for considering this term as 
in any way different from atrium in this later 
and larger sense. (Vitruvius, VI, 3.) 

CAVALCANTI, ANDREA DI LAZ 
ZARO (called Il Buggiano); architect and 
sculptor; b. 1412; d. Feb. 21, 1462. 

Cavalcanti was the foster son and principal 
heir of Brunellesco (Gaye, op. cit., Vol. 1, 
pp. 142-145). He made the water basin in 
the sacristy of S. Maria del Fiore (Duomo, 
Florence). The monument to Brunellesco him- 
self in the Duomo is his work, and the death 
mask of Brunellesco in the Opera del Duomo 
(Fabriczy, op. cit., p. 398). 

Hans Stegmann, in Die Architektur der Renais- 
sance in Toscana; Miintz, Renaissance, Vol. I, 
1889; Fabriczy, Filippo Brunelleschi; Gaye, Car- 
teggio. 

CAVEA (pl. —4). In Roman archeology, a 
hollow place or building, in several senses. 

A. One of the lowest tiers of vaulted cells 
under the seats of an amphitheatre, in which 
were confined the wild beasts destined for the 
show. 

B. The whole seating space of a Greek the- 
atre as being an excavated work, or more rarely 
of an amphitheatre as seeming to be so. 

CAVE DWELLING. A natural cave occu- 
pied by men as a dwelling place. Caves have 
been so occupied in all ages.. In Europe there 
are caves that were occupied long ago for an 
extended period ; but in America, while numer- 
ous natural caves have been inhabited, the du- 
ration of the residence within them was com- 
paratively short. Some caves were walled up 
in front, leaving only a doorway. Many of | 
those existing in the Southwestern United 
States were very small, and were nothing more 
than storage vaults. In the huge cavelike 
recesses of the sandstone cliffs of the Southwest, 
houses and villages have been constructed by 
American Indians of the Pueblo type, and these 
structures are often described as cave dwellings, 
though they properly belong to the class ‘ cliff 
dwellings.” (See Cavate Lodge, under Lodge ; 
Cliff Dwelling ; Cliff Outlook ; Communal Dwell- 
ing, etc.) 

CAVE TEMPLE. A sacred shrine or place 
of worship excavated in the rock. The most 
important are those at Ellora, in the Dekkan, 
200 miles northeast of Bombay. (See India ; 
Kailas; Monolithic Architecture; Rock Cut 
Building.) 

CAVETTO. A moulding having a simple 
concave profile, usually a quarter round ; and 

478 


CAVIL 


thus distinguished from Scotia, whose profile is | 


a concave curve the half of a circle or ellipse, or 
more. (See Moulding ; Profile.) — A. D. F. H. 

CAVIL. Same as Gavel, B. 

CAVO RILIEVO. (Sce Relief.) 

CECROPIUM. A building or sacred spot 
at Athens, dedicated to or commemorative of 
Kekrops (Cecrops), the mythical founder of the 
city. The word is an adjective used absolutely, 
and means sometimes the Acropolis of Athens ; 
sometimes some building upon it. Inscriptions 
speak of the kekropion or kekropeion, but their 
indication is not perfectly understood. 

CHIL (v.). A. To sheathe internally; to 
line with plaster, boards, or other thin coating ; 
especially, in the United States, with a thin 
sheathing of wood, usually in narrow matched 
and beaded strips. 

B. To provide with a ceiling in sense B; to 
finish, with or without decoration, the horizontal 
surface forming the top of a room. 

CHILING. A. The covering of a wall sur- 
face, especially on the interior ; or of the under 


CEILING OF CARVED Woop IN NAWORTH CASTLE, CUMBERLAND} 
14TH CENTURY. 


side of a floor; the material used being always 
supposed to be a simple and ordinary one. 
Thus, ceiling is of thin boards or of lath and 
plaster, but never of tile, nor is the term applied 
to the surface afforded by the solid material of 
a wall or floor ; except as under B. 

B. By extension from A, the under side of a 
floor which provides the roofing or enclosure at 
top of a room or other space below. In this 
case, it is the surface alone which is designated 
without reference to material. (Cuts, cols. 481, 
482.) —R. S. 

Beam Ceiling. A ceiling, generally of wood, 
made in imitation of exposed floor beams with 
the flooring showing between. Hence, some- 
times, the under side of a floor, showing the 
actual beams, and finished to form a ceiling. 

CELATURE. The art of decorating metals 
by chasing, engraving, or repoussé work. 

479 


i As .* ts ic: a } > ¥. t 
1 i ae aaah oN hae Steg 
oe ein ent fr aoe! | 7, Take : Purse ti nisl .. 
of a ees ee rear ure one ee 5 
} , ' < ve uy ¥ 


CELLAR 


CELER ; architect. 

Celer and Severus are mentioned by Tacitus 
(Annales, XV., 42) as the principal architects 
employed by Nero (emperor 58 to 68 a.D.) in 
his immense architectural undertakings. The 
chief of these was the great palace called the 
Golden House. The following inscription is 
found on an antique capital in the church of 
S. Agnese fuori le Mura at Rome : — 


CELERI 
NERONIS 
AVGVSTI. L. 
A [RCHITECT] 0. 


Brunn, Geschichte der Griechischen Kiinstler. 


CELL. A. A small apartment of any sort; 
especially the sleeping room allotted to a monk 
or nun in certain religious orders, or the room, 
generally for one person, in a prison. In the 
Carthusian order the cell may consist of more 
than one room, as the rule of this order involves 
nearly solitary life, but not necessarily a very 
ascetic one. <A sleeping closet and a small 
study are commonly components of 
a Carthusian cell, and a small gar- 
den should be in communication 
with the study. 

_ B. (As used in an electric bat- 
tery, see Voltaic Cell under Electric 
Appliances.) 

CELLA. In Latin, a chamber, 
a small room; rarely so used in 
English, but see account of Harpy 
Tomb in article Asia Minor. 
Hence, in Latin and in English 
usage, the enclosed part of a Greek 
or Greco-Roman temple, including 
the sacred chamber itself and the 
entrance vestibule, the treasury in 
the rear, and anything within the 
solid wall. Called also Naos. (See 
Sekos ; Temple.) 

The division of the enclosed 
structure into at least three rooms, which is com- 
mon, has caused the term naos to be limited by 
some writers to the central chamber, approached 
through the pro-naos, and supposed to have 
had usually the cultus-image at the end opposite 
the entrance. The episthodomos is then the 
room behind the cultus-image and not usually 
opening into the naos. These three rooms might 
be considered as subdivisions of the cella; but 
this use of the term has not obtained general 
recognition.— R. 8. 

CELLAR. A. The space below the ground 
story or the basement story of a building, 
enclosed by the foundation walls, and therefore 
wholly, or almost entirely, below the surface 
of the surrounding ground. The distinction 
between cellar and basement story is not abso- 
lute, and, in some cases, may depend on the use 
to which such a space is put, as much as on its 

480 


2 ere afm, 7 r i F a ‘ : . . ri 
OS Come oP Oe | en et a a 90 am mas Pe ND ie ae b { 
. = pita i ny at ee ee has! Set pe: ata { ae tay ia ey ne » iy Wd f La ad y 4 
" eR ik gre i te aR eo ie el ee Shes | As: ; 
ar 2. oe 3), : > toast ae ‘e ~en yt i 
= ; wen ag Te ers en eee treater! We aim ara era“ RE, sh, 


SHOWN IN Curt. 


482 


481 


CELLAR 


relative situation. Thus, in an English-base- 
ment house, the front portion of the lowest, 
nearly subterranean, story will frequently be 
without windows, and used merely for storage 
of fuel and the like, and will therefore be referred 
to as a cellar; but the same story might be 
equally well provided with large windows open- 
ing into an area, and would then be used as a 
living room or for domestic offices, and would 
be called a basement story. Hence, as such a 
space is commonly used for storage and the 
like, — 

JB. Any underground or partly underground 
place of deposit for wine, provisions, fuel, or the 
like. In cities there is often a special chute for 
coal, kindling wood, and the like; and the 
cellars of stores and warehouses have elevators 
or lifts, often outside the walls of the building 
and in areas. 

Earth Cellar. A cellar in sense B above, 
excavated in the face of a steep slope of ground, 
and at its foot, so as to have a floor at about 
the level of the ground in front. Such a cham- 
ber will be nearly enclosed on three sides by the 
natural soil, the roof being usually boarded, 
but perhaps of earth supported from below. A 
common means in the United States of obtain- 
ing a cool storage place. 

Subcellar. In a building having more than 
one cellar as described under definition A 
above, the lower or one of the lower under- 
ground stories. The great height of the recent 
sky scrapers of the United States has made it 
desirable in many cases to extend the founda- 
tions to solid rock, as in New York City. The 
foundations will then reach a depth of perhaps 
thirty or forty feet, allowing of the construction 
of three or more stories below the street level. 
The uppermost story will then usually be known 
as the cellar, and lower ones as subcellars. 

Wine Cellar. A room arranged for the re- 
ception of wine and other fermented or distilled 
liquors. The primary requisite is that it should 
have a very even temperature, the warmth of 
the atmosphere within it changing gradually, if 
at all. Ventilation is only needed so far as 
dampness is to be avoided, and a very slow 
changing of the air should be sufficient for this. 
Excellent results have followed, when the gen- 
eral cellar space is dry, by shutting off a piece 
of it completely without any provision whatever 
for the changing of air. It is customary to 
provide a separate room for wine, etc., in casks 
and for that which is bottled. The room for 
casks should be spacious enough to allow of the 
fining, bottling, etc., of the liquor contained in 
the casks. The cellar for bottled liquors should 
be fitted up with shelves, although recent devices 
of light ironwork, wire, etc., and also of baked 
clay in the form of hollow tiles, have been made 
for the same purpose. With ordinary wooden 
shelving, a distinction must be made between 

483 


nee ae * Pe ae Sara 
‘CEMENT. ee 


e. ep 
bottles that are to set up and those which are 


to be laid on their sides; for these latter itis 


good to arrange the shelving so as to make 
diagonal compartments like very large pigeon- 
holes set cornerwise, with one of the angles 
pointing downward. — D. N. B.S. 

CELLARAGE. A. The whole of the cellars 
under a building, or a system of cellars. 

B. The storage or capacity of a cellar or 
system of cellars. 

CELLAR DOOR; FLAP. The door to a 
cellar ; particularly a heavy batten door admit- 
ting to a cellar from the outside. When this 
door, singly or in a pair, is placed in a slanting 
plane over a bulkhead and stairs leading down 
to a cellar, it is sometimes called a cellar flap. 

CELLARINO. In Italian, the necking or 
cylindrical portion between the Astragal and 
Echinus, of a Roman Tuscan, or Dorie capital. 
(See Necking.) : 

CELLINI, BENVENUTO ; sculptor, gold- 
smith, decorative artist ; b. 1500; d. Feb. 14, 
1571. 

Of all his work, that which most nearly ap- 
proaches architectural character is the bas-relief 
called The Nymph of Fontainebleau, once over 
the portal of the Chateau d’Anet (see De l’Orme, 
Philibert) and now in the Louvre, and the 
Perseus beheading Medusa, with its pedestal 
decorated with bas-relief and statuettes, now in 
the Loggia dei Lanzi at Florence. 

Eugéne Plon, Benvenuto Cellini ; Emile Moli- 
nier, Benvenuto Cellini; Miintz, Renaissance ; 
Perkins, Tuscan Sculptors; A. Bertolotti, Benve- 
nuto Cellini a Roma; Cellini, Vita (Tassi ed.) ; 
Cellini, Guvres complétes (édition Léclanché) ; 
and his Autobiography, of which the best English 
translation is that of J. Addington Symonds; and 
in the General Bibliography, Cicognara ; Seubert. 

CELLINI, GIOVANNI; architect and musi- 
cian. 

The father of the famous Benvenuto Cellini. 
(See Cellini, B.) 

CELLULAR. A. Of or pertaining to cells, 
or having the character of cells, as the cellular 
system of prison planning, or a cellular mon- 
astery. 

B. Constructed with or upon a system of 
cells, as a cellular wrought-iron beam. 

CELTIC. (See Keltic.) 

CEMENT. Any material by means of 
which substances are made to adhere to each 
other. In this sense, glue is the cement most 
used in carpentry work ; gum tragacanth, gum 
Arabic, and various mixtures are used under the 
general term mucilage for minor operations of 
the sort ; shellac is much used in making small 
repairs in cut stone. Especially, in building, 
same as Calcareous Cement (see subtitle below) ; 
also mortar made with a large share of that 
material. 

Calcareous Cement. A cement consisting 
largely of lime, the other ingredients being 

484 


<g is is re were i 
 CHMENT 

iefly clay, which gives to such cement a_ 
greater or less degree of hydraulicity. (See 
“Hydraulic Cement.) It may be either a natural 
~ cement, — that: is, prepared directly from one 
_ of many natural forms of impure limestone, — 
as is the common Rosendale cement extensively 
4 ised in the eastern United States ; or artificial, 
_—that is, prepared by mixing ‘limestone or 
halk in certain proportions with clay and per- 
aps a small amount of other ingredients, —as 
Portland cement. Such elements are supplied 
_ in the form of a fine powder, and require only to 
¥ ibe mixed with water and sand for use as mortar, 
3 although a certain proportion of common lime is 
__ frequently introduced, usually for reasons of 
economy. 

.— Hydraulic Cement. A calcareous cement 
(see above) which has the property of setting 
under water without exposure to the air, and 
which is therefore valuable for subaqueous and 
‘similar masonry work. 

_ The hydraulic cements used in building are 
‘derived from the impure limestones, containing 
different proportions of clay and silica, or are 
artificial combinations of those materials with 
~ common lime, calcined and ground. The name 
— Roman cement ” is applied in Europe to all the 
light, natural cements, the materials for which 
£ -are found in great variety, and widely dis- 
tributed. 

The stone generally contains about sixty per 
cent of lime and magnesia to about forty per 
cent of clay (silica and alumina), generally with 
a little iron and potash. The stone is burned 
in kilns until completely calcined, but care is 
; taken that it is not overburned, which would 
render it inert. The Rosendale cements, among 
the best of those found in the United States, are of 
this class. They contain carbonate of magnesia 
in much greater proportion than the “ Roman” 
- cements of England and France. Others of this 
class are found in many parts of the United 
States, —in the valleys of the Potomac and 
_ James rivers, along the Erie Canal, in Ohio 
and Kentucky. With slight differences in com- 
position, they possess nearly the same practical 
value. The Rosendales, from the valley of the 
Hudson, and the Louisville (Kentucky) are per- 
haps the best. 

Maya Cement. 
zaccab. 

Portland Cement. An artificial calcareous 
cement composed primarily of limestone and clay. 
So called because of its resemblance, when fin- 
ished with a smooth surface, —as on the face 
of a wall, —to the well-known Portland stone 
of England, where such cement was first manu- 
: factured. 

—— The Portland cements differ fron the so-called 

as Roman cements in the relative proportions of 

-; - lime and clay which they contain, the best pro- 

portions being 20 to 22 of clay and 70 to 80 of 
485 


One composed of lime and 


ede Seep err 
- 4 
2 aa 


CHMETERY BEACON 

lime. The clay should contain about 14 or 2 
parts of silica, forming a silicate of calcium by 
the reaction of silica and lime in the presence 
of fusible combinations of iron and alumina. 
There is produced in the Portland cements a 
fusible silico-aluminate identical with that which ~ 
forms the essential element of blast-furnace slag, 
in which sesquioxide of iron partially replaces 
the alumina. Its only useful purpose is to serve 
as a flux to favour, during the burning, the com- 
bination of silica and lime. When blast-furnace 
slags are precipitated, while still liquid, into cold 
water, they combine with hydrated lime in 
setting, and give rise to silicates and aluminates 
of lime identical with those formed by entirely 
different reactions during the setting of Port- 
land cement. These are the so-called “slag” 
cements. 

The various Portlands are made by mixing 
and grinding the material, generally wet, drying 
it, breaking it into pieces, and burning to incipi- 
ent calcination. The weight of good Port- 
land cement should be not less than 112 pounds 
to the bushel; that of the Roman and Rosen- 
dale cements is about 75 pounds. 

—W. R. Hurron. 

Roman Cement. (See Hydraulic Cement 
above. ) 

Slate Cement. A. A hydraulic cement 
manufactured from argillaceous slate. 

B. A plastic roofing material made of broken 
slate mixed with tar, asphalt, or some similar 
material. | 

Water Cement. Same as Hydraulic Cement. 
(See subtitle above.) 

CEMENT (v.). 
means of cement. 

B. To finish, fill, or cover with cement, as a 
floor. 

CEMENT STONE. A stone from which 
cement may be made; especially any hydraulic 
limestone. 

CEMETERY. A place prepared for the 
burial of the dead ; a graveyard, but rather one 
which is apart from any church, and which is 
established by the community or by private 
persons for the purpose of selling lots to families, 
societies, or the like for the excavation of graves 
and the erection of monuments. During the 
past century there has been a great tendency to 
lay out cemeteries of considerable natural beauty, 
and to treat these as parks; the selection for 
this purpose of very beautiful pieces of ground, 
sites commanding a fine prospect, and the like 
may, perhaps, be thought unreasonable when 
the more common introduction of public parks 
and pleasure grounds makes the cemetery less 
commonly a place of resort. (For cemeteries 
which have much architectural treatment, see 
Campo Santo.) — R. 8. 

CEMETERY BEACON. Same as Lantern 
of the Dead. 


A, To secure together by 


486 


CENACULUM 


CENACULUM. (Written also Cenaculum ; 
Coenaculum.) In Latin, from cena, the prin- 
cipal meal taken by the Romans : — 

A, <A dining room, especially one in an upper 
story, the custom of having such dining rooms 
dating only from the last years of the Republic 
and the early Empire. 

B. By extension, an upper story, as in a 
Roman house. These, in the country houses, 
and in the town houses known to us in Pompeii, 
were partial, extending over one wing of the 
house, and might include only the upper dining 
room with its appendages. Ata later time, the 
term is used for the upper stories in a many- 
storied house of Rome, and came to signify 
even a garret or place of lodging for very poor 
people. 

CENDREE DE TOURNAI. A kind of 
hydraulic cement used in Belgium, composed of 
caustic lime from the Tournai limekilns and the 
slaty coal ashes left from the kiln fires. The 
lime is slaked by sprinkling with water, and the 
mixture, after being buried for some weeks, 
triturated, and dried, forms an excellent hydrau- 
lic cement. — A. D. F. H. 

CENOTAPH. Literally, an empty tomb; a 
monument erected to the memory of one not 
interred in or under it. 

CENTERING. (See Centring.) 

CENTRAL AMERICA, ARCHITEC— 
TURE OF. That of the five states: Guate- 
mala, Honduras, Nicaragua, San Salvador, and 
Costa Rica, and the colony of British Honduras. 

I. Precolumbian. This region is rich in 
ruined structures that belong to the Precolum- 
bian class of American architecture. Few groups 
have been systematically investigated. Dense 
forest covers much of the land, and there are 
other difficulties. Stephens, Squier, Maudsley, 
and some other archzologists have been over por- 
tions of the ground. In all these states, except 
in Costa Rica, where the remains are different 
and seem to show South American influence, 
tribes of Maya and of Nahuatl stock have built. 
Copan, in Honduras, has been the most care- 
fully examined, but even there much remains 
to be done. It was a ruin in 1576, when Pala- 
cio, the first European visitor, saw it. Ste- 
phens made the first scientific examination, in 
company with the artist Catherwood, in 1839, 
and since then Maudsley has devoted long study 
to the place. The latest investigations were 
directed by Harvard University. Of the great 
forest which covered the ruins in Stephens’s 
time, people living near by removed some from 
the terraces for planting, Maudsley cut away 
a lot more, and Saville, of the Harvard party, 
cleared the main structure and other parts. A 
section of the principal mass has been exposed 
by the cutting of the river, and exhibits three 
thick layers, one above another, divided by 
pavements of cement, the present buildings 

487 


CENTRAL AMERICA 


resting on the last, or topmost, pavement. It 
is probable that each floor sustained in former 
times various buildings, and architectural work 
here, therefore, seems to be of great antiquity. 
Copan has been called the oldest city in Amer- 
ica. The central mass rises in steps and ter- 
races, forming a huge platform which culminates. 
in terraced elevations bearing the ruined build- 
ings described as temples, but which were 
probably of varying function. 
the mound and the walls of buildings are of 
fairly well-dressed oblong stones laid, usually, 
without mortar. Little or no attention was 
paid to breaking joints. The mound slopes 
were built in terraces about five feet high and 
five feet wide, or in steps of single or double: 
rows of stones. As in all this class of works, 
the masonry was coated with stucco which was. 
then coloured. The main bulk of the mounds 
and foundations is a rubble of rough blocks of 
stone and mud, apparently bound together by 
internal upright walls. The general construc- 
tion being the same as that of the Yucatan 
Maya ruins, and the vault used being the same 
so-called triangular, or corbel, arch found there, 
and the inscriptions being similar, these re- 
mains may be safely classed as Maya, though 
we have no decipherable records of the build- 
ers. The sculptures seem to be of a somewhat. 
finer order. Twenty-three remarkable stele, or 
monolithic monuments, elaborately carved with 
human figures and hieroglyphs, have been found. 
Each had in front a sculptured block described. 
—for want of a better name—as an altar. 
Their average height is 12 feet, and their 
breadth and their thickness each about 3 feet. 
Stelze and so-called idols have been exhumed 
around Lake Nicaragua, Lake Managua, and 
in other parts, and there are numerous 
mounds ; but all remains grow less imposing 
toward the south, and correspondingly impor- 
tant as Yucatan is approached. It is important 
to note that the southern limit of Maya inscrip- 
tions is just beyond Copan, and the northern at. 
the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Other ruins of 
this region are those of Cahuinal, Tikal, and 
Quirigua, in Guatemala, and the old capital 
of the Cakchiquels, by them called Iximche, 
lying between Lake Atitlan and the Rio 
Motagua, and said to be 3 leagues in cir- 
cumference. Further east are the ruins of 
Mixco, and in western Guatemala lies Utatlan, 
the ancient capital of the Quiches, who are 
classed as Maya stock. Tenampua, in Honduras, 
occupies a hill which is fortified by walls ter- 
raced on the inside. There are three or four 
hundred mounds there. Much destruction has 
been caused by the use of stone from ruins for 
modern building purposes. 

II. Modern. The houses of the people are 
usually small huts made of canes and palm 
leaves, or of sticks plastered with adobe mud, 

488 


The casing of — 


Pe RN ON 
J eee CENTRE 
‘es nd whitewashed. In the towns adobe bricks 
are largely used, sometimes with a cut stone 
_ foundation, as adobe disintegrates most rapidly 
_ near the ground. Cajon is also common, the 
town of Amatitlan being almost wholly so con- 
structed. Aside from churches, which are 
numerous, there are few structures of impor- 
tance. Houses are rarely more than one story, 
and, as customary in tropical countries, are 
without glazed windows. They usually enclose 
a patio or courtyard with fruit and shade trees. 
__ The churches are often of great size, and some- 
times stand in remote and unfrequented places. 
‘The finest, and also the most noted, building in 
all Central America is the cathedral at Leon, 
Nicaragua, finished, according to Squier, in 
«1743, after thirty-seven years of labour. It is 
of cut stone, covers an entire square, and the 
roof is massively vaulted. The ornamentation 
is stucco. There is less of the Moresque about 
it than is usual with Spanish-American archi- 
tecture. It was often used as a fortress during 
- revolutions, and the exterior is much indented 
_ by bullets. There is little ornamentation inside, 
but the altar is silver, elaborately chased. (See 
Adobe ; Cajon ; Calli ; Corbel Arch ; Communal 
- Dwelling; Jacdl; Mexico, Part I.; Mound ; 
Pisé ; Teocalli ; Zaccab.) 


E.G. Squier, Nicaragua; John L. Stephens, 
Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas, 
and Yucatan; Peter F. Stout, Nicaragua, Past, 
Present, and Future; H. H. Bancroft, Native 
Races, and History of Central America; Desiré 

Charnay; Ancient Cities of the New World; 
Elisée Reclus, The Earth and Its Inhabitants, 
Vol. Il., North America ; Peabody Museum, 
Memoirs ; Justin Winsor, Narrative and Critical 
History of the United States, Vol. I.; Brasseur 
de Bourbourg, Histoire des Nations Civilisées du 
— Mexique et del Amérique Centrale, and Recherches 
sur les Ruines de Palenque ; Julius Froebel, Seven 
Years’ Travelin Central America ; W. H. Holmes, 
Ancient Pottery of Chiriqui, and Archeological 
Studies among the Ancient Cities of Mexico; D. 
G. Brinton, Essays of an Americanist ; Sahagun, 
Historia de la Nueva Espana ; Maudsley, Arche- 
ology, in Biologia Centrali-Americana, The Har- 
vard University Memoirs; and works of Saville, 
Herrera, Humboldt, Kingsborough, Stoll, and Dr. 
Berendt. 


r —. 
faye 
Rat 
ee 


—F. S. DELLENBAUGH. 


CENTRE (written also Center). 

A. When used familiarly, a centre line, a 
middle line, an axis, whether of a surface or of 
a solid. Most common in these phrases: Be- 
tween centres, from centres, from centre to 
centre, on centres, denoting the giving or taking 
measurements from such a line to the next cor- 
responding similar line. 


‘a B. Same as Centring. 

e CENTRE MOULD. A thin piece of board 
- or the like, the edge of which is shaped to a 
Al given profile, and which, when rotated about a 


- pivot at one end, will cut corresponding circular 
mouldings in soft plaster or the like. 
489 


cust it ee ae el 
=i é Toe el tS ie 
* i. id aay 4 ‘een 


CENTRING 

CENTRE PIECE. A decorative composition, 
usually circular, oval, or radiating in design, 
forming the central feature or motive of a large 
decoration ; particularly in common _ speech, 


such an ornament in the centre of a ceiling. 
Plaster centre pieces are cast in moulds and 


sold separately for application to plastered 


ceilings. Recently centre pieces have been 
made of carton pierre and many other composi- 
tions, and in ceilings of thin metal the centre 
pieces may be very elaborate. 

CENTRING. A timber framework or 
mould, upon which the masonry of an arch 
or vault is supported until the key is placed 
which renders it self-supporting. The cen- 
tring for a stone arch is composed of parallel 
frames or longitudinal ribs regularly spaced, 
which follow the form of the intrados of the 


& 


CENTRING FOR AN ARCHED OPENING OF SMALL 
SPAN. 


arch, and upon them the transverse laggings 
are placed which support the stones of the 
arch. In small arches the laggings are planks 
forming a close surface ; in larger works, each 
course of arch stones is supported by a single 
light timber. The ribs are formed sometimes 
of beams of convenient length, dressed on the 
outside to the curve of the arch, and supported 
at their ends, or junctions. For small arches 
they are formed of several thicknesses of boards 
cut to the proper curve and nailed together, 
breaking joints. The framing, or the supports 
of the ribs, vary according to the conditions 
and the skill of the designer. They may be 
divided into two general classes: those which 
are supported from the ground or floor under 
the arch by means of radial or normal struts, 
or by vertical posts ; and those which are car- 
490 


CHNTROLINEAD 


ried by the piers or abutments at the ends of 
the arch span, being either trussed or sup- 
ported by arch braces transmitting the weight 
to the ends. The former method is much to 
be preferred when points of direct support can 
be obtained. The centring must be not only 
strong enough to carry the weight of the arch, 
but also so arranged that it will not change its 
shape as the successive weights are placed upon 
it. To facilitate this purpose in long spans, 
the masonry is sometimes placed on the arch in 
blocks, so that nothing is keyed or closed until 
the whole weight is on the centre, and there is 
no risk of its changing its shape. At the Pont 
Notre Dame, in Paris, all the ring stones were 
laid dry, separated by small wedges ; when all 
were in place the joints were filled with mortar 
with a fiche, or sword, with a notched blade 
made for the purpose. —W. R. Hutron. 

Cocket Centring. A form of arch centring 
in which the horizontal tie beam at the spring 
is dispensed with, and its functions fulfilled by 
a system of bracing, so as to allow room for 
passing under the structure, as that of Water- 
loo and several other London bridges erected 
without interrupting river traffic. 

—A. D. F. H. 

Common Centring. The form of centring 
used for arches of small span, as over doors 
and windows in ordinary buildings ; it consists 
usually of a chord, or tie beam, or board at the 
bottom, and two or more planks spiked together, 
and with the outer edges cut to the shape of 
the arch. —A. D. F. H. 

Groin Centring. Properly, the centring built 
under the two crossing lines where the groins of 
a groined vault are to be built, which centring 
must obviously be of great solidity. It is not 
usual to proceed in this manner, however, and 
the term may be stretched to imply the use of the 
centring prepared for a groined vault. If used in 
connection with ribbed vaulting it is erroneous. 

CENTROLINEAD. An instrument for rul- 
ing converging lines whose meeting point is 
beyond the limits of the drawing. Used parti- 
cularly in perspective drawing. It is made in 
a great variety of forms based on different me- 
chanical and geometrical principles. 

CEPHISODOTUS (Kephisodotos) ; sculptor. 

He is supposed to have been the father 
of the great Praxiteles (see Praxiteles). One 
of his most important works was a statue of 
Hirene carrying Ploutos (Peace bringing Plenty) 
which was set up at the Peirzeus (the port of 
Athens) to commemorate the peace of 371 B.c. 
A copy of this work (Brunn, op. cit.) is in the 
Coes at Munich. <A copy of the infant 

loutos was recently found at the Peirsus. <A 
son of Praxiteles also bore the name Cephiso- 
clotus. 

Brunn, Die Sogenannte Leukothea ; Collignon, 
Histoire de la Sculpture Grecque. 

491 


CHRVIA 

CERAMIC. (See Keramics.) 

CERCEAU. (See Androuet Du Coreen a 

CERCIS. The wedgelike or trapezoidal 
body of seats between two climaces or stepped 
passageways in a Greek theatre. lee Climax ; 
Cuneus ; Theatre.) 

CEROMA. Ina Greek gymnasium or Ro- 
man bath, a room for the anointing of the bather 
with oil and wax. The distinction is not clear 
between the ceroma, elwothesium, and unctu- 
arium of the Roman baths. 

CERRO. A mound or hill. In Mexico 
applied to the so-called pyramids (see Mound). 
Cerro Alto, at Palenque, is over 487 feet high. 

—F.S§. D. 

CERTIFICATE. In architectural practice, 
usually, a paper signed by an architect or his 
representative stating that a payment is due to 
the contractor. The contract usually provides 
for payment by instalments, and only on the 
presentation of such certificates. 

CERTOSA. In Italian, a Carthusian mon- 
astery ; same as Chartreuse. The most artis- 
tically important of the many establishments 
known by this name are the following: (1) Near 
Pavia in Lombardy; the most celebrated 
monastery of Italy, and containing an interesting 
round-arched church and cloisters of the four- 
teenth century, and a facade or west front of 
the church which was added in the fifteenth 
century, and is the finest piece of elaborate 
and richly adorned Renaissance architecture in 
existence. No building shows so well as this 
front what might have been done by the Renais- 
sance architects had the classical influence of 
the students of Roman monuments been less 
overwhelming. The round-arched, medieval 
work of the body of the church is also extremely 
interesting, as showing what the Italian archi- 
tects of the later medizval epoch might have 
done with a round-arched style (compare 
Loggia dei Lanzi), (2) Near Florence, in Val 
d’ Ema, about three miles southwest of the city, 
an interesting structure like a medieval strong 
castle, containing tombs, stalls, doorways, pave- 
ment, etc., of great richness and _ beauty. 
(3) Near Pisa, in the Valle di Calci, and often 
called by the name of that locality ; much 
modernized, but containing interesting works of 
art. (4) Near Bologna; now used as a cemetery 
(Campo Santo), but often referred to as “la 
certosa.”” (5) Near Naples, called Certosa di 
S. Martino, with extensive and elaborate build- 
ings of the seventeenth century. (See Monastic 
Architecture.) (Cuts, cols. 493, 494; 495, 
496.) —R. 8. 

CERTOSINA WORK. A kind of inlay or 
intarsia work made by the inmates of Carthusian 
monasteries in Italy. 

CERVIA, BERENGUER ; architect. 

A memorandum dated Sept. 28, 1434, 
indicates that Cervia succeeded in that year 
492 


PLATE XIV 


CERTOSA 


That near Pavia; the church seen from the 
smaller cloister with the south transept, central 
tower, and south flank of nave with south aisle 
and chapels. The round arched architecture of 
this building, contemporary with the latest Italian 
Gothic, and closely preceding the classical Renais- 


sance (it-is of the years following 1400) should 
be compared with that of the Loggia dei Lanzi in 
another plate. The great pinnacles along the wall 
of the chapels on the left are later, with strong 
classical feeling. 


S Acree ee 


f 


CHSARIANI 


CHSSPOOL: 


CERTOSA, NEAR Pavia, LomBARpDY, ITALY. 


Pedro Cipres (see Cipres) as architect of the © 


cathedral of Gerona (Spain). 

Viiiaza, Adiciones al Diccionario Historico. 

CESARIANI (CESARIANO), CESARE; 
architect and painter ; b. about 1483; d. 1546. 

A pupil of Bramante (see Bramante) who 
assisted him in his Milanese work. Portions 
of the church of S. Maria presso S. Satiro 
(Milan) are attributed to him. He is best 
known by his translation of Vitruvius, Di Lucio 


_Vitruvio Pollione de Architettura libri dece, 


traductti de Latino in Vulgare, affigurati, 
commentati, Como, 1521. 

De Pagave e Casati, Vita di Cesare Cesariano ; 
Mintz, Renaissance; W. V. Seidlitz, Bramante 
in Maitland. 

CESCOMES, PEDRO DE. (See Pedro de 
Coma or Cescomes. ) 

CESSPOOL. A sunk pit, generally covered, 
intended for the reception of solid and liquid 
waste matters, as from inhabited buildings. 
There are two kinds of cesspools, viz., leach- 
ing and tight cesspools; the former built of 
stones laid dry, with open sides and bottom, 
permitting the liquid sewage to escape or leach 
away into the subsoil ; the latter built of stone 
or brickwork, laid in hydraulic cement mortar, 
and made water-tight in the same manner as 
cisterns. From a sanitary point of view cess- 
pools are condemned as involving the storage 
on the premises of putrefying organic matter. 
Cesspools are often built in two chambers, the 
first being a settling tank for solids and retain- 
ing the greasy scum (grease trap); the second a 

493 


uns 


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AWC 
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ake 


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Se |g | 
awe) 


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LF 


sf 
AERIS) P 
“Gary OR 


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tt 


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Pa 


A 
LEE 


CERTOSA, NEAR PAVIA: DETAIL OF THE FRONT OF 
THE CHURCH; ABOUT 1475 A.D. 


494. 


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i 
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HL 


y 


a7 


a 


od 
 » 

w 

iw — 


IN 


Il 


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ii 


CERTOSA: PLAN OF THAT NEAR FLORENCE. 


A. Road of approach to the lobbies B. B. Vaulted lobbies of entrance. C. Stairs leading to upper story. 

. Outer court, giving access to vestibule /. #. Residence of the Superior. F. Vestibule leading to the 

monastery proper. G. Church. J. Small cloister. H, J, K, ZL, M. Buildings of administration . kitchens, 
bake-houses, lodgings for strangers and the like. JN. Monks’ cells. O. Cloister. P. Lavatory. 


495 496 


CEYLON 


liquid chamber, emptied by bailing out or 
pumping out when filled, and the two chambers 
being connected by an overflow pipe, dipping 
well down into the first chamber. © (See Drain- 
age.) — W. P. GERHARD. 

CEYLON, ARCHITECTURE OF. The 
island of Ceylon possesses no architectural 
monuments other than the ruins of its antique 
grandeur. It would seem that not a building 
of architectural importance has been erected in 
six hundred years, and neither the Portuguese, 
the Dutch, nor the English have enriched the 
island with a single worthy edifice. The island 
has for 2000 years been almost wholly Buddhist, 
so that it lacks both Brahman temples and 
Moslem mosques other than the most insig- 
nificant examples; and Buddhism has never 
encouraged the erection of great temples, at 
least in Ceylon. Architecturally Ceylon is 
interesting only for its ruins, and these mostly 
of great antiquity and greatly broken down by 


4 _ the rank vegetation which has overrun the 


deserted sites. Wood seems to have been the 
material chiefly used for the magnificent viharas 
(monasteries) and palaces described in great 
detail in the Maha-wanso, and this has long 
ago rotted to dust. Brick covered with white 
chunam was the material most employed for 
masonry, and the colossal engineering works of 
antiquity — dams, canals, and reservoirs — were 
mostly earthworks. Masonry of stone seems to 
have been used but sparingly, though occasion- 
ally huge blocks were hewn, transported, and 
carved for special purposes, and causeways and 
spillways of cut stone still attest the skill of the 
ancient engineers. 

The most important ruins are found in two 
groups at Anuradhapura and at Pollonarua 
(the modern Toparé), the ancient capitals of the 
island. Those at Anuradhapura comprise six 
important topes or dagobas — hemispherical or 
bell-shaped tumuli of brick, serving as shrines 
for Buddha relics; the 1600 monolithic piers 
which once supported the nine-storied ‘‘ Brazen 
Palace” (Mahaloya Paya) of Dutugaimunu 


- (160 B.c.), a wooden structure covered with 


gilded copper, many times burned and rebuilt ; 
and numerous minor shrines. At Pollonarua 
(Toparé) are two important topes; two vast 
stepped platforms, one with the ruins of a 
palace, the other bearing those of the Jetawana- 
rama temple, now roofless, and of the Kiri tope ; 
around shrine and a stepped pyramid shrine, 
the Sat Mahal Prasada; besides many columns 
of long-forgotten palaces and monasteries. 
These various ruins date mostly from the latter 
part of the twelfth century. 

The Ceylon topes are remarkable for their 
enormous size and great antiquity. Of those 
at Anuradhapura, the oldest is the Thuparamaya 
(250 B.c), of bell-shaped form, 70 feet high, and 
surrounded, as are most of the others, by a 

497 


CHAITYA CAVE 


triple procession path, in this case adorned with 
slender monolithic columns. The Abayagiri 
and the Jetawana, the first-named dating from 
87 B.c., the second from 330 A.D., are each 360 
feet in diameter ; and their ruins reach a height 
of over 240 feet. Near these are three other 
important topes, the Ruanwelli and Mirisi- 


wettya (164 B.c., the former 270 feet high); - 


the Lankaramaya (276 A.D.) is wholly in ruins. 
At Pollonarua the Kiri and Rankot dagobas 
are important ; while at Mibnitala the Ambu- 
stella tope is in excellent preservation with its 
pinnacle and encircling columns. At Dam- 
bool is the only rock temple of Ceylon having 
any marked architectural quality, with a very 
florid facade. Besides these and a few other 
less important structures, there are innumerable 
ruins and fragments scattered through the 
island, as at Dambedenya and Yapahoo and for 
miles about Anuradhapura ; but so completely 
overthrown as to make restoration and identifi- 
cation impossible. Architecturally, Ceylon is a 
city of the dead. 

The standard work on Ceylon is J. Emerson 
Tennent’s Ceylon (London, 1860). There is a 
short chapter on the architecture of Ceylon in 
Fergusson’s Indian and Eastern Architecture. 
The Ceylon government is conducting an arche- 
ological survey of the island, but its reports are 
not available as yet at this writing. — A. D. F. 
HAMLIN. 

CHABAT, PIERRE; architect; b. Feb. 
22, 1827; d. Jan. 8, 1892. 

Chabat studied architecture at the Atelier 
Garrer in Paris. He was employed by the 
Chemin de fer du Nord from 1854 to 1858, 
and at the Exposition Universelle of 1855. 
In 1865 he entered the architectural service 
of the city of Paris. Chabat published Prag- 
ments @ Architecture, Eléments de construc- 
tion, Dictionnaire des termes employés dans 
la Construction, La Brique et la Terre Cuitte, 
etc. 

Ch. Lucas, in Construction Moderne, Jan. 16, 
1862. 

CHAIN COURSE. A bond course of stone 
headers fastened together continuously by metal 
cramps. A noted example is the triple chain 
course in the choir of Notre Dame, Paris (1195). 

CHAIN TIMBER. A timber in Chain 
Bond (which see under Bond). 

CHAIR RAIL. A horizontal band or strip, 
generally of wood, secured to the sides of a 
room at a height from the floor equivalent to 
the usual height of the backs of chairs, in order 
to prevent them from injuring the face of the 
wall. It is commonly decoratively treated to 
conform with the general woodwork, and the 
space of wall beneath is often finished as a dado. 

CHAITYA CAVE. In Buddhist architec- 
ture a rock-cut temple to enshrine a chaitya 
(object of veneration). The design is three- 

— 498 


CHALCHDONY 


aisled, the broad central aisle having a barrel 
vault roof, terminating in a semidome over an 
apse, in which stands the Dagoba, or chaitya — 
the shrine. The side aisles, separated by mas- 
sive ornate piers, are usually flat-roofed. At 
the front are internal and external galleries, and 
a door to each aisle ; the upper part of the front 
is open. Important examples are found at 
Ajunta, Dhumnar, Ellora, Kaunari, Kaili, Nas- 
sick, and other points, — especially in the Bom- 
bay Presidency. (See India, Architecture of.) 
—A.D.F. H. 

CHALCEDONY. In general, the ordinary 
white, gray to black, greenish, bluish, brown, 
and red varieties of cryptocrystalline silica. 
The name jasper is applied to the more pro- 
nounced brown, yellow, and red varieties, one 
form grading into the other without distinct 
lines of demarkation. Agate is the name given 
to the banded varieties such as form in cavities 
in igneous rocks and more rarely elsewhere. 
Their natural colours are white, grayish, and red ; 
the mahogany and smoky brown colours are all 
artificially produced. Onyx proper is a variety 
of agate, though the same name is incorrectly 
applied to certain banded calcareous rocks (see 
Onyx under Marble). Carnelian is a clear red 
chalcedony, and sardonyx is an agate with car- 
nelian bands. Flint and chert are impure forms 
occurring in nodular masses in limestones and 
chalk. Opal is the completely amorphous, glass- 
like form of silica occurring under much the 
same conditions as chalcedony. The varieties 
used in jewellery are found mostly in cavities in 
igneous rocks. —G. P. MERRILL. 

CHALCIDICUM. An annex to a Roman 
basilica. Its location and use are not clearly 
discernible from the texts, some of which, in- 
deed, refer apparently to a separate and inde- 
pendent edifice. By modern writers the term 
has been applied to the narthex or other appen- 
dage to a Christian basilica. 

CHALDEAN ARCHITECTURE. (See 
‘Mesopotamia. ) 

CHALET. A wooden dwelling house of the 
type common in Switzerland. The chilets are 
of two different types as for the structure: 
(a) the type derived from the log house, of 
heavy beams placed one upon the other and 
crossed at the angles; Oberland, Uri, Schwytz, 
etc.; (b) the framework building, a structure 
of posts and beams, with the wall merely filled 
in with thick boards, or even bricks, etc., 
Zurich, Saint Gallen, Appenzell. A few chalets 
combine the two types. The chalets still exist- 
ing were built in the three last centuries, but 
are the continuation of a tradition and of an art 
anterior to that time. In both types, the prin- 
cipal qualities are simplicity and logic of con- 
struction. The facade indicates the interior ; 
the floor-beams are apparent and show the 
division into stories, which demarkation is often 

499. ° 


CHALET 


accentuated by a penthouse or a carved decora- % 


tion. All the organic parts of the construction, 
the framework, etc., are emphasized so as to 
produce a decorative effect ; the brackets that 
support the roof are enormous, the chimneys 
are monumental, also the dormer windows ; 


nothing is hidden or masked. The roof ad- 


vances considerably on the front, from four to 
ten feet; on the sides of the house it extends 
widely, sometimes even it comes down to within 
three or four feet of the ground ; the sides being 
so well protected, galleries or balconies are 
placed there, where the staircase is also gener- 
ally found ; sometimes there are also small bal- 
conies on the front, but only on the upper story, 
and always sheltered by the roof. 


The decoration belongs to the building itself; _ 


it is not superadded, but is part of the necessary 
and organic members of the construction, and 
covers them with sculptured ornaments and de- 
signs. As the chalet has its origin in early 
medizval architecture, so does the ornamen- 
tation continue, in wood, the admirable Ro- 
manesque decoration. The influence of the 
neoclassic Renaissance was felt very late and 
very slightly. Even in the eighteenth century 
the chalets are more often faithful to the spirit 
of medizval ages; it is in the furniture, the 
dressers, etc., that the neoclassic ornament makes 
its appearance. 


It is well to compare some of the designs of - 


the carving with the wood carving of Norwe- 
gian art. They both come from the same, very 
distant, Oriental source of art. Finally, paint- 
ing is often employed to complete the work 
of sculptural decoration, either being architec- 
tural, and serving to strengthen the general 
effect of carved decoration, or else being quite 
independent. 

The roofs of the chalets are adapted to differ- 
ent climates. The very steep, high roof is that 
of the chalet of the plain; and it is built to 
allow the rain water to run off rapidly. The 
second, or mountain, chalet is built for a country 
where snow is abundant and heavy; it has a 
broad, low roof, crossed by long, horizontal 
beams and shingles, so that the snow may accu- 
mulate on it, and protect the house from the 
exceeding cold of the winter. 

The ingenious fancy of the carpenter-archi. 
tects has been pleased to vary infinitely these 
two types of chalets, but they have always 
remained faithful to the general rules indicated 


above, and to the spirit and the requirements. 


of the art of building in wood. They have not 
attempted to apply to wood the laws of stone 
architecture, and it is to that fact that we owe 
the purity, the elegance, the originality of the 
Swiss chalet that holds a place quite apart in 
the history of architecture. — JEAN SCHOPFER. 

For the bibliography of Chalet, see books re- 
ferred to under Switzerland. 

500 


changed to the present site. 
the work in association with Jean Armand Ray- 
=) mond (see Raymond, J. A.). 


planned the arch much as-it now appears. 


the city of Paris, under Moreau. 


¥) the height of about 18 feet. 
_ Huyot.) 


: } : Pocus 
. a 7 vo ey; s R 
AY : ? Fh ; 

s rays ON 


CHALGRIN 


Fe ie ‘CHALGRIN, JHEAN-FRAN COIs THE 
ie Pe RESE; architect ; balviavecd: Jan. Ziel 811. 


‘Se ry 
s ss 
4 } 


- yandoni) and Moreau. 


Chalgrin was a ‘pupil of Servandoni (see Ser- 
He won the Grand 


_ Prix de Rome in 1757. On his return from 


Italy he was made inspector of public works of 
About 1777 
he rebuilt the northern tower of the church 
of 8. Sulpice in Paris (see Servandoni), and 
designed the organ loft of that church. Chal- 


grin is famous as the designer of the Arc de 


Triomphe de l’Etoile (Paris). Napoleon I. (b. 


_-:1769; d. 1821) first intended that this monu- 


ment, originally called Arc de Triomphe de la 
Grande Armée, should be placed on the Italian 
boundary. When work upon it- was under- 


~ taken in 1806, he changed the location to the 


Place de la Bastille (Paris), and the name to 
Are de Marengo. The location was objected 
to by the Académie de 1|’Architecture, and was 
Chalgrin began 


Raymond re- 
tired in 1808, leaving Chalgrin in charge, who 
At 
his death the monument had been carried to 
(See Goust and 


Quatremére de Quincy, Notice Historique de 
Chalgrin ; Edouard Fournier, in Paris dans sa 
Splendeur ; Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 


CHALK. A limestone composed mainly of 


the calcareous tests of foraminifera, though con- 


taining, also, shells of larger mollusks. When 
much indurated, as in the valley of the Seine, 
it is used as a building material. —G. P. M. 
CHAMBER. In general, a room or subdi- 
vision of a building. In common usage, espe- 
cially in the United States, it is restricted to 
the signification of a bedroom. Particular ap- 


plications of the term are : — 


A. A hall or building for the meetings of a 
special body, as the Senate Chamber, Chamber 
of Commerce, etc. 

B. Any subdivision or cell of a cellular 
structure, or member. 

CO. Inthe plural, a suite of rooms used as 
offices, especially, in English usage, lawyers’ 
offices. 

D. In the plural, an apartment house or 
suite of rooms forming a residence. Mare in 
the United States. 

Judges’ Chambers. In a courthouse, the 
room or rooms occupied by a judge, or by the 
judges of one court, when not on the bench. 
As many decisions, or judgments, are rendered 
without a formal trial (as by a jury), and after 
a presentation of the case to the judge alone 
by the attorneys of both litigants, the term 


“chambers ” has grown to imply such legal de- 


cisions made by a judge or by several judges 
acting together. 
501 


CHAMBIGES 


CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM; architect ; 
b. 1726 (at Stockholm, Sweden); d. March 8, 
1796. 

Chambers was the son of a Yorkshire mer- 
chant residing in Sweden. He was brought up 
in Yorkshire, and at the age of sixteen went to 
China as supercargo to the Swedish East India 
Company. While in China he made studies of 
architecture, costumes, etc., which he afterward 
published under the title Designs for Chinese 
Buildings, Furniture, etc. (London, 1757, 
folio). At eighteen he abandoned business for 
architecture, and studied in Paris and in Italy. 
Chambers devoted himself to the fully devel- 
oped classical style of Palladio, which he never 
abandoned. Returning to England in 1755, he 
was presented by Lord Bute to the Prince of 
Wales, afterward George III., to whose per- 
sonal attachment he owed much of his success. 
For Augusta, Princess Dowager of Wales, he 
erected the buildings of Kew Gardens, London. 
He illustrated this work in Plans, Hlevations, 
Sections, and Perspective Views of the Gar- 
dens and Buildings of Kew (London, 1763, 
1 vol. folio). Chambers’s reputation was made 
largely by his Treatise on the Decorative Part 
of Civil Architecture (London, 1759, 1 vol. 
folio), one of the standard manuals of classic 
architecture. In 1771 he was made Knight 
of the Polar Star by the King of Sweden, and 
was permitted by George III. to assume the 
title of knight in England. In 1775 Cham- 
bers was made architect of Somerset House 
(London). The original Somerset House was 
begun by Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, 
the Protector. After Somerset was beheaded 
(Jan. 22, 1552), his palace became crown prop- 
erty. It was rebuilt by Inigo Jones (see Jones, 
I.). In 1761 it was decided to reconstruct 
Somerset House. This work was begun by 
Sir William Chambers in 1776. 

Hardwick, Memoir of the Life of Sir William 
Chambers ; Blomfield, Renaissance Architecture 


in England ; Fergusson, History of Modern Archi- 
tecture; Lottie, History of London. 


CHAMBER STORY. A story of a build- 
ing wholly or chiefly devoted to sleeping rooms. 
Thus, where the second story of a residence is 


| devoted to sitting rooms, drawing-rooms, and 


purposes of state, the third story will be a 
chamber story. (See Story.) 

CHAMBIGES ( SAMBICHES, CAM- 
BICHES), MARTIN ; architect (Mattre Ma- 
con); d. Aug. 29, 1532. 

Martin Chambiges was called from Paris to 
Sens (Yonne, France) in 1489, to design the 
new transept of the cathedral. He began 
the construction Nov. 8, 1490, and in 1494 
transferred the superintendence to Hugues 
Cavelier (see Cavelier), afterward making oc- 
casional visits of inspection. He appears to 
have modified his plans in 1498. Nov. 7, 

502 


CHAMBIGES 


1499, Martin was invited to attend consulta- 
tions in Paris concerning the reconstruction of 
the Pont Notre Dame, which had fallen dur- 
ing the preceding month. In 1501 he com- 
menced the doorway called Portail d’Abraham ; 
and in 1513 the northern portal of the cathe- 
dral of Sens. In 1502 Martin was invited to 
Troyes (Aube, France), to advise concerning the 
construction of the facade of the cathedral (see 
Bailly, Jean, I.). He designed the facade with 
its two towers and portal in 1502-1503, but 
did not commence building until the autumn 
of 1506. In 1500 he made the plans for the 
transept of the cathedral of Beauvais (Oise, 
France). He began construction at once, and 
continued in charge until his death. He was 
assisted by Jean Wast (see Wast, J., I.). 
Martin Chambiges was thus concerned in building 
three of the most beautiful cathedrals of France. 

Berty, Les Grands Architectes francais; Bau- 
chal, Dictionnaire; Gonse, L’ Art gothique ; 
Quantin, Notice historique de V’ Eglise de Sens; 
Assier, Les Artistes dans l’ Ancienne Capitale de 


la Champagne; Desjardins, La Cathédrale de 
Beauvais. 


CHAMBIGES, PIERRE (I.); architect ; d. 
June 19, 1544. 

A son of Martin Chambiges (see Chambiges, 
M.). He was associated with his father in the 
construction of the cathedrals of Troyes and 
Beauvais. In 1519 he was called to Troyes to 
inspect work at the cathedral executed by his 
brother-in-law, Jean de Sois- 
sons (see Jean de Soissons). 
In 1533-1534 Pierre was 
associated with Domenico da 
Cortona (see Domenico da 
Cortona), Jacques Arasse, 
and others in the construc- 
tion of the Hotel de Ville, 
in Paris. In 1538 he was 
employed at Fontainebleau 
under the direction of Gilles 
le Breton (see Breton, G. le). 
The most important achieve- 
ment of Pierre Chambiges 
(I.) appears to have been the 
construction of the old cha- 
teau of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (near Paris), 
which, with the exception of the chapel (thir- 
teenth century), was rebuilt by him on the old 
foundations after 1539. 


Berty, Les Grands Architectes francais ; 
Berty, Topographie, Louvre et Tuileries; Pa- 
lustre, La Renaissance en France; Marquis de 
Laborde, Comptes des Batiments du roi; Calliat- 
Leroux de Lincy, Hotel de Ville; Sauvageot, Pa- 
lais, Chateaux, Hotels et Maisons de France. 


CHAMBIGES, PIERRE (II.); architect ; d. 
about 1616. 
Pierre Chambiges (II.) seems to have been a 
son of one Robert Chambiges, who in turn ap- 
503 


HAN 
LH 


the Pont Neuf (Paris). 


CHAMP DE MARS 


pears to have been a brother or son of Pierre 


Champiges (I.). In 1578 he was employed at 
In 1582 Pierre (II.) 
submitted estimates for work at the chapel of the 
Valois at Saint Denis (near Paris), which were 
rejected by Baptiste Androuet du Cerceau (see 
Androuet du Cerceau, B.), then supervising 
architect of that building. In July, 1507, he 
was chosen arbiter by the masters of the hos- 
pital of 8. Esprit (Paris). The assertion of 
Sauval (op. cit.), that one Chambiges built the 
Petite Galerie of the Louvre is supposed to 
apply to Pierre (II.), but is not corroborated. He 
was, however, employed on the Grande Galerie. 

Berty, Les Grands Architectes francais ; Berty, 
Topographie, Louvre et Tuileries; Sauval, Anti- 
quités de la Ville de Paris; Palustre, La Renais- 
sance en France; De Chenneviéres, Archives de 
V Art frangais ; Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 


CHAMBRANLE. In French architecture, 
the framelike decoration around a window or door. 

CHAMBRES, THOMAS DES; abbot and 
architect; d. 1225. 

In 1222, Thomas des Chambres, abbot from 
1218 to 1225, continued the construction of 
the large building, called La Merveille, on the 
north side of the abbey of Mont Saint-Michel 
(Manche, France), which had been 
begun in 1203 by the Abbot Jour- 
dain. 


Corroyer, Abbaye du Mont Saint- 
Michel. 


CHAMFERS WITH ORNAMENTAL STOPS. 


A, At Exton Church, Rutland. B. At Glastonbury Abbey. (C. At Courtlodge, 
Godmersham, Kent. 2. Cross section of chamfer. 


CHAMFER. The bevel or oblique surface 
produced by the cutting away a corner or arris. 
When the chamfer does not extend the whole 
length of the arris, it is called a stopped cham- 
fer (see Stop). When instead of a bevel there 
is a concave surface replacing the arris, it is 
called a concave chamfer. A beaded chamfer 
is one in which a convex bead is left projecting 
from the bevel of the chamfer. Chamfers 
occur principally in woodwork, and occasionally 
in stone cutting. (Compare Cant; Splay.) 

CHAMFRET. Same as Chamfer ; old form. 

CHAMP DE MARS. (Apparently a trans- 
lation of Campus Martius.) An _ exercise- 

504 


4 


a er 
mye 
wie 


s 


iy 


on eee 


aS Sat | 


steps. 


sanctuary — separated by the altar 


yy ma! sn e AP. 


CHAMPOLLION 


ground for troops, especially that in Paris, such | 


a place elsewhere being commonly known as 
champ de manceuvre. The Champ de Mars of 
Paris is a large open tract of ground on the left 
bank of the Seine. The military school founded 
by Louis XIV., and now a barrack, fronts upon 
it. Architecturally, it is of interest from its 
occupancy by the International Expositions of 


(1867, 1878, 1889, and 1900, each of which 


involved the erection of interesting buildings. 
CHAMPOLLION, JHAN-JACQUES 

(CHAMPOLLION-FIGEAC); architect; b. 

Oct. 5, 1778 (at Figeac, Lot, France) ; d. May 


9, 1867. 


Champollion-Figeac was a brother of Jean- 
Francois Champollion, the Egyptologist. He 


-was custodian of the manuscripts of the Biblio- 
-théque Nationale, professor at the Ecole des 


Chartes, Paris, and bibliothécaire of the palace 
of Fontainebleau. He wrote the text to Pfnor’s 
Monographie du Palais de Fontainebleau 


(Paris, 1863, 3 vols.), and numerous unim- 


portant works on archeology. 
La Grande Encyclopédie. 


CHANCEL. That portion of a church set 
apart for the use of the clergy, and where the 
Holy Eucharist is celebrated, and the 
divine office is chanted. It is situated 
at the rear, and therefore properly east- 
ward, of the nave, from which in large 
churches it is separated by a screen or 
rail, and, as its floor is higher than the 
nave, it is approached by one or more 
The chancel is often divided 
into two parts—the choir and the 


rail. The division nearest the nave is 
the choir (the place of the singers), and 
the division east of the choir is the 
sanctuary (the place of the high 
altar), the place referred to by S. Am- 
brose (A.D. 397) in the following 
words addressed by him to the EKm- 
peror Theodosius, ‘‘ The priests alone, 
O Emperor, are permitted to enter 
within the rail of the altar — retire 
[to the nave], then, and remain with 
the rest of the laity.” (Theodorat, 
Kicel. Hist., B.V.C., 18.) The altar 
is in the centre of the sanctuary ; the 
credence (or the table for the bread 
and wine, the sacred vessels, and the 
missal) is on the south side ; and near 
by in a wall recess is the piscina —a 
drain to receive the washing of the 
priest’s hands and that of the sacred 
vessels. On the same side, but to the 
west, isasedilia, divided into three seats, 
for the officiating clergy at the sacrifice ; and on 
the north side, in the case of a cathedral church, 
the bishop’s throne is now placed ; anciently it 


was placed behind, and higher than, the altar. 
505 


CHANCEL BENCH 


The term is, however, frequently used to 
denote the sanctuary only, as distinguished from 
the choir. 


Ch. Rohault de Fleury, La Messe, études Arch- 
éologiques, 8 vols. (Paris, 1887) ; Albert Lenoir, 
Architecture Monastique (Paris, 1852) ; and X., B. 
de Montault, Construction de l_Ameublement et 
Décoration des Eglises (Paris, 1885). CO 


High Chancel. The central or principal part 
of a chancel in a large church where there are aisles 
or a deambulatory. The need of the term comes 
from the confusion between the use of ‘“ choir,” 
“‘ chancel,” etc., to denote particular sacred en- 
closures, and the use of the same terms to denote 
the entire easterly division of the building. 

CHANCEL AISLE. The side aisle of a 
chancel. In large churches having an apsidal 
end, the aisle usually passed around the apse, 
forming a deambulatory. In English churches 
having a square eastern termination the chancel 
aisle is often stopped short of the end of the 
chancel, and in some cases extends but one bay 
beyond the transept or chancel arch. 

—A. D. F. H. 

CHANCEL ARCH. An arch in the wall 
which, in many churches, separates the chancel 


CHANCEL OF STAINDROP CHURCH, YORKSHIRE; ABOUT 


1370 A.D. 


Perpendicular style. The end window somewhat later. 


or sanctuary from the nave or body of the 
church. (See Chancel ; Choir ; Church.) 
CHANCEL BENCH. A bench, usually of 


stone, placed against the side of the chancel, 
506 


vy 


CHANCEL RAIL 


either externally or internally, as in some old 
English churches. Benches in the chancel 
apparently took the place of more elaborate 
stalls. 

CHANCEL RAIL. The railing or barrier 
in place of a chancel screen by which the chancel 
is separated from the nave. Where no sub- 
divisions of the chancel exist, the chancel rail 
may include the functions of an Altar Rail. 


CHANCEL SCREEN. Properly, a screen 


separating the chancel from the body of the 
church. Frequently applied to a screen sep- 
arating the sanctuary from the choir, the term 
chancel being then applied to the sanctuary 
only. Chancel screens in this latter sense are 
to be found in large churches; or in those 
monastic churches in which the choir is much 
the most important part of the interior. In 
ordinary cases there is no such separation, and 
the term is continually used for choir screen. 
(See Choir Screen and references. ) 

CHANCERY. A. The room, set of rooms, 
or house occupied by an official bearing the title 
of chancellor. Hence, by extension, the offices 
of a chancellor and his assistants. 

B. The room or set of rooms employed for 
the business uses of an ambassador, a minister 
plenipotentiary, or similar diplomatic representa- 
tive of a government. In the house of an 
ambassador, the rooms where his official cuss 
is done bear this name. 

CHANNEL. Any furrow or groove, whether 
for carrying off water or for any other purpose. 
A street gutter is in England sometimes called 
a channel. In Greek Doric architecture it is 
applied to the grooves of the triglyphs and 
columns ; those of the columns being called by 
this name to distinguish them from the flutes 
of the Ionic and Corinthian orders ; though this 
distinction is not always maintained. 


CHANNELING. 


a. Showing in plan the typical Doric column. dq. Plan of a 
shaft in the cathedral at Monza, Lombardy, Italy. c. A 
section rare in architecture, except occasionally in late 
Gothic. 

CHANNELLING. The breaking up of a 
surface by means of channels or grooves, usually 
near together and parallel ; channels collectively. 

CHANNEL IRON. Aniron or steel mem- 
ber shaped as a channel ; especially one having 


507 


, = CHAPEL 


the form of a small channel beam, which see co i . : 


under Beam. 


CHANTEREL, JACQUES; architect(maj- 


tre @oewvre) and sculptor. 

Chanterel appears in the records of 1555, 
1556, and 1558 in association with Ambroise 
Perret in the decoration of the monument of 
Francois I., at Saint-Denis (see Philibert De 
YOrme.) The fine cornice and the Ionic capitals 
are especially his work. In 1558 he contracted 
with Philibert De Orme to build the bridge 
and gallery of the Chateau of Chenonceau 
(France). 


De Laborde, Comptes des batiments du rot ; 


Palustre, Renaissance; Chevalier, Chateau de 
Chenonceau. 
CHANTIER. In French, a workshop; in 


English, a shed to protect stone cutters or other 
workmen from the sun and rain. 

CHANTLATE. A piece of wood fastened 
at the end of rafters and projecting over the 
wall, supporting rows of tiles to prevent rain- 
water from running down the walls (A. P.8.). 
(Compare Lookout.) 

CHANTRY. A. A foundation or establish- 
ment for the daily or frequent saying of mass in 
behalf of the founder or some other person or 
persons. 

B. The chapel or separate part of a church 
appropriated to the purpose of A, and commonly 
built or adorned by the founder. It is often a 
bay, or two or more bays, of an aisle, enclosed 
by a screen. 

CHANTRY CHAMBER. A chamber for 
a chantry priest. 

CHANTRY CHAPEL. Same as Chantry, 
B. 

CHANTRY, SIR FRANCIS LEGATT, 
R. A.; sculptor; b. April 7, 1781; d. Nov. 25, 
1842. 

The sculptor Chantry made the equestrian 
statue of George IV. in Trafalgar Square (Lon- 
don), the statue of the Duke of Wellington in 
front of the Royal Exchange, and. numerous 
monuments in Westminster Abbey and else- 
where. 


Redgrave, Dictionary of Artists. 


CHAORI. A large porch to a Brahman 
temple in India, used especially for marriage 
ceremonies. It is sometimes identical with the 
Mantapa, and sometimes precedes it, forming 
in area the largest feature of the temple. 

CHAPEL. A place of Christian worship 
differentiated from a church in one of several 
ways, — either as being smaller, or as of a sect 
or rite not the established one of the nation ; or 
as being accessory, either attached to a larger 
building, or dependent upon it or its foundation. 
Specifically :— 

A. A place of worship, not the principal 
church of a parish or of a diocese; in this 

508 


“a 

‘ : * 
ioe 

- 

- 

3 

PF 


4 bea 


f 
(| 

iy 

a 

a 


CHAPEL IN SOUTH AISLE OF CHOIR, CHURCH AT NORREY (CALVADOS), FRANCE. 


509 510 


\ 


—S 
ron 
U 


sna 


SZ 


CHAPEL: CHAPELLE DE L’EVEQUE, PERIGUEUX (DORDOGNE), FRANCE. 


511 512 


ee ae 


' but more rarely a sepa- 


CHAPEL 


sense, Protestant places of worship in Catholic 
countries, or the like, are called chapels ; and, 
in England, buildings of the Dissenters. 

B. A structure built in connection with a 
church and opening from it. Along the aisle 
of a large church it is customary to build chapels 
opening from the aisle like bay-windows ; either 


closely adjoining one another, as on the sides of 


the nave aisles, or forming absidioles around the 
chevet of the east end. The addition of these 
to large Gothic churches forms often one of their 
principal architectural features. Some chapels 
are so large as to form buildings of separate 
design (see Lady Chapel below). Sometimes 
one bay, or in rare cases a still 
larger space, is screened off and 
used as a chapel. (See Chantry, 
B.) 

C. A place of wor- 
ship attached to a public 
building or large dwell- 
ing; often an oratory, 


rate building like a 
¢hurch. S. Mark’s 
church in - Venice was 
the chapel of the Doge 
until the present cen- 
tury, and the 8. Chapelle 
at Paris was the chapel 
attached to the ancient 
palace of the king. 

. —R. 58. 

Arena Chapel. A 
small ancient chapel 
in Padua, North It- 
aly, decorated with 
important paintings 
by Giotto. Its pop- 
ular name comes from 
its situation on part 
of the ground once 
occupied by the Ro- 
man amphitheatre 
(arena). 

Chantry Chapel. 
Same as Chantry, B. 

Colleoni Chapel. 
A chapel attached to .* 
the cathedral of Ber- 
gamo in Lombardy, 
and built in his old 
age, about 1470, by 
Bartolommeo Colleoni, that soldier of fortune 
whose equestrian statue by Verrocchio stands in 
Venice in front of the church SS. Giovanni e 
Paolo. 

Domestic Chapel. One attached to a pri- 
vate mansion, not necessarily within the walls 
of the main building, but under the special 
control of the owner. The Dictionary of the 
A. P.S. makes a distinction between this and 

513 


‘CHAPEL 


the oratory, or private chapel, which seems to 
apply only in Great Britain. It appears that 
the domestic chapel may be administered by an 
incumbent acting under the direction of the 
bishop of the diocese, while the oratory or pri- 
vate chapel would be 
rather a place for family 


Se 
Siaberes 1 = 


ddivens 


CHAPEL OF CHOIR, CATHEDRAL OF LE MAns (SARTHE), FRANCE. 


worship, where the service provided in the 
prayer-book for that purpose is the only one 
used. (Cut, col. 519.) 

Expiatory Chapel. In Paris; erected by 
Louis XVIII. ; finished in 1826 from the de- 
signs of Percier and Fontaine. It commemo- 
rates Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette and the 
other royalist victims of the Revolution, includ- 
ing the soldiers killed in the defence of the 

514 


CHAPEL 


+ Mt —— - — ah? — — ui 


CHAPEL OF THE PazzI, CHURCH OF S. CROCE, FLOR- 
; ENCE, ITALY. (SEE PLAN.) 


z 4 a ¢ 5 S 7 8 tires 


————— eee 


CHAPEL OF THE PAzzi: PLAN. (SEE CUT.) 
515 


CHAPEL 
Tuileries, and the site is chosen as being the - 
place where the king and queen were buried | 
in 1793, in the then burial ground of the 
Madeleine, the modern Boulevard Haussmann 
passing close to its walls. The exterior of 
the building is a fantastic study of ancient 
funeral monuments, but it is solidly built and 
vaulted, and is a costly monument. © 

Free Chapel. <A chapel founded apart . 
from the regular ecclesiastical authority. The 
tendency of modern times has been to put an 
end to these. 

S. George’s Chapel. At Windsor; the 
principal chapel of Windsor Castle ; a magni- 
ficent building of perpendicular architecture, 
with one of the three finest fan-vaulted roofs. 
in existence. It was built at the close of the 
civil wars, begun by Edward IV. and finished 
by Henry VIII. It has the dimensions of a 
large church, 232 feet in length and 104 feet 
at the transept. The chapel serves especially 
for the Order of the Garter, and the stalls of 
the knights are arranged along the sides of 
the choir. | 

Henry the Seventh’s Chapel. A large 
chapel opening eastward from the architec- 
tural choir of Westminster Abbey, — that is, 
from the ambulatory which passes around 
Edward the Confessor’s Chapel. The chapel 
is in itself an important church of the latest 
perpendicular Gothic, with a magnificent fan- 
vaulted roof, one of the three most important 
in England. (Compare King’s College Chapel 
below ; S. George’s Chapel.) It contains the 
tomb of Henry VII. and his queen, in bronze, 
with statues by the Italian Torrigiano. The 
stalls around the chapel are those of the 
Knights of the Order of the Bath, above, and 
the Squires on a lower level. © 

King’s College Chapel. (See under Col- 
lege.) 

Lady Chapel. A chapel dedicated to the 
Virgin ; especially, in England, one connected 
with a cathedral, Such chapels are often at- 
tached to the choir, and either form a pro- 
longation of it to the east or form a building 
like a separate small church with a covered 
passage connecting it with the main church. 

Mortuary Chapel. A chapel containing 
a tomb and having an altar at which masses 
for the dead are said, or, in modern times, a 
chapel connected with a family vault, or in 
a cemetery, the term being used loosely. 

Parochial Chapel. In England, one for 
the parishioners of a large parish, but differ- 
ing from a chapel of ease in that it is, or rep- 
resents, the church of an old parish which 
has been united to another. 

Pauline Chapel. (Cappella Paolina.) In 
the palace of the Vatican, near the Sistine 
Chapel, and, like that room, opening out of 
the Sala Regia. It was built by Pope Paul 
516 


i 
x 
x 
ex 
¥ 
4 
x 


BLA PE ow. 


CHAPEL 


That of King’s College, Cambridge, England. 
This interior, roofed by one of the three great fan 
vaults of England, may be thought finer in effect 
than any cathedral interior in the island. Its 
dimensions are great for a single unbroken room, 
nearly eighty feet in height to the crown, with a 
width of forty-five feet, and a total length of about 
three hundred and ten feet inside the walls. The 


value of monotony, or the long continued repeti- 
tion of similar parts, is nowhere shown more effec- 
tively. The building was begun under Henry VI, 
and carried on by his rival, Edward IV, when in 
power, but the fan vaulting and the decoration are 
generally of the time of Henry VII, and of the 
developed Tudor style. 


Le 


containing windows. The room stands nearly 


CHAPEL 


III., about 1540, and contains important fres- 
coes by Michelangelo. 

Private Chapel. (See Domestic Chapel 
above. ) | 

Proprietary Chapel. In England, a place 
of worship belonging to an individual, where 
service is held according to the forms of the 
established church. Differing from a private 
chapel in that it is open to all who choose to 
hire sittings. 

Sepulchral Chapel. (Same as Mortuary 
Chapel above.) 

Sistine Chapel. (Called also Sixtine Chapel, 
Capella Sistina) ; in the palace of the Vatican, 
built by Pope Sixtus IV toward the close of 
the fifteenth century. The room is extremely 
plain, 50 feet wide and about 147 feet long, 
roofed in the Italian manner with a vault of 
generally three-centred section, which vault is 
broken by subordinate vaults, two at each end 
and six at each side; the lunettes so produced 


east and west; on the eastern end is painted 
“The Last Judgment,” by Michelangelo, and 


CHAPEL: CHURCH OF S. SPIRITO, FLORENCE, WITH 
NICHES USED AS CHAPELS IN THE OUTER WALLS. 


517 


¢ § er ee red ee oli 0 ae ON ae ae ee ee c r > ey 
ante cc a : . 


CHAPEL 


amasevetes: 122 eeeemen sees 


saneees nets wremepesomttesensee 


an tereatons 


—— 
Lt 

eet) (on lar | 

las bel 

emails” 8 

! Eis y 
Cackaealetibadiaiateaaae 


i mitra 
amuidian thi 


CHAPEL: CATHEDRAL OF FLORENCE, WITH 
FIFTEEN APSIDAL CHAPELS FORMING 
EXTERNALLY A LARGER AND LOWER Oc- 
TAGONAL PROJECTION OF EACH APSE. 


the whole roof, as well as the lunettes, 
is covered with his frescoes. On the 
side walls, below the windows, is a row 
of paintings by Sandro Botticelli, Cosimo 
Rosselli, Perugino, Ghirlandajo, and by 
Lucca Signorelli as has been generally 
assumed, though this last ascription is 
now disputed.— R. 8. 

S. Stephen’s Chapel. In London; 
adjoining Westminster Hall ; was burned 
in the fire which destroyed the Houses 
of Parliament in 1834. The crypt of 
it was refitted and decorated during the 
present century, and is entered by a door 
leading from the platform at the upper 
or southern end of Westminster Hall. 
It is kept up as the Chapel of the 
Houses of Parliament, in and about 
which there are many official residences, 
and which has as many inhabitants as a 
large village. The present 8. Stephen’s 
Hall, which is the public passage from 
Westminster Hall eastward to the Cen- 

518 


CHAPEL OF EASE 


tral Hall, between the House of Peers and the 
House of Commons, very nearly represents 
the upper or principal story of the ancient 
S. Stephen’s Chapel. 

Wayside Chapel. A small chapel main- 
tained at the side of a road or highway for the 
benefit of pilgrims, travellers, or other wayfarers. 

CHAPEL OF EASE. In England, a church 
built within the bounds of a parish for the at- 


ae ———— SS —S— 
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SS : \\" \ \ \ 
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we : \\ 
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24, (( ZZ \\\\ 
1: Z \ 
LY a = Z Z iy \, 
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gS HE zg ( Ih \X \\ \ \= 
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i . LY \ vA \S = pe 
‘ = \EN z, = 
( Ly) Y= hs \\; V's \ = 
j ) ‘> ) < WN 
Z \\ SS V—AP SS = = 
YY 2 =) : 
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SS Zs } Y 
=| SZ / Yh i 
Ye 


ee ae = = 


————————S—SSSS——SSS—SS 


SSS SS SSE 


Se ep eS 
—— : = 


| 
i 
J 


— 


oe gees = ee 


DoMESTIC CHAPEL, BROUGHTON CASTLE, OXFORDSHIRE; 


THE EAST END. 


tendance of those who cannot conveniently reach 
the parish church. 

CHAPEL ROYAL. The banqueting house 
at Whitehall, London, used as a chapel since 
the time of George I. 

CHAPITER. Same as Capital. 

CHAPLET. A bead moulding carved into 
the semblance of a string of beads or pearls; a 
carved astragal or baguette. 

519 


CHARES OF LINDOS 


CHAPTER HOUSE. A room, often forming 
a separate building, in which meets the chapter 
of a cathedral or conventual establishment ; cor-. 
responding to the French Salle Capitulaire. 
Those of the English cathedrals are often very 
effective pieces of architecture, and the octag- 
onal houses with central pillars, of York and 
other cathedrals, and of Westminster Abbey, 
are remarkable pieces of Gothic decorative build- 
ing. That of Westminster Abbey is about 
54 feet in diameter between two opposite 
» sides; its central pillar is 35 feet high, 
‘)/ and the height to the crown of the vault 
i| is 54 feet. (Cut, cols. 521,522.) 
| CHAPTER ROOM. A. Same as 
i) Chapter House. | 
(iB. A yoom provided for the stated 
li. taeetings of a chapter in its proper sense 

' of an assembly of canons or members of 
an honorary order ; hence, by extension, 
the place of meeting of a branch or sub- 
organization of a large association. (Cut, 
cols. 523, 524.) 

CHAPTREL. A. A small capital. 

B. A capital not projecting on all 
sides, as of a pilaster or vaulting shaft. 

CHAPU, HENRI MICHEL AN- 
TOINE; sculptor; b. Sept. 29, 1833 
(at Lemée, Seine-et-Oise, France); d. 
April 15, 1891. 

He won the Premier Grand Prix de 
Rome in 1855. Among his best works 
are “‘La Jeunesse,” a figure for the monu- 
ment to Henri Regnault at the Ecole des 
Beaux Arts (1875), “La Pensée,” a fig- 
ure for the monument of Daniel Stern 
(1877), the monument to Mgr. Dupan- 


a loup at Orléans (1887), and the statues 


of Pluto and Proserpine at the chateau of 


“| Chantilly (1884), ete. 


Vapereau, Dictionnaire universel des 
Contemporains, 1893; F. Courboin, article 
Chapu in La Grande Encyclopédie. 

CHAPUY, NICOLAS MARIE JO- 
SEPH; architect and lithographer; b. 


1790 (at Paris) ; d. July 23, 1858. 

Chapuy assisted in the preparation of 
the great Voyage pittoresque et roman- 
tique dans Vancienne France by Ch. 
Nodier, Baron Taylor, and Cailleux (20 
vols., folio, Paris, 1820-1878), and the 
Voyage en Orient by the Marquis Léon 
de Laborde. In 1823 he brought out 
his series of the Cathédrales de France, with 
historic text by F. T. de Jolimont. 

Bellier de la Chavignerie, Dictionnaire des 
Artistes. 

CHARES OF LINDOS (in the island of 
Rhodes) ; Greek sculptor. 

Chares was a pupil of Lysippus (see Lysip- 
pus), and is especially famous for the colossal 
statue of Helios (the Sun God) which he erected 
520 


% 
vi 
i” 
: 

r 


he 


ae ea 


’ 


te 


@ 


Ta. oe 
sot aad 


‘ACIS LSHM ‘AONVUA ‘(ASIO) NOAON AO IVUGHHLVO AHL JO ASNOOH NALAVHO 


522 


521 


US 


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ey) 


Ne 


SZ 


BER 
2 


laa 
AEN, 
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URN 
R44Wi 
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VES 


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<7 NZ, 


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“= 
nS 


= 
ee 


Le 


ay, 
SUS 


SS 


2 
<> 


oe Se SS Se EE EE 


LACK 
Wis 
AS 


me 


(/ 


i 
Ay 
END 


NIN 
\) 


RYN 


CHAPTER ROOM OF SALISBURY CATHEDRAL. 


523 


524 


PLATE Seva 


CHATEAU 


(Upper figure.) That of Pierrefonds, northeast 
of Paris, and the most elaborate and perfect speci- 
men of a feudal chateau which exists. It was 
built at the close of the fifteenth century; dis- 
mantled by command of Richelieu, and repaired 
by order of Napoleon III, and at great cost. The 
restoration includes much unwarranted modern 
work in the way of decoration, but the planning, 
disposition, and arrangements for defences are 
entirely trustworthy. 


(Lower figure.) That of Ecouen, northwest of 
Paris. It was built in the sixteenth century by 
Jean Bullant, and its exterior has remained un- 
changed. The pavilion in the foreground is the 
chapel, retaining in an odd way features of Gothic 
architecture, not only in the pointed windows, but 
also in the vaulting within. On the right is the low 
building which closes the fourth side of the great 
court ; the other three sides being faced with build- 
ings not unlike those seen on the left in the picture. 


r. CHARGED 

at Rhodes and which was called one of the seven 
wonders of the world. ‘This statue, 105 feet 
high, was paid for by the sale of war machines 
which Demetrios Polyorketes abandoned when 
he was obliged to raise the siege of Rhodes in 
303 s.c. After standing sixty years it was 
thrown down by an earthquake. 

CHARGED. Adorned with, or bearing, 
something else; used of architectural features 
or members which bear decorative forms in re- 
lief designed independently of the charged sur- 
face, as rosettes, escutcheons, masks, etc. The 
term is adopted from the heraldic science of 
armorial bearings. (See Arms.) 


ee ee ee ee eee ay oe, OO Ow ye 
Modi) = t Ade _ 4 » fi em ie? . 


CHATEAU 


CHARTREUSE. In French, a Carthusian 
monastery corresponding to the Italian certosa. 
(See Monastic Architecture.) The building most 
commonly mentioned under this name is La 
Grande Chartreuse in the mountains near Gre- 
noble (Isére). 

CHASE. A groove or channel formed in a 
structure, as in the face of a wall, to receive some 
accessory such as flues, wires, sliding weights, or 
the like. A chase may be left in a wall for the 
future joining to it of an abutting wall to be built 
later. A chase differs from a groove mainly in 
being relatively large, and in not ordinarily calling 


for accurate fitting to whatever it is to receive. 
—A.D. F. H. 


CHATEAU OF THE FRENCH RENAISSANCE: CENTRAL MAss oF CHAMBORD; 1525 To 1540. 


CHARNEL HOUSE. A place of deposit 
for dead bodies in connection with a medieval 
church ; in particular, one to which bodies were 
consigned until desiccated or reduced to mere 
skeletons which could then be removed to the 
ossuary or bone house. The crypt of a church 
was sometimes used as a charnel house; and a 
special chapel was often provided above the 
charnel. (See Ossuary.) 

CHARTER HOUSE. A Carthusian monas- 
tery, the term being a mispronouncing of the 
French chartreuse. 

Especially, a famous foundation school for- 
merly occupying the site of an old monastery in 
London, now removed to the country. 

CHARTOPHYLACIUM. A place for the 
safe keeping of records and other valuable 
documents (late Latin ecclesiastical term). 

525 


(SEE PLAN.) 


CHATEAU. In lands where the French 
tongue is spoken, the residence of the feudal 
lord of the soil. This, of course, was a fortified 
dwelling ; and throughout the Middle Ages the 
chateau is exactly the same thing as the English 
castle during the same epoch. In modern times 
the phrase Chateau-fort is used to describe one 
of those strong castles. Chateaux built since 
the beginning of the sixteenth century are not, 
therefore, fortified in any serious way ; those of 
the sixteenth century being still surrounded by 
a deep ditch which enclosed gardens and stables 
as well as the buildings proper, and those of 
later times, mere country houses, without even 
a strong outer wall. The term is given even to 
a rather small and unimportant dwelling house, 
if it is the residence of the owner of considerable 
landed property. Thus, the houses of owners 

526 


CHATEAU 


of vineyards in the wine-growing regions of 
France give names to the superior wines grown 
in the vineyards of the proprietor, as in the names 
Chateau Lafite, Chateau Yquem, etc. It is 
notable that this use of the term does not prevail 
in the famous wine-growing region of Burgundy, 
where, although the building may be called a 
chateau by the neighbours, it does not give that 
name to the produce of the vintage. 


CHATEAU 


specimens’ may be mentioned; such as the 


chateau of Josselyn in Brittany, as an instance 


of the large buildings of the sixteenth century ; 
the chateau of Bussy-Rabutin, as a building of 
the seventeenth century; and the Chateau of 
Maisons-sur-Seine, aS an instance of a quite 
modern building. 

It is to be noted that the word chateau is 
applied to royal palaces in France, and that 
the word palais is rare, used in this sense. 
Thus, the great edifices at Chambord, Blois, 


——s 


CHATEAU OF CHAMBORD. 


The term chateau is applied, therefore, to 
modern French country houses to an extent far 
greater than the English word castle. The 
latter is used only as part of a time-honoured 
name and in a few cases, whereas in France a 
house built during the present century where no 
previous building of the kind has ever existed, 
is called chateau as a matter of course. There 
is, therefore, no particular type of dwelling to 
be described as peculiarly a chateau, but good 

527 


een 
I + ue QUT, mt 


(SrEx Cut.) 


and Amboise are called simply royal chateaux ; 
and the Louvre, in Paris, is the royal chateau 
upon which all the fiefs in the country de- 
pended during the continuance of feudality. 
(See Palais.) 


For the books concerning the strong castles of 
the Middle Ages, see Castle ; for the great manor 
houses of the Renaissance, see bibliography un- 
der France ; also Petit, Les Chateaux de la Vallée 
de la Loire, Paris, 1861. 


528 


7 
y, 
i 
y 


) | ned mie Hs 
7 ‘ 
4 


Apa eee ee a ee ee ee ee Oe 5 a Nei St be 


CHATEAU DEHAU 


CHATEAU D’EAU. An artificial cas- 
cade architecturally treated ; often a structure 
of considerable pretensions from which the 
water emerges. It is probable that this treat- 
ment of cascades originated with the Romans ; 
it was carried to great perfection in the villas 
of the Italian Renaissance and Decline; and 
in modern times has been most successfully 
applied by the French. The most celebrated 
Italian examples are that of the Villa d’ Este 
(Tivoli) ; the Fontana di Trevi (Rome, 1743, 


by Ferdinando Fuga) ; and that of the Caserta 


palace (1753, by Van Vitelli), the latter the 
most magnificent of all. 


Paris, and the fountain of Longchamps at Mar- 
seilles. — A. D. F. H. 
CHATEAU, GUILLAUME DU. (See 
Guillaume du Chateau.) 
 CHATEAUX OF THE LOIRE. Those 
of peculiar importance, historical and architec- 
tural, in the departments of Loire, Loir-et-Cher, 
and Indre-et-Loire, and situated not far from 
the river Loire. Some are royal chateaux and 
now belong to the nation, such as Amboise, 
Blois, and Chambord ; but Azay-le-Rideau, Cha- 
teaudun, Chaumont, Chenonceaux, Longeais, and 
Romorantin are private property. These are 
all of the French Renaissance. The name is 
sometimes extended to some earlier, and now 
ruined, buildings, such as Chinon and Loches. 
CHAVANNES. (See Puvis de Chavannes. ) 
CHECK (I.). <A crack or split caused by 
the uneven shrinkage of wood while seasoning 
or drying. It is to guard against checks that 
lumber is quarter sawed, and large sticks, espe- 
cially posts, have their hearts bored out. 
CHECK (II.). In masonry, a rabbet-shaped 
cutting along an edge of a stone by which it is 
made to fit another stone adjoining. Commonly 
used in uncoursed and random-coursed masonry, 
to reduce the height of a stone at one end to 


correspond with an adjoining stone of less 


height, so that the next stone above or below 
will overlap the two, breaking joints. (See 
Masonry.) Used also in sense of Pien Check 
(which see below). 

Pien Check. In a stair constructed with 
hanging steps of stone, a check along the lower 
front edge of a step by which it fits the back 
of the step next below. (See Step.) 

CHECKER. dA. Any decoration which di- 
vides a surface into equal squares treated alter- 
nately in different ways, as with different colours 
or with high and low relief. 

B. A form of diaper ornament in which the 
compartments are uniformly square, as in late 
Romanesque and in Gothic surface carving. 

O. With the article, one of the squares in 
checker work. 

CHEEK. A narrow upright face forming 
the end or side of an architectural or structural 

529 


In France, good ex- 
amples are at Saint-Cloud, the Trocadéro in | 


CHEHRSIPHRON 


member. Usually, one of two corresponding 
opposite faces, whether forming the sides of an 
opening, as the jambs of a doorway, or forming 
the two side faces of a projection, as a buttress 
or chimney breast. 

The term is often extended to mean an up- 
right member or piece forming such a face, and 
this definition is accepted by the dictionaries, 
although the meaning given above appears to 
be the more accurate. — D. N. B. 

CHEIROCRATES. (See Deinocrates.) 

CHELLES, JEAN DE; architect and 
sculptor. 

From the commencement of the cathedral 
of Notre Dame (Paris), in 1163, the name of 
no architect connected with the work is known 


| until 1257, when the southern arm of the tran- 


sept was enlarged and the southern portal built, 
which bears the inscription, ANNO + DNI : M. 
CCLVII. MENSE - FEBRVARIO + IDVS + SECVN- 
DO + HOC + FVIT - INCEPTUM - CRISTI * GENITRI- 
CIS - HONORE - KALLENSI - LATHOMO + VIVENTE - 
JOHANNE: MAGISTRO. The rose window above 
appears to belong to the thirteenth century. 
The chapels of the nave, built between 1245 
and 1250, may be his work. The northern 
portal has been ascribed to him, but was proba- 
bly built about 1313. (See Chelles, Pierre 
de.) A Jean de Chelles was working on the 
old Louvre in 1265, under the direction of Ray- 
mond du Temple. _ (See Raymond du Temple.) 

Bauchal, Notre-Dame et ses premiers <Archi- 
tectes; Viollet-le-Duc and Lassus, Monographie 
de Notre-Dame; Ministére de l’Instruction pub- 
lique, Inventaire général, Monuments religieux, 
as) ame Be 

CHELLES, PIERRE DE; architect. 

It appears from the records of the cathedral 
of Chartres that Pierre de Chelles, Mattre de 
Vv Guvre de la Cathédrale de Paris, and 
others visited the cathedral of Chartres as ex- 
perts Sept. 9, 1316. They found that repairs 
were needed in the vault at the intersection of 
the nave and transept, in the buttresses, and in 
the Grande Tour. This Pierre was probably a 
son or brother of Jean de Chelles (see Chelles, 
J. de), and may have succeeded him as archi- 
tect of Notre Dame (cathedral of Paris). 

For bibliography, see Chelles, Jean de. 


CHEMIN-DE-RONDE. In French, and 
by adoption in English, a continuous gangway 
behind a rampart ; providing a means of com- 
munication along the walls of a fortified en- 
closure. 

CHEOPS. The name, taken from the text 
of Herodotus, anciently given to the Egyptian 
king Khufu, the builder of the Great Pyramid 
of Ghizeh. (See Pyramid.) 

CHERSIPHRON ; architect. 

Chersiphron of Knosos in Crete was the 
earliest architect of the great Ionic temple of 
Artemis (Diana) at Ephesus in Asia Minor, 

530 


CHERT 


about 616 B.c. Remains of this early temple 
were discovered by Wood in his excavations | 
(see Theodoros). 

Brunn, Geschichte der griechischen Kiinstler ; 
Vitruvius (ed. Marini) ; Wood, Ephesus. 

CHERT. A form of chalcedony ; like flint, 
but found mainly in other rocks. —G. P. M. 

CHERUB. A. A symbolic, or allegorical, dec- 
oration consisting of an infant’s head with wings, 
common in late Italian seventeenth-century carv- 
ing, and on English and American tombstones 
of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. 

B. In the art of the sixteenth century and 
later, a naked child in any religious or liturgical 
representation. These figures are not often 
winged. 

C. In ancient Jewish and in Byzantine art 
a symbolic figure with six wings, as on the Ark 
in Solomon’s Temple, and on the pendentives 
of Hagia Sophia, Constantinople. — A. D. F. H. 

CHEVAL , DE FRISE (pl. Chevaux de 
Frise). (Com- | monly used in the plural.) An 
assemblage of | sharp points so arranged as to CHEVRON MovuLpinG: CHAPTER Hous, CHRIST 

) CHURCH, OXFORD. 


bar the way and 


prevent easy access. | or iron, with points radiating in many direc- 
Thus, upon the wall | tions, are used for exactly the same purpose as 


of a@ prison yard or | the broken glass 
the like, chevaux de | Jaid in cement 


frise, made of hori- | mortar on a 
zontal bars of wood | wall of less dig- 
nity. 
CHEVET. 
Thé rounded end 


CHEVRON MOULDING. 


nection with the Gothic churches of France. 
The term includes the apse itself, or 
rounded end of the central part or nave, 
and also the aisle or aisles (see Deam- 
bulatory ; Pourtour) which pass around it. 
(Cut, cols. 533, 534.) 
CHEVRON. An ornamental 
unit resembling an inverted V ; 
the term is derived from heraldry, 
Ak and there signifies a single A ; 
but in architecture it is seldom 
used except as part of a 
chevron moulding. 
CHEVRON MOULD-— 
ING. A moulding adorned 
with chevrons, or zigzags, 
as in Norman and some 
Romanesque portals. The 
chevrons are usually of 
cylindrical section (whence 
the French name bdtons 
rompus, i.e. broken sticks), 
and alternately convex and 
concave. 
CHILLENDEN, 
THOMAS ; ecclesiastic. 
Chillenden, prior of 


‘ Te, 
Ee 


CHEVET OF COUTANCES CATHEDRAL; GENERAL VIEW FROM THE 
BIsHOP’s GARDENS. Canterbury cathedral from 
531 532 


of a choir in a church, especially used in con- 


Pe SE, | pe ne eC ee ee ee 


a 


“os 


PEEP EREITY ARES P PM pr Ng REET 
SM el SS ts ROE 
a Y 


eer ae LOS a | ean Se — a 22 EH 
a &1~-|{fe3 eee 
LNG Bee aGuae ( 
ee SCOT 
LEO | es 


f- eo ERS 
SI E s “o ‘ 
Spt go gee Bn 

PR BES ASS Sas ee 


ts 
tA: 
> os 


i) 


—— 


i 
ieee des mes woman 


Ae ~ cin hla 


mote 


i AIRY 


¢: = Y 
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Ss naa 


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AGA: Se ea ~ = eel 
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Pre = ie 8 = ~ 2 2 eens, Sane : 
OSS 7 GESESISINEESES 
Me. ALS f Zoos SENS 
4 REN Se PFE 


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nme eaeres 


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= 
Say = 
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Se ge eX 


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fe 
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at 


Danes 


IEW, LOOKING EAST. 


INTERIOR V 


d 


CHEVET OF THE CATHEDRAL OF CHALONS-SUR-MARNE; 


_ 633 


1 Pic! CP MiGente ee Cor ee We cat) Bees 


-CHIMAIRA 


1391 to 1411, is supposed to have built, or to 


have superintended the building of, the nave, 
choir, and part of the chapter house of Canter- 
bury cathedral. Archbishop Arundel (see Arun- 
del, T.) contributed also to this work. 


Britton, Cathedral Antiquities. 


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S = if ‘ 1M 
= SS ae 
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FE ms 
: é 
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5 
Bee saa 
=== = 


iE: = 
=f ge See) 


B Hitt 
Siecle Pi yo 
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wie 


CHIMNEY AND BATTLEMENT, CREMONA. 


CHIM4RA. A sculptured or painted rep- 
resentation of a non-natural monster, especially 
if of supposed formidable character. The term 
is a reminiscence of the legendary Chimera of 
Lycia, but is not limited to representations of 
that creature as described. 

CHIME. A number of bells so proportioned 
to one another and so tuned that they are capa- 
ble of being struck in harmony, producing a 
more or less elaborate piece of music. Chimes 
may consist of five, six, eight, or more bells ; 


CHIMNEY OF THE MILL OF MANNEBERG, SWITZER- 
LAND. 


Constructed of thin tiles set on edge to insure the least weight 
possible on the wooden framework which supports it. 


those consisting of many more being usually 
called Carillon. Chimes are commonly played 
in one of three ways, viz.: Ist, by machinery 
with a revolving drum, the projecting bands 
upon which drum catch the ends of wires con- 
necting with the clappers or hammers; 2d, by 


€ 
dd 


CHIMNEY ARCH 
means of a keyboard, the keys of which connect 
in like manner with the clappers, and which 
can be played upon by the musician below ; 
3d, by pulling the bell ropes, one person having 
charge of each bell, and these ringers being 
trained to act in concert under the direction of 
a leader. It is held by persons who are stu 
dents of the subject that only the swinging of 
the bells in this third manner, with their 
mouths uppermost, is properly called chiming, 
or bell-ringing, all other devices being make- 
shifts. In certain parts of England, the clergy- 


men in charge of parish churches have of late 
years organized bands of their parishioners for 
the chiming of their church bells. — R. S. 
CHIMNEY. That part of a building which 
contains a flue or flues for conveying smoke or 
the like to the outer air, and often encloses also 


a et et 


ee 


=r 
i 
1 


CHIMNEY OF A HOUSE IN MEININGEN, SWITZER- 
LAND. 


Consisting of a wooden hood covering nearly the entire kitchen, 
and having a movable cover operated from below. 


the fireplace, if there is one; specifically, that 
portion which rises above the roof. (See Chim- 
ney Stack; Gathering; Hovelling.) (Cuts, 
cols. 537, 538, 539.) 

Steam Chimney. A chimney provided to 
carry off the exhaust steam from a steam plant. 

Stick Chimney. An outside chimney built 
of sticks of wood, generally about one inch thick, 
by three or four inches wide, laid in the form of 
a square upon each other with the ends crossing, 
and plastered with mud, or with lime-and-sand 
mortar. Used on log cabins and similar con- 
structions in various parts of the United States. 

CHIMNEY ARCH. The arch over the 
opening of a fireplace, supporting the breast. 
It is usually a flat or segmental arch, though in 

536 


‘@ 
‘ 
q 
B 
“3 


. 


eee a ene 2. 
se , é 


ve te 


Rar. = fy waked 
wy 7 
’ 


Sr 


| 


CHIMNEY BACK 


modern buildings there is much greater variety 


in form than used to be customary. (See Chim- 
ney piece ; Fireplace ; Mantelpiece.) 


CHIMNEY IN RIO DI 
CASTEL FORTE, 
VENICE. 


CHIMNEY: THORNBURY 
CASTLE, GLOUCESTER- 
SHIRE, C. 1514 A.D. 


CHIMNEY BACK. 4A. The back or outer 
wall of a chimney stack, as opposed to the front, 
in which are the fireplace openings. 

B. More commonly the back of the fireplace, 
against which the fire is built.. In the Middle 
Ages it was faced with brick or tiles; in the 
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries often a 
movable back of cast iron, sometimes of very 


CHIMNEY OF PALAZZO 
DELLA ZECCA, VENICE. 


$ 
CHIMNEY OF PALAZZO 
ALBRIZZI, VENICE. 


decorative pattern, was used. Fire brick and 
iron are both used in modern fireplaces. (See 
Fireplace.) 

537 


CHIMNEY CORNER 


CHIMNEY BAR. A bar or beam for the 
support or steadying of the masonry above a 
fireplace. It is either straight or curved, accord- 
ing to the form of the chimney arch, and is 
usually set a few inches back from the face of 
the arch, so as to be nearly out of sight. 

CHIMNEY BOARD. Same as Fire Board. 

CHIMNEY BREAST. The front portion 
of a chimney stack, projecting into the building 
from the general plane of the wall. 


eyha 


eats mH l 
i ; il 


i 


‘| 


aT 


' i 
s hil 


CHIMNEY FROM ARCHBISHOP’S PALACE, SOUTH- 
WELL, NOTTINGHAMSHIRE. 


CHIMNEY CORNER. A. In old fire- 
places of exceptional size, the angle or recess 
formed by the deep jambs supporting the hood 
or mantle, and provided with seats, the fire 
blazing between them against the chimney back, 
while the hood or mantle collected and conveyed 
the smoke into the flue. 

538 


PR Agent a RES Ce cit Ten ORT BARS ea CR RET RC nay et oe 
% i oe he i re . aie ro 2) 60a, pata) Sheen 4 
. P uP \ A : mn ‘ 


. 


A\s a} 


7 ” 
x rf 
Cree rte: ey 


CHIMNEY HOOD 


B. In modern houses, a corner or recess 
built with seats one on each side of an open 
fireplace. There is often an outer 
arch, hood, or mantel, covering and 
including these and seeming to 4, 
frame the opening of the fireplace. ¥ 


CHIMNEY PIECE 


ei HAAN 
SDA 
AW Nuh 


oh 
SI 


Waa 
ay 
RA \ 


it 
(WN 

f it fi 
ANH 
Wa 


Ny 
Hy 


My Wut \ Nh fe fal 
AN eth ¥ 
WARRING 


CHIMNEY AT Exton, RUTLAND, ENG- 
LAND, C. 1350. 


pare crepe a ye Tp OTT TT 

CHIMNEY HOOD. A hood- a, ——————— — | 
like structure projecting from a : z : | 
chimney breast out over a fire- ce a 
place to collect the smoke. Very :\ je io a q 
frequent in the Middle Ages, Ye : 
and of great size. They are, l, | : 
less important in Renaissance i i 


to-day except as imitations or 
decorative survivals. 

The Persians and Turks 
employed richly decorated  ; | 
plaster hoods over their niche- ; ' 
like fireplaces. 1 (i 

CHIMNEY HOPPER. A — | 
cast-iron frame, like an in- | 
verted hopper, built into a i 
chimney over the fireplace 
to form or support the 
gathering in of the brick- >. -.-* I} Kyle i a ce: ee 
work at the throat. ae — i: i | il eee Zee ae 
It is an English device, 
rarely or never used in 
the United States. 


| 
examples and are seldom seen 


CHIMNEY MAN- “ 7 
TEL; MANTLE. (See Mantel.) === eS 
CHIMNEY PIECE. The ~ °° <2——————™” 


protective structure around a fire- 


place, often ornamental. (Com- CHIMNEY PIECE OF THE CHATEAU OF VILLEROI; NOW IN THE 
pare Mantel ; Mantelpiece.) LOUVRE. 


539 540 


CHIMNEY POCKET 


CHIMNEY POCKET. A. The vacant 
space left for economy in the construction of a 
chimney to bring out a chimney breast to the 
desired width, or to the desired angle, as for a 
corner fireplace. 

B. The prolongation of a flue below a lateral 
opening, —as for a stovepipe,— used to cata 
mortar or soot falling from above. 

CHIMNEY POT. A continuation of a 
chimney flue above the chimney top, so formed 
and contrived as to increase the draught. 
Chimney pots were formerly of pottery (whence 
the name). They are now often made of sheet 
iron capped by a hood or revolving cowl. 

CHIMNEY SHAFT. A. That portion of 
a chimney which rises above the roof. In Eng- 
lish and French domestic architecture, especially 
in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, much 
attention was bestowed upon the design and 
decoration of the numerous chimney shafts 
required in important houses, and they were 


often of great elegance. 


BL. That portion of a tall chimney — as of a 
factory — between the base or pedestal and the 
topping out. 

CHIMNEY STACK; STALK. (The 
second form rare in United States.) 

A. The entire structure of a chimney of 
several flues, comprising the breast, withes, 
back, flues, stack, and top. 

B. A tall isolated chimney for a furnace or 
factory, having usually but one flue. 

C. A chimney shaft in sense A; especially 
when there are several flues and the whole 
structure is massive and high. 

CHIMNEY THROAT. = The narrowest 
portion of a chimney flue, between the gathering 
or upward contraction above the fireplace and 
the flue proper, which is made of its full section 
above the throat. The shelf formed by the 
gathering or drawing in below the throat and 
the narrowness of the latter are efficacious in 
preventing down draughts. The throat is often 
provided with a flap or damper, the closing of 
which, when the fire is out, wholly excludes both 
draughts and rain. The proper contraction of 
the throat was first insisted upon by Count 
Rumford about the close of the 17th century. 

— A.D. F. H. 

CHIMNEY VALVE. A valve or damper 
arranged in an opening in a chimney by which 
a room may be ventilated. It is designed to 
allow the air to pass outward while preventing 
a back draft into the room. 

CHIMNEY WAIST. Same as Chimney 
Throat. (Written also chimney waste.) 

CHIMNEY WING. One of the sides or 
lateral cheeks of the gathering in of a chimney 
immediately above a fireplace, by which the 
jambs are contracted toward the throat. 

CHINA, ARCHITECTURE OF. Most 
ancient of nations, centre of Asiatic civilization 

541 


CHINA 


at different epochs, original source of Japanese 
culture, architecturally China yet remains, for 
the European scholar, a barren, or at least an 
unworked, field. Three thousand years of civil 
wars, dynastic fighting, and Tartar and Mongol 
invasion have swept away all trace of palace or 
temple ; her alleged conservatism has not shown 
itself in architecture, and the existing structures. 
are far less like those of a thousand years ago 
than are those of the Japan of fifty years since. 
Indeed, it is from the architecture of this latter 
country that we must infer what we can of that. 
other that made it possible. Fortunately in the 
Horiuji temples near Nara (see Japan) we have 
structures of the sixth century that we know 
were built by Korean architects, and we also 
know that at this period the art of Korea was 
the art of China. There can be no doubt that. 
in these Horiuji temples we have the perfect 
style of the Buddhist architecture of China, dif- 
fering from it only to that degree which would 
appear between the first small temples of mis- 
sionaries in a savage land and the prototype 
established among a rich and prosperous people 
already civilized for a thousand years. 

The European student is met at this early 
period in his study by the insuperable difficulty 
of deciding how important a part of the archi- 
tecture of China was formed by those wood- 
framed temples. In the simple and uniform 
artistic culture of Japan they formed the more 
important structures and received the full wealth 
of that decorative treatment which at all periods. 
the Japanese have known how to give to their 
industrial art ; but in China, a land many times. 
larger, and with a population not only ten times 
as great but also diverse in origin, distributed 
into widely separated provinces, between which 
there was but little intercourse, and giving 
through long spaces of time but a nominal 
allegiance to any central government, the archi- 
tecture of China through the important epochs 
of artistic history must have been widely differ- 
ent from anything of which travellers and 
residents in the East have been able as yet to 
discover and record. Archeological research 
has never existed for China, nor have travellers. 
at once familiar with building and the decora- 
tion of building, and also bold, enterprising, 
observing, and gifted with leisure and oppor- 
tunity, ever, as it would seem, made China their 
place of sojourn and research. The photographs 
occasionally brought home by tourists, now that 
the inland provinces may be more freely resorted 
to than of old, give the lie to very many of the 
assertions of the standard authorities. A view 
on an inland river may show interesting pago- 
das in the far distance and extremely picturesque 
groops of roof and wall in monasteries and vil- 
lages near at hand. Those buildings which 
seem the most undeniably ancient are evidently 
traditional in style, referring to a lost and forgot- 

542 


RS ey a OW Te ee meen eke 


CHINA | 


ten antiquity; and the newest buildings, which 
-have been erected under purely Oriental influence, 
without the interference of Western ideas, have, 
in their combinations of elaborately worked stone 
walling, sculptured doorways, decorated windows, 
and fantastic battlements, with simple thatched 
roofs, a singular attraction for the student of 
architecture in its many forms. 

In the sixth century the Zen mission brought 
from China to Japan the architecture of a period 
later than that of the Horiuji temples, but 
Obaku-san differs less from Horiuji than do the 
existing Chinese structures from the former, and 
it is therefore evident that the swift fall of 
Chinese civilization in the last two centuries had 
clearly shown itself in its architecture, which 
cannot be taken to represent in the least what 
must have been in the time of the nation’s 
g ory. 

In the historical records we read of wonderful 
palaces of enormous extent built during the 
Ts’ing and Han dynasties before the Christian 
era, but of the character of their architecture no 
hint is given. They are spoken of with wonder, 
but if we were to judge by the more recent 
palaces of China, Korea, and Japan, they were 
probably more notable for their extent than for 
grandeur or beauty. These modern palaces, how- 
ever, are not the structures by which the ancient 
traditions should be interpreted. Small, inland 
monasteries are known and can be partly studied 
in photographs, and these humbler groups of 
buildings are far more suggestive of a great 
architectural past than the more pretentious 
structures in the cities. Like the modern pal- 
aces, the ancient ones undoubtedly consisted of 
many small buildings crowded together. Very 
probably masonry entered largely into their con- 
struction, for we know that a thousand years 
before the Christian era brick was the common 
building material, while even in recent times 
stone is used far more than is the case in Japan. 
There are legends of marble steps, terraces, and 
walls, even of whole buildings, built of marble 
with roofs of marble tiles. In records of two 
thousand years ago we read of the burning of 
royal cities forty miles in circumference, yet we 
are also told that the kings returned and repaired 
their burned palaces so they were fit for habita- 
tion ; this would of course be impossible had 
wood been the building material, as it is in 
Japan. Moreover, the ‘‘Taa,” or pagodas, now 
existing are generally built of brick covered with 
porcelain tiles and sheathing, while the ‘ Great 
Wall,” the stone base or terrace of the ‘‘ Winter 
Palace,” and certain details of proportion and 
construction in modern wooden structures point 
unerringly to a former wide use of masonry con- 
struction. Further than this we cannot go; of 
the nature of the architecture from the founding 
of the Hia dynasty, B.c. 2205, down to the 
departure of the missionaries for Korea and 

543 


‘practical uses. 


CHINA 
Japan in the sixth century a.D., we know 
absolutely nothing. 

For the Buddhist architecture of this latter 
century we must refer to the temples of Horiuji; 
but whether this was a style peculiar to this 
religion alone, made up of details taken from 
Greek, Persian, and Indian architecture and fused 
by the dominating quality of China herself, or 
whether by this time, after five centuries of 
identity with Chinese civilization, it had become 
the universal architecture of the nation, no one 
can say. That Buddhist architecture was 
originally an exotic, brought from India by the 
first missionaries A.D. 65, is quite certain, for 
it shows traces of Indian influence that are un- 
mistakable, while the sculpture that came at 
this time, and in the sixth century was carried 
to Japan through Korea, is purely Indian, with 
all its Persian and Hellenic qualities. | 

Until this time the palace and the royal tomb 
were the only structures of importance recorded ; 
but after the advent of Buddhism, when this 
exalted religious system took the place of empty 
Confucianism and the superstition of Taoism, 
the true temple became of almost equal impor- 
tance with the palace, and of even greater value 
architecturally. The plan, component parts, 
structure, and design of the typical Buddhist 
temple and monastery are described under 
Japan, and need not be repeated here. 

The architecture of the imperial city of 
Pekin, and of the seaport towns, which is that 
best known to the European student, is nearly 
all of a very recent epoch. And it is to be 
noted that the comparative slowness of change 
in the East does not in any way guarantee the 
retention in the modern buildings of such charm 
as the ancient ones possessed. All the records 
of art history show the rapid degeneration of 
grace, harmony, charm of proportion, and ele- 
gance of detail during the periods of copying, 
nor can any conservatism be so great as to in- 
sure the retention of the better characteristics 
of an ancient art. Just as thereis in China an 
apparent disappearance of the great ancient 
arts of painting, ceramic decoration, wood carv- 
ing, and the like, so the buildings of modern 
times are the work of a decadent people, who 
willingly abandon all attempts at pure decora- 
tion, but who must still create buildings for 
All that remains of architec- 
tural excellence in these modern buildings is 
the dignity of great masses, and the contrast, 
often very agreeable, between light, generally 
wood-built, superstructures, with the massive 
walls of the basements. Thus, the ‘‘ Winter 
Palace” at Pekin, and the great gateway 
structures of the same city, with three- or four- 
story buildings raised high upon a defensible 
substructure of massive stone, deserve admira- 
tion for the dignified treatment of their large 
and varied groups; and some of the pagoda 
544 


— 


CHINA 


towers, which are often unfavourably criticised 
because of the monotony of their succession of 
equal stories, are impressive because of that 
very monotony. In general, however, it is safe 
to conclude that the Chinese architecture of the 
last 300 years is immeasurably inferior to that 
which must have gone before. 

In Japan, while there was a great falling off 
in the purity and nobility of the style after the 
time of the Ashikaga Shoguns, there was not a 
complete loss of architectural identity, and the 
increase in gorgeousness of ornament and rich- 
ness of decoration give the Tokugawa style a 
distinct quality of its own. In China, on the 
other hand, all that we can now see is the record 
of a complete collapse of civilization. The curves 
of the temple roofs are gross and exaggerated, 
the pagodas, usually octagonal in plan and 
often nine stories in height, are often clumsy, 
while the colour tends to be crude and violent. 

It is easy to see why this decadence should 
have taken place in China and not in Japan, 
for the latter country has never been conquered 
since history began. Its dynasty has endured 
for thousands of years, and it possessed during 
its twelve centuries of greatness a dominant and 
united religion, and a complete system of social 
organization. In China the case has been 
wholly different. Now united under one ruler, 
now divided into fighting states, it has seen a 
score of dynasties, and twice—once in the 
thirteenth century by Kublai Khan, the Mongol 
chief, and once in the sixteenth century by the 
Manchus, under Li—it has been entirely con- 
quered, and it still remains under the dominion 
of the Manchu invaders. 

Mongol and Manchu influences are every- 
where visible in what passes for modern archi- 
tecture, and this fatal barbarism makes Chinese 
architecture unworthy the study that the art of 
building in Japan can justly claim. 

That at one time Chinese architecture was a 
thing of the utmost beauty and grandeur we 
cannot doubt. Hangchow, the capital of the 
Sung dynasty in the thirteenth century, is said 
to have been one of the most wonderful cities 
of the world, and we know that the lofty 
civilization created by the wise emperors of 
this most famous line could only have expressed 
itself in noble art. But Hangchow is only a 
name, and the Mongol invasion swept away all 
traces of the Sung régime. The Ming dynasty 
tried in vain to restore the old art, but, gor- 
geous as were the results, they were without 
the purity of the older style. The famous 
“Summer Palace” and ‘Winter Palace” 
showed through the overloaded splendour of 
their colour and ornament the hard lines, the 
coarse curves, the clumsy masses, that inevitably 
mark a degraded style. The buildings of the 
Ming dynasty were yet not without grandeur 
from their very size. The ‘“ Winter Palace,” 

545 


CHINA 


raised on its huge stone terrace, and recalling 
the Doric temple of Assos in its design, was 
vast and impressive ; while the royal tombs were 
huge structures that must have possessed great 
dignity, since we read of vast halls 210 feet by 
90 feet and 64 feet high with their roofs sup- 
ported by teak columns 4 feet in diameter and 
32 feet high ; marble terraces, enormous flights 
of steps, huge stone gateways, and wonderful 
gardens made up compositions of amazing rich- 
ness, while the painting and sculpture and por- 
celain of this period filled the interiors with a 
wealth of splendid decoration ; but the Temple 
of Heaven, in Pekin, built in 1420, and the 
porcelain tower at Nankin showed very clearly 
the trail of barbarism in all their lines and pro- 
portions. 

The buildings that exist, or were destroyed 
only in recent times, are temples, palaces, “taa” 
or pagodas, and “pailoo” or memorial gates. 
The temples are similar in plan to those of Ja- 
pan, consisting in the case of Buddhism of a 
great enclosing cloister and in the midst a hall 
of statues, a preaching hall, a pagoda, a library, 
and various smaller structures, together with 
quarters for the abbot and the priests. Horuiji 
at Nara and Obaku-san near Uji, both in Japan, 
are the best types existing. The ‘Summer 
Palace” consisted of many detached pavilions 
scattered over an enormous area, pavilions bear- 
ing a distant resemblance to the Ho-o-do at Uji 
and the Kinkaku-ji at Kyoto, but coarse and 
overloaded in detail. The ‘‘ Winter Palace” 
forms three sides of a square with a high first 
story of unbroken stone walls crowned by a 
forest of columns supporting low curved roofs, 
with small pavilions at the salient angles. This 
structure has more dignity of proportion and 
strength of design than any others now existing. 
The pagodas were generally octagonal, occasion- 
ally hexagonal, in plan, and were sometimes nine 
stories in height. They varied greatly in de- 
sign, the stories being sometimes very high, the 
roofs small and narrow, sometimes with curves 
grossly exaggerated. Built of brick, they were 
cased in decorative pottery commonly said to be 
porcelain, with marble galleries and balustrades 
of gilded iron ; the roofs were often covered with 
glazed yellow tiles. In no case has any exist- 
ing pagoda anything of the classical refinement, 
the indescribable grace, of those of Japan. The 
monumental gateways have no copies in Japan. 
They possess a curious resemblance in some ways 
to the ancient Roman memorial arches, though 
the openings are covered by lintels; there were 
usually three of these, the supports being richly 
carved piers of stone, supporting narrow roofs 
of tile. 

The domestic architecture of China possesses 
little resemblance to that of Japan. The houses 
are often several stories in height, and are com- 
monly built of masonry, with doors and windows 

546 


CHINKING 


far more like those of Europe, in spite of their 
- differing and often fantastic forms of decoration, 
than are the entrances or the light openings of 
similar buildings in Japan. The larger and 
more richly decorated of the now existing dwell- 
ings are interesting, because of the completely 
different ordering of the architectural members 
from that which is familiar to Europeans. As 
in Japan, so in China, the column does not neces- 
sarily have a capital or any spreading and archi- 
tectural base ; the trabeation does not of necessity 
form anything resembling an entablature ; and 
an arch of masonry does not always take a form 
in any way corresponding to forms of European 
arcuated buildings. Grecian influence is per- 
haps to be found in China, coming overland, 
with the other results of Indian origin and de- 
rived culture, from the southern peninsula; but 
of Roman tradition there is perhaps none to be 
found. Thus a rich and ornamental gateway is 
commonly built without arches or anything in 
any way resembling arches, and is apt to con- 
sist of an elaborate system of post and beam 
construction like the well-known Torii, in general 
scheme, but immensely more numerous in its 
parts and more elaborate in design. The inte- 
riors of dwellings are apt to be divided by carved 
open-work tracery and screens, sometimes merely 
quaint and of curious angular design in fretwork ; 
but sometimes, also, of elaborate carving adorned 
with painting and lacquer, and by ingeniously 
perfect inlays of rich silk and other fabrics. It 
is impossible to say how far the finer screens and 
other details of interior decoration are ancient, 
and how far such are still made in some of the 
inland provinces. 

In the Chino-Japanese architecture of Japan 
we find a style that has existed and developed 
logically for twelve hundred years, and is entitled 
to rank with the great styles of the world; in 
such architecture as remains in China we find 
only a decadent and erratic episode. (See Pai 
Loo, Paoh Tah.) —R. A. Cram. 

Gratton, Notes upon the Architecture of China 
in Rk. I. B. A. Journal, 1894-95. 

CHINKING. <A. Material used for filling 
a hole or crack in a wall, especially in log cab- 
ins. Usually chips or sticks of wood. 

LL. The process or operation of filling up 
small openings, or chinks, especially the inter- 
stices between the timbers of a log building, with 
chips, moss, clay, and the like. This operation 
is commonly followed by daubing, the entire 
process being known as chinking and daubing. 

CHIPOLIN PAINTING. The imitation in 
painting of cipolino marble ; hence, of any mar- 
ble of light gray or greenish veins. 

CHIPPENDALE, THOMAS; 
maker and carver. 

Chippendale was a native of Worcestershire 
(England). In 1752 he described himself as a 
cabinet maker and upholsterer in S. Martin’s 

547 


cabinet 


CHOIR SCREEN 


Lane (London). 
first edition of a book of his own designs enti- 
tled Gentleman and Cabinet-maker’s Direc- 
tor. A second edition was published in 1759, 
and a third in 1762. 

‘Heaton, Furniture and Decoration in trae 
Sheraton, Cabinet Maker and Upholsterer’s Draw- 
ing Book ; Redgrave, Dictionary of Artists. 

CHODEGRAND. (See Chrodegand.) 

CHOIR. A. Primarily, that part of a 


church in which the singers were accommo- — 


dated. In Catholic churches, where there were 
many persons employed to sing the Mass and 
other services of the Church, the space al- 
lowed for these singers and the clergy became 
very large; hence arose the signification B, 
which, however, is to be understood as inac- 
curate, and a loose term for that which has no 
accurate one. (See Chancel.) 

BL. In a church, that part of the main struc- 
ture which is in great part occupied by the 
choir proper, A, above. This, in a cruciform 
church, will be that arm of the cross which is 


farthest from the main entrance ; that is tosay, — 


at the east end of the church when oriented in 


‘the usual manner. 


Thus, in a large church, the term choir has 
two very different meanings : 
closure in which the clergy and ‘choristers per- 
form their duty; and 2d, one great arm or 
extension of the building including the rounded 
apse, if there is one, and the deambulatory sur- 
rounding that apse, if there is one. The choir, 
being considered the most sacred part of the 
church, was often built in advance of the rest 
of the structure, and on this account many of the 
large churches of Europe have a choir of dif- 
ferent date from the other parts. 

The floor of the choir is often raised higher 
than that of the nave. Where there is a crypt, 
this may occupy the whole space below the 
choir, the floor of which will then be much ele- 
vated ; thus, at 8. Zeno in Verona, the number 
of steps up to the choir floor and down to the 
crypt are about equal; and in 8. Miniato al 
Monte, near Florence, the disposition is about 
the same, with sixteen rather steep steps lead- 
ing up to the choir floor. In England, a simi- 
lar arrangement exists in the cathedrals of 
Rochester and Canterbury. —R. 8. 

CHOIR AISLE. The aisle on either side 
of the choir in a large church. When the aisle 
is carried around the apse of the choir, as in 
many French and some English and German 
churches, it becomes the deambulatory. (See Am- 
bulatory ; Apse ; Cathedral: Chevet ; Church.) 

CHOIR ENCLOSURE. Same as Choir 
Screen. 

CHOIR SCREEN. A wall, railing, or par- 
tition of any sort, and of any material, dividing 
the choir, in sense A, from the rest of the 
church, and perhaps enclosing the sanctuary as 

548 


In 1752 he published the 


Ist, the actual en-- 


PEA Pree 11 


tP % 
ry 
cJ 


erat atata*: 2 
OOOOH OM 


CHOIR SCREEN 


That of the cathedral at Chartres (EKure-et-Loir). 
It encloses the choir on the north and south, and 
is carried around the chevet. It was begun about 
1515, and the general director of the work was the 


same man who built the beautiful north tower of 
the cathedral — Jean de Beauce, who died in 1529, 
The sculptured groups are by many different mas- 
ters. 


well as the choir. 


CHOIR SCREEN 


Walls surrounding a retro- 
choir or two separate choirs would be properly 
called by the same name. In practice, the 
term is often restricted to that part of the en- 


closure which separates the choir from the 


aisles and the deambulatory which encloses it ; 
that is to say, to the series of screens between 
the great pillars which carry the clerestory 
walls in a large church. In this sense, the 
choir screen cannot exist in a church which has 
no aisles on either side of the choir. From this 


i ET TTT EN IMInTNTKArsIogOKHUNNeveexOrurey 
on ERMANTicnaiGaNenisaonannvaey 7) 
| Se at ii mean COMME 


‘i 


! gannions 
\ mie 5 ¥ ius ) 


cy ‘nia 


iit AIIM a Taduiit 


Sob teat )4 th all 


CHORAGIC MONUMENT 


the rounded eastern end; while the western 
end, where the choir is more commonly sepa- 
rated with peculiar care from the nave, had a 
superb jubé of the thirteenth century which 
was destroyed about 1760, and has never been 
replaced by any worthy enclosure of any kind. 
At Amiens, there are walls built in between 
the great piers which carry the clerestory walls, 
and upon and against these walls and facing 
outward are splendid architectural canopies 
protecting late Gothic painted sculpture of the 


bbbd LL 1d1L 


4 ° 


CHORAGIC MoNUMENT OF LySICRATES, ATHENS ; RESTORATION BY STUART AND REVET. (SEE Curt, Cot. 551.) 


sense, too, the screen work, or wall, which di- 
vides the nave or crossing of the church from 
the choir proper is excluded, and the term rood 
screen, or jubé, is reserved for that part. In 
the writings of the latest ecclesiologists, how- 
ever, the term choir screen is used for the bar- 
rier, often modern and of elaborate wrought-iron 
work, closing the western end of the choir ; 
that is, for the jubé. The magnificent screen 
in the cathedral of Chartres is of the sixteenth 


century, but this encloses only the sides and | 


549 


utmost importance and variety. The other side 
of this screen is, then, blank, and entirely con- 
cealed by the superb woodwork of the stalls. 
The most perfect Gothic choir screen in France 
is that of thecathedral of Albi. (See Altar 
Rail; Altar Screen; Chancel Screen; Haikal 
Screen; Iconostasis; Jubé; Rood Screen ; 
Sanctuary Screen.) — R. S. 

CHOIR STALL. (See Stall.) 

CHORAGIC MONUMENT. A votive or 
commemorative structure erected by the suc- 

550 


CHORAGIC MONUMENT 


cessful choragus (xopyyds and xopayds) or leader 
of a chorus in the competitive choral dances of 
the ancient Greeks. The prize, a tripod, was 


—r Zoo 


YY G 
YYyy 


CHoracic MoNUMENT oF LyYSICRATES, ATHENS, 
GREECE. (SEE Cut, Cots. 549, 550.) 


displayed upon the monument, which was of 

small size and decorative character. The most 

famous example is the circular Corinthian edic- 
551 


‘ — 
4 wr * 

Pee eo Ne ‘ 
a> fag 
i BP as Lay i. 


bey! a ee 
rib Mae LT ot Rebs Ad, ba 


iz =. 


at 
PP 
a4 


- rac 


: ' Be tm, 
CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE 
ula erected by the choragus Lysicrates in 
Athens about 330 B.c., still extant in aruined 
condition ; it was surmounted by a highly or- 
nate three-branched finial, on which was placed 
the tripod won in the contest. The Corinthian 
order here used is one of the few early examples 
in Greek architecture. (See Corinthian Order.) 
The choragic monument of Thrasyllos is also 
standing in part, on the slope of the Acropolis 
above the Dionysiac Theatre at Athens. The 
“Street of Tripods,” in ancient Athens, was _ 
lined with these elegant trophies of artistic a 
victory. — A. D. F. H. “ | 
CHORAGIUM. In the ancient Greek civ- 
ilization an open space for choral dances or for 


competitive choral performances. (Spelled also a 
choragion.) — 

CHORD. A. In geometry, the straight line a 
drawn between the extremities of an are. a 

B. One of the two principal members ex- 4 
tending along the top and bottom of a truss. : q 
(See Truss.) - 


CHOULTRY. An open, shedlike structure a 
of stone or wood built for the use of travel: = 
lers, for shelter, refreshment, or rest. Some of 
these are of great splendour. The name, which iad 
is of Anglo-Indian origin, has also been applied to 
great mantapas or chaories of the Dravidean tem- 
ples, like the hypostyle hall of Tirumalla Nayak 
at Madura, but this is an incorrect use of the a 
term. (Written also Choultrie and Chultrie.) 

CHRISMANN (GRIESMANN, KRIS- q 


MANN), FRANZ XAVIER; priest and organ 


builder. © | | | 

Chrismann was a priest from the diocese of Q 
Laibach (Austria), and one of the foremost a 
organ builders of the eighteenth century. In ~*~ 
1770 he began the great organ. of St. Florian, 
near Lintz (Austria). That of the Schotten- 
felder church, one of the finest in Vienna, was 
finished in 1790. : 

Allgemeine deutsche Biographie. 

CHRISMATORY. A movable receptacle | 
to contain the bottles of oil, usually three, for 
various sacred purposes ; hence, a recess or ambry, 
usually near the font, to contain the oil for 
anointing after the baptism. 

CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 4. That 
of any style assumed to be especially under the 
influence of Christian religious belief. In this 
sense the English Gothic and the other medizval 
styles were called Christian by the Gothic re- 
vivalists of 1850 and thereafter, as a term of : 
approval intended to excite the admiration and ie 
enthusiasm of students, much as the English : 
Gothic was called at the same time an English 
national architecture. The styles which came 
of direct imitation of Greco-Roman architec- 
ture were considered pagan in contradistinction . 
to this of the Middle Ages. 

B. More properly that of the European 
world since the general triumph of Christianity. 

552 


PLATE (Aaa 


CHURCH 
That of S. Paul, the cathedral of the city of 


London. The west front shown in the picture is 
one of the finest parts of the church, the upper 
and lower portico harmonizing singularly well 
with the flanking towers. The small round-headed 
windows on either side of the upper arcade open 
into the clear space left between the actual clear- 
story and the masking wall of the north and south 


flanks —the worst blot upon the design of the 
cathedral. The great cupola has the lower or 
inner drum and its peristyle and the upper drum 
and the lantern all of stone, the lantern resting 
upon a cone of brick ; but the curved surface is of 
lead upon a wooden structure. ‘The building was 
designed by Sir Christopher Wren, begun in 1665, 
and entirely completed in about thirty years, 


an 


— = Oe | 


his cathedral at Metz, Lothringen, 


afterward constructed. This clois- 


- stone finished with a coat of stucco. 


CHRODEGAND 


In this sense the earliest Christian architecture 
is that of the basilicas and baptisteries of the 
reign of Constantine (see Latin Architecture) ; i 
and all buildings erected since that time in 
lands occupied or settled by Europeans are 
Christian, except where obviously the work of 
persons of other religions. In this sense, how- 
ever, military and domestic architecture are in- 


cluded, thus contradicting the meaning in 


sense A. (See Baptistery ; Basilica ; Byzan- 
tine; Church; Gothic; Romanesque; also, 
Chapel ; Choir ; and the terms applied to minor 
details of religious edifices.) — R. 8. 
CHRODEGAND, SAINT; bishop and ar- 
chitect. 
- In 757 Chrodegand, Bishop of Metz, reéstab- 
lished the monasteria clericorum, or communi- 


ties of clergymen in the service of the cathedral 


churches. The cloister which’ he built about 
Germany, was the pattern from 
which buildings of this class were 


ter, which probably retained many 
of its original features, was destroyed 
in 1754 by the Maréchal de Belle- 
Isle. Chrodegand rebuilt the cathe- 
dral of Metz and designed the 
abbey of Gorze. 

Lenoir, Architecture Monastique ; 
Co&’tlosquet, Cathédrale de Metz; 
Gérard, Les Artistes del’ Alsace. 

CHRYSELEPHANTINE. 
Composed of gold and ivory ; a term 
applied by the Greeks to certain 
statues of exceptional importance, 
in which the draperies were of gold 
and the nude portions of the figure 
of ivory, built up most probably 
upon a wooden framework. The 
most celebrated were those by 
Pheidias of Athena in the Parthenon at Athens, 
and of Zeus seated in the temple at Olympia. 
Constant care was needed to prevent the swell- 
ing and cracking of the ivory by changes of 
temperature and humidity. — A. D. F. H. 

CHULTUNE. A subterranean chamber of 
irregular shape as built by the ancient Mayas, 
often in the cavity left by the extraction of 
zaccab (which see) from the pockets in which 
it occurs. Usually single and from ten to fif- 
teen feet below the surface, with a well-like 
opening at the top covered by a slab. The 
walls, roof, and floor were sometimes of dressed 
Supposed 
to have been reservoirs, but also used as 
sepulchres. 

For details see The Chultunes of Labna, E. 
H. Thompson, Mem. Peabody Museum, Vol. I., 
No. 3. — F.8. D. 

CHUNAM. A kind of white plaster or 
stucco much used in India, and variously com- 

553 


CHURCH AT BAgouzaA, SYRIA; 6TH CENTURY. 


CHURCH 


pounded according to the district where it is 
made and the purpose for which it is intended. 
In general, lime and sand in equal parts are 
mixed with a paste made from sugar and the 
juice or jelly of vegetables and fruits boiled and 
beaten up, sometimes with an admixture of 
yokes of eggs and chopped hemp. Some va- 
rieties of chunam are capable of receiving a 
high polish. 

CHURCH. A house of Christian worship. 

In England the term is restricted to the edi- 
fices of the Establishment, those of other denomi- 
nations being called chapels. In France, while 
a Catholic church is called église, a Protestant 
church is called temple, and in Italy, while a 
Catholic church is called chiesa, a Protestant 
place of worship is called tempio. 

The plan of the church most frequent through- 
out western Europe was derived from the Roman 


eee 


ee 


(SEE SECTION 
AND CuT, Cots. 555, 556.) 


basilica, which of all public buildings in existence 
at the time of the rise of Christianity seemed 
best adapted to the wants of the new religion. 
This consisted of a nave, divided by columns 
(supporting either arcades or an entablature) 
from the side aisles, which may be either two 
or four in number and terminating in a hemi- 
circle or apse. In the earliest churches here 
was the altar, and at the back, against the wall 
of the apse, in Episcopal churches was the bishop’s 
throne. The priest officiated at the back of the 
altar facing the people, who occupied the nave, 
the men on one side, the women on the other. 
As time went on other forms were grafted upon 
the original one. 

1. The TRANSEPT. This existed in embryo 
in more than one Roman basilica, but its develop- 
ment was the work of Christian architecture. 
From S. Paolo fuori le Mura (Rome, a.pD. 
386) the usage continued down to modern times. 
It has been frequently maintained that the 

554 


CHURCH 


cruciform plan thus obtained was chosen for its 
symbolism, but of this there is great doubt. 

2. The CRYPT, which many writers think a 
This derivation 


reminiscence of the catacombs. 
appears to be not only 
fantastical, but unneces- 
sary, since the existence 
of the crypt is sufhi- 
ciently explained as a 


ra 5 : 


atin ae 
he = {ei 


CHURCH 7 =a 


ey, 


century,’ and he argues from the fact that mag- _ 


at least a hundred years earlier, that they were 
built rather as tokens of the power or wealth 
7 During 
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, parish — 

churches often received two towers, and cathe- __ 
drals, in some instances, as many as seven. 


of the church than to house its bells. 


Three was, however, the ordinary number. In 
Italy the tower was 
often separate from the 


6. One or two ex- 


CHURCH AT BAQouzA, SYRIA; 6TH CENTURY. 


place of burial for saints or great personages, or 
as a shrine for relics. 

3. The NARTHEX, a vestibule extending 
generally across the west end of the church, to 
which were admitted catechumens, energumens, 
penitents, and all who were held not worthy 
of complete participation in the privilege of 
worship. Three English cathedrals, at least, 
had each a Galilee for the same purpose — 
Durham, Lincoln, and Ely — and many German 
churches had their Vorhalle or Paradies. The 
atrium before 8. Ambrogio at Milan and that 
before the abbey church of Laach may be named 
in this connection. The narthex and the crypt 
belong to the earlier Middle 
Ages. They do not form 
part of churches constructed 
after the twelfth century. _ 

4. The CUPOLA at the 
intersection of the nave and 


(SEE PLAN AND SECTION.) 


ceptional forms may 
here be noticed. Two 
transepts are 
times found, as in sey- 
eral English  cathe- 


some German churches, 
which have even east- 
ern and western apses 
and two crypts (e.g. 
Bamberg). With these 
may be mentioned double churches ; that is, of two 
stories, each adapted for independent worship, 
as the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris, S. Francesco at 
Assisi, and the church at Schwarz Rheindorf. 
Double chapels attached to castles were common 
in Germany ; the upper story connected with the 
apartment of the lord of the castle. Between 
the upper and lower stories there was an opening 


in the floor, apparently that persons below might 


hear the service celebrated above. Such an 
opening existed originally also at Schwarz 
Rheindorf. With these exceptional forms may 
be included fortified churches, frequent in the 
south of France, and in Picardy at the time 


pa iia 


Ge 
a: 


Ue TA TT 
Vis Ne 


G 


transept. This element was 
derived from Byzantine ar- 
chitecture ; it was frequent 
in Romanesque churches, 
especially in Italy, but of 
great rarity in 
Gothic ones, though 
it returned with the 
Renaissance and be- 
came a dominant 
featurein that style. 

5. The BELL 
TOWER. Though 
bells were used as early as the seventh cen- 
tury, they were so small as not to demand a 
tower to hang them in. Large bells, says Viol- 
let-le-Duc, were not founded before the twelfth 

555 


CHURCH AT Bagouza, SyRiA; 6TH CENTURY. 


(SEE PLAN AND CUT.) 


of the Spanish occupation of the Netherlands. 
7. The orientation of churches from west 
to east can scarcely be called a Christian pecu- 
1 Dict. Rais. de V Arch., article Clocher. 
556 


nile.) ea 


church. (See Campa-— a 


some-- 


drals ; at Cluny andin 


_ CHURCH 


liarity of plan, since the same principle obtained 
in temples built before the Christian era. None 
the less, for many hundreds of years it was a 
necessary element of the church plan, and is still 
so in England and elsewhere, when ritual pre- 
scriptions are strictly regarded. In many of 
the most ancient churches of Rome (e.g. 8. 
Pietro in Vaticano, 8. Maria Maggiore, 8. Gio- 
vanni in Laterano, etc.) the apse and altar were 
(and are) at the west end. The priest then 
officiated behind the altar, and, therefore, faced 
the east; but from the eleventh century the 
constant usage put the altar niche at the east 
end, and the main facade toward the west. A 
glance, however, at the map of any European 


city, rich in medieval churches, will show that | 


the orientation is seldom exact. Notwithstand- 
ing prescriptions that the direction should be 
taken at the time of one of the equinoxes, it 
would seem to have been a general practice to 
take it on the day of beginning foundations, in 
England, often on the day consecrated to the 
saint whose name the church was to bear, and 
on occasion, even at one of the solstices; so 


that churches face in almost any direction, save | 


north and south. In cities, the necessi- 
ties of the site often affected the orienta- 
tion, and, in Italy, the principle was 
neglected after the fifteenth century. In 
the Protestant world it has been from 
the beginning disregarded, 

Another type that has influenced 
church architecture, down to the present 
time, was the Byzantine, the essential 
feature of which was a circular cupola 
sustained by means of pendentives above 
a square ground plan. It is noteworthy 
that the greatest example of the style, 
S. Sophia at Constantinople, furnished 
the model for the mosques of Turkey, while the 
churches of Eastern Europe, — Greece, Russia, 
Armenia, Rumania, etc., — with many in West- 
ern lands, receiving the impulses by way of S. 
Mark’s in Venice, —followed another type: a 
Greek cross, enclosed in a square, with a cupola 
at the intersection of the arms, and sometimes 
four subordinate cupolas covering the spaces 
between the arms and the enclosing square. 
The number of the subordinate cupolas varied 
from two to twelve. A third type, represented 


by 8. Vitale at Ravenna, and consisting in 


plan of two concentric octagons (to indicate 
roughly the essential feature), has had great 
influence on succeeding architecture. Many 
churches of similar plan are supposed to be 
inspired by the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. 

The Renaissance, although adopting almost in 
its purity the ordinary Greco-Byzantine plan, 
as well as that of the basilica, also modified these 
two types profoundly, and introduced new ele- 
ments, opening the way to all the varieties of 
modern ecclesiastical architecture. 

557 


CHURCH 


Churches may be divided according to hierar- 
chal order, as seen in the sub-titles given be- 
low, viz., Abbey C., Cathedral C., Collegiate C., 
Conventual C., Metropolitan C., Parish C., 
Patriarchal C., Pontifical C., ete. 

There are also certain names of churches for 
which no English equivalent exists; thus, in 
Italy, the Chiesa Palatina is the church of the 
palace, a private chapel of the inhabitants of a 
palace ; and the Pieve, which is simply the 
chief church of a district called the pievania or 


pteviere, and is administered by a priest called 


a pievano, who has under his jurisdiction other 
ecclesiastical establishments. 

The early Christian, Byzantine, Gothic, and 
Romanesque styles are almost wholly ecclesiasti- 
cal, their development being in their churches. 
Therefore, a book on Gothic architecture, for 
instance, is mainly an account of Gothic churches. 
For the churches of the Renaissance, and later 
styles, there are no books of general history 


MC jena” 


ep eee ee 


CHURCH OF §S. MARTIN, COLOGNE. 


and criticism, but see, for the Renaissance in 
Italy, Laspeyres, Kirchen der Renaissance in 
Mittel-Italien ; Cicognara’s great book on Venice; 
Letarouilly, Les Edifices de Rome Moderne, 
and such other treatises, which give the public 
buildings of great architectural centres; even 
the books cited under Brickwork are mainly 
devoted to churches. See also Hiibsch, Die 
altchristlichen Wirchen, etc.; a translation 
under the title Monuments de l Architecture 
Chrétienne, published in Paris, 1866. It isa 
large folio with a vast number of plans, sections, 
etc., so presented as to be easy of comparison. 
Dehio and Bezold; Die Kirchliche Baukunst 
des Abendlandes, begun in 1887, is still un- 
finished. It is largely a compilation, and under- 
takes to be an almost complete encyclopedia of 
church building. —J. 8. Fiske. 


Hiibsch, Altchristlichen Kirchen ; Liibke, Vor- 
schule zur geschichte der Kirchen baukunst des 
Mittelalters ; Quast, Die entwicklung der HKirch- 
enbaukunst des Mittelalters; Brandon, Parish 
Churches ; Baudot, Kglises de Bourgs et Villages ; 

558 


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CHURCH 


Schafer, Mustergiltigen Kirchenbauten des Mittel- 
alters in Deutschland ; Viollet-le-Duc, De la con- 
struction des édifices religieux en France in 
Annales Archéologiques, Vols. I. to [V.; Clausse, 
Les Monuments du Christianisme au moyen-dge. 


Abbey Church. A. The church of an 
Abbey. 

B. The church of any conventual establish- 
ment; especially applied to such buildings in 
the British Isles. 

Cathedral Church. ‘The principal church 


of a bishop’s see. (See Cathedral, n.) 


Collegiate Church. A. One administered 
by a body of canons who form a college. 


ABBEY CHURCH, LAACH. 


B. One served by two or more clergymen, 
whether these are attached toa single building, or, 


as in certain sects, having four or another num- 


ber of buildings under their common supervision. 

Conventual Church. Same as Abbey 
Church in sense B. 

Hall Church. A church built in the form 
called Hallenbau (which see). 

Metropolitan Church. The Cathedral 
Church of an archbishop. York and Canter- 
bury cathedrals are the metropolitan churches 
of England. The Patriarchal and the Pontifical 
Church are also metropolitan churches. 

Old North Church. In Boston; generally 
thought to have been Christ Church on Salem 
street, the oldest building remaining in the city ; 

561 


CHURCH 


built in 1723. It has been claimed that the 
name “Old North” was properly given to the 
church in North Square, now demolished. 

Old South Church. In Boston, on Wash- 
ington Street ; built in 1729. The name was 
given to distinguish it from the North Church. 

Parish Church. Primarily, one which serves 
the spiritual needs of a given district called a 
parish, which parish, if it is large, may require 
the establishment of an additional church build- 
ing. (See Chapel of Ease.) In America, 
parishes are not commonly geographical divi- 
sions, and a parish church is one maintained by 
a certain body of trustees, or other corporation, 


(SEE PLAN AND SEcTION, Cous. 559, 560.) 


which may keep up a principal church and 
several important buildings called chapels. 

Patriarchal Church. One administered by 
a patriarch, as in the Greek Church, and as in 
the Roman Catholic Church, in the case of cer- 
tain bishops who have this title; thus, the 
patriarchs of Aquilea, Lisbon, and Venice may 
confer the title of patriarchal upon their cathe- 
dral churches. Also, at Rome there are five 
churches representing the five great patriarchs 
of the Christian world in antiquity — Rome, 
Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jeru- 
salem. 8. Giovanni in Laterano is that of 
Rome; the others are 8. Peter’s, 8. Paul’s 
without the Walls, 8. Maria Maggiore, and 
S. Lorenzo without the Walls. 

562 


CHURCH 

Pontifical Church. One where a bishop 
pontificates, or more usually confined to the 
church of the sovereign pontiff. 

Round Church. (See the article under 
Round.) 

The following is a chronological summary, 
prepared by Mr. Barr Ferree, of the more im- 
portant churches of Western Europe, including 
those buildings, familiarity with which would 
give the student an acquaintance with the 
development of the ecclesiastical architecture. 


CHURCH: PLAN oF SALISBURY CATHEDRAL; Two My ere 


A capital C stands for the word ‘ church,” 
small ¢ for the. word ‘‘ century.” 

The order is by alphabet of countries, as fol- 
lows :— 


Austrian States (excluding Bohemia, Dalma- 
tia, Hungary, and Istria) 


Belgium Germany Portugal 


Bohemia Hungary Scotland 

Dalmatia Istria Spain 

Denmark Italy Sweden 

England Netherlands Switzerland 

France (Holland) Turkey 
Norway 


AUSTRIAN STATES 


Aegram. Croatia. Cathedral C. Built 
XITI-XIV c; choir vault XV c; 3 naves and 
apses ; no transept. 

Botzen. Tyrol. Parish C. Middle XIV 
ec; rich flamboyant tower, open spire, done 
XVI ¢c; aisles and nave of equal height. 

Cracow. Galicia. Marienkirche. Begun 
XIII c; rebuilt XIV c; chapels XV—XVI ¢; 
brick ; elongated choir without aisles; almost 
square nave (an Austrian type). 

Gurk. Carinthia. Cathedral C. Second 
half XII ¢; elegant inner porch portals ; mag- 
nificent crypt with 100 columns. 

Lilienfeld. Lower Austria. Cistercian ab- 
bey C. Early XIII c; circular apse within 
later square ; beautiful XII ¢ cloister with 400 
marble columns. 

563 


‘CHURCH — 

Salzburg. 
by Santino Solari; ‘‘ baroque” 

copied in Austria and Germany. 


C frequent 


Strassengel. Styria. 
XIV c; 3 naves and apses; no transept; open 
spire. : s 
Trent. Southern Tyrol. Cathedral CG. 


Parts N side XI ¢; rebuilt XII c; 

XIII c; done XV e. 
Vienna. S Stephan. 

All 6; choir Aye: 


Cathedral C. Beguaa 
nave, S tower, XIV— 
XV c; S tower re- 


style ; most impor- 
tant Austrian 
Gothic C. 


BELGIUM 


Antwerp. Notre 
Dame. Collegiate 
C; cathedral C 
from 1559. XIV— 
XV c; nave and 
aisle vaults XVII c; 
seven -aisled nave; 
narrow  transepts ; 
N tower (1422-— 
1518) one of the most remarkable in Europe. 

Brussels. SS Gudule et Michel. 
ate C ; now cathedral C. Choir XIII c; nave 
XIV c; W portal ¢ 1499; chapel S Sacrement 
1533-1539 ; notable carved wood pulpit by 
Verbruggen ; fine glass windows. 

Ghent. S Bavon (“Sint Baafs”). 
dral C. Crypt X ec, rebuilt XIII c; 
XIII c; tower XV-XVI ¢; 
nave and transept XVI ¢; 
works of art. 

Liége. S Jacques. Abbey C; now parish 
C. 1513-1538; beautifully painted vaults ; 
one of the most perfect late Gothic churches. 

Louvain. §S Pierre. Collegiate C; now 
parish C. XVc; W towers destroyed XV ec 
and partly rebuilt. 

Mechlin. S Rombaut. Cathedral C. Choir 
XIV ¢; nave XV c; unfinished tower; one of 
the most impressive Belgian cathedrals. 

Mons. S Waudru. Abbey C; now cathe- 
dral C. XV-—XVI c; tower discontinued 1630 ; 
fine type of its period. 

Tournay. Notre Dame. Cathedral C. 
Nave and transept XI-XII ¢; choir XII-— 
XIII ¢; nave vault 1777; C of the first rank ; 
one of the most splendid monuments in Bel- 
gium. 

Ypres. S Martin. Collegiate C; cathedral 
C from 1559. Choir 1221; nave 1254; porch 
and tower XV c; chapel S Sacrement 1623 ; 
choir one of the most monumental of its 
period. 


Cathe- 

choir 
chapels XV c; 
contains many great 


564 


Cathedral C. Built 1614-163) i . 


Cistercian ablieg C,. Be 


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built 1860-1864 — 
in the original 


Collegi- 


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CHURCH 


BOHEMIA 


Kuttenberg. S Barbarakirche. XIV, XV, 
XVI c; incomplete; choir, chapels, E part 
nave only ; 5 aisles. 

Prague. S Veit. Cathedral ©. XIV ¢; 
begun by French, continued by German mas- 
ters ; tower burned XVI c; incomplete ; choir 
only. 


DALMATIA 


Trau. Virgin and S Doimo. Cathedral C. 
First half XIII c; nave vaults, XV c; spire 
XVI c; superb sculptured marble portals ; 
Lombard Romanesque type. 

Zara.. S Anastasia. Cathedral C. Begun 
early XIII c; facade XIV c; crypt larger than 
C; Lombard Romanesque type; superb wood 
choir stalls. 


DENMARK 


_ Roeskilde. Cathedral C. Begun middle 
XII c; done end XIII ec. 


ENGLAND 


Bangor. S Daniel. Cathedral OC. Frag- 
ments XIII—XIV c; nave arcade, E part pres- 
bytery, W tower, XVI c. 

Bath. SS Peter and Paul. Benedictine 
abbey C. Fragments XII c; rebuilt c¢ 1496- 
¢ 1616; nave and aisle vaults XIX ec. 

Beverly. Secular collegiate C; choir XIII 
e; nave XIV c; W front close XV c; modern 
choir screen. 

Bristol. Holy Trinity. Augustinian abbey 
C; cathedral C from 1542. Fragments XII 
c; elder Lady Chapel early XIII 
c; choir XIV c; central tower 
XV ¢; nave and W towers, 
LAC, 


S Mary the Virgin, 
Redcliffe. Parish C. Built 1292-— 


Pee eas pot eet 


CHURCH 


1178-1184 ; choir 1174-1184 ; retrochoir and 
corona 1178-1184; nave and W_€ transept 
1379-1400 ; central tower 1495-1503; S W 
tower 1418-1517 ; N W tower XIX. 

Carlisle. Augustinian priory C; cathedral 
C of the Holy and Undivided Trinity from 
1540. Part nave, S transept, XI-XII ¢; W 
part choir XIII c; E part choir XIII-XIV c; 
N transept, summit central tower early XV ¢; 
5 bays nave destroyed 1646. 

Chichester. Holy Trinity. Cathedral C. 
Chiefly XII ¢; choir, XII—XIII ¢; outer aisles 
nave, middle XIII c; Lady Chapel XII-early 
XIV c; central tower XIII c; central spire be- 
gun XV c; fell 1861; rebuilt 1866; 5 aisles ; 
unusual in England. 

Coventry. S Michael. Parish OC. First 
half XV c; beautiful tower and spire XIV— 
XV ¢; largest English parish C. 

Durham. Christ and Blessed Mary the Vir- 
gin. Benedictine abbey C to 1540; cathedral 
C. Great transept, choir and aisles, save E 
bays, and roof XI c; W towers XII c; Gali- 
lee chapel latter half XII c; chapel 9 altars, 
XIII ¢; cloister XIV-—XV c; upper part cen- 
tral tower XV c. 

Ely. S Etheldreda. Cathedral C from 
1109. Nearly done 1100; Galilee porch early 
XIII ¢; presbytery XIII c; beautiful central 
lantern and octagon and Lady Chapel XIV c; 
modern painted wood nave roof. 

Exeter. S Peter. Benedictine monastery 
and cathedral C. Towers first half XII c; 
transformed and practically rebuilt XITI-XIV 
ec; W front with sculptured screen. 

Fountains. S Mary. Cistercian abbey C 
to 1539. Nave and transept XII c; choir 


built XV c¢; graceful tower and 
Spire. 

Bolton. Augustinian priory 
C; nave now parish C. Parts 
of choir, transepts and nave XII 
ec; N aisle early XIII c; E end 
choir and part transepts XIV c; W tower XVI 
¢; ruined. 

Boston. S Botolph. Parish C. Chiefly 
XIV ¢; beautiful XV c tower. 

Cambridge. Chapel of King’s College of 
SS Mary and Nicholas. Foundations 1446; 
chiefly 1508-1515; superb fan tracery vaults. 
Great S Mary’s. University C. Built 
1478-1519 ; tower 1491-1608 ; modern porch. 

Canterbury. Christ or Holy Trinity Church. 
Cathedral and Benedictine Monastery. Tran- 
sept towers 1070-1109; crypt 1070-1109, 

565 


CHURCH OF S. OUEN: PLAN AS ORIGINALLY BEGUN (1320-1350). 
West end with towers set diagonally. The chapels are later. 


XIII c; N transept tower, XV—XVI c; some 
windows XV ¢; ruined. 

Furness. S Mary. Cistercian abbey C to 
1537. Central parts second half XII c; nave 
later ; presbytery XV c ;’ruined. ° 

Gloucester. Holy and Indivisible Trinity. 
Cathedral C from 1541. Choir, transept, nave, 
N aisle, XII c; nave vaults, XIII c; transepts 
cased, XITV—XYV ¢; choir vaults, XIV c; W front, 
S porch, 2 bays nave, tower, Lady Chapel, XV 
c; E window (largest in England) middle XIV c ; 
cloister XIV—XV ec. 

566 


CHURCH 
Great Malvern. SS Mary and Michael. 
Benedictine priory C. XIc; wholly remodelled 
SV: 
Hereford. SS Mary and Ethelbert. Cathe- 
dral C. Nave piers, choir to clerestory, XI—XII 


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‘CHURCH 


early XV c; largest parish church in England 
save § Michael’ s, Coventry. oe 

Kirkstall. § Mary. Cistercian abbey C. 2 
Chiefly XII ¢; ruined. a 

Lichfield. "Blessed Virgin Mary and §S Chaim aie 
Cathedral C. Chiefly XIII e ; Lady 
Chapel and presbytery XIV ¢; "central — 
spire rebuilt XVII c; central and 2 W_ 
towers with spires. 

Lincoln. Blessed Virgin Mary. Ce vs 
thedral C. W wall XI ¢; additions W 
facade, part W towers, choir, E transept, 
E side W transept, XII c; nave, Wtran- 
sept, upper part W front, presbytery 
(Angel Choir), XIII c; top towers XIV 


c; W spires removed 1807; cloister 
XIII ¢. 
London. S Clement Danes. Parish 


C. Built 1688 by Edward Pierce under 
superintendence of Sir Christopher Wren. 
S Mary. Temple Church. Round 
part consecrated 1185; choir consecrated 
1240. 


S Mary le Strand. Parish C. 
Built by James Gibbs 1717 ; consecrated 
1723. 


S Martin in the Fields. Parish 
C. Built by Gibbs; begun 1722; spire 
done 1724. 

S Paul. Cathedral C. Built 
1675-1710; the masterpiece of Sir 
Christopher Wren ; largest Protestant 
cathedral; one of the finest modern 
domes. : 


Southwark. S Mary Overy. S 
Saviour from 1540; Augustinian priory 
C to 1540; collegiate C from 1897. 
Built XII c; choir, Lady Chapel, nave 
vaults, XIII c; transept XIV c; nave 
removed and rebuilt XIX ec. 

Westminster. S Peter. Bene- 
dictine abbey C ; now collegiate C. Choir, 
transept, E part nave, XIII ¢; W part 
nave, XIV-XV ¢c; Henry VII's Chapel 
1500- 1512; W front remodelled 1722— 


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CHURCH OF S. PETRONIO AT BOLOGNA: 
14TH CENTURY. 


ce; clerestory, choir vaults, N transept, XIII c; 
central tower, E transept, nave aisle walls, XIV 
ec; outer N porch XVIc; W front, nave tri- 
forium, and clerestory XVIII ec. 
Hull. Holy Trinity. Parish C. Choir mid- 
dle XIV c; nave, upper part crossing tower, 
567 


NAVE; CLOSE OF 


=— 1740; eloieer XITI-XIV ec. 
W Smithfield. § Bartholomew 
the Great. Augustinian priory C; now 


parish C. XII ¢; remodelled early XV 
— ©; nave removed XVI c; tower 1628; 
choir and transept only. 
Ludlow. S Lawrence. 
Founded XIV ¢c; 
tower. 
Malmesbury. Holy Saviour, SS Peter 
and Paul. Benedictine abbey C; nave 
now parish C. XIIc; clerestory XIV c; nave 
only remains. : 
Manchester. Collegiate and parish C of 
Christ; cathedral C of Blessed Virgin Mary, 
SS. George and Denys, from 1847. Nave early 
XV c; choir middle XV c; second aisle of nave 
568 


Parish C. 
chiefly XVc; fine 


Co 


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- Blessed Virgin Mary. Benedictine 


CHURCH 


last half XV c; Chetham Chapel, XVI e; W 


tower, XIX c. 

Norwich. Holy and Undivided Trinity. 
Trinity. Cathedral priory C of Benedictine 
monastery. Choir, transept, nave, XI—-XII c; 
choir, clerestory, XIV c; nave and choir vaults 
XV ¢; cloister XIII-XV c. 

Oxford. Christ Church. Benedictine priory 
C; cathedral and college chapel from 1546. 
Fabric latter half XII ¢; Lady Chapel middle 
XIII c; “Latin” Chapel first half XIV c; nave 
and choir vault XV—XVI c. 

_ SS Mary and John the Baptist. Mer- 
ton College chapel. Choir begun c 1227; tran- 
sept XIV c; top tower XV c; choir, transept, 
and tower only. 

S Mary the Virgin. Re- 
built XII or XIII c; choirc 1462; 
nave 1490; nave roof and Lady 
Chapel modified early XVI ce. 

Pershore. Holy Cross. Bene- 
dictine abbey C; now parish C. 
Transept XII c; presbytery XIII 
c; transept vault XVc; nave de- 
stroyed XVI c; parts Hend XIX c. 

Peterborough. S Peter. Bene- 
dictine monastery; cathedral C 
from 1541. Chiefly XII ¢; re- 
markable W front of 3 vast arches, 
XIII c; triforium windows XIV 
c; “New Building” XV—XVI c. 

Rievaulx. S Mary. Cistercian 
abbey C to 1538. Founded 1131 ; 


LLM 


CHURCH 


cloister 1263-1284; spire 1330-1375; only 
English cathedral built in one style and at one 
time. 
Sherborne. S Mary. Benedictine abbey 
C. Fragments XII c; rebuilt XV ec. 
_ Southwell. Blessed Virgin Mary. Secular 
collegiate C ; cathedral C from 1883. Nave, 
transept, central tower, door N porch, XII c; 
choir, N transept chapel, chapter house, XIII. 
c; nave windows XV c; W spires, 
nave roof, XIX c. 


Rue longeqnt lL fglise.. 


Cle Tab fas oe ice 


chiefly XIIc; choir end XIIc, 
beginning XIII c; ruined. 

Ripon. SS Peter and Wilfrid. 
Abbey C; parish C; collegiate C ; 
cathedral C from 1836. Saxon 
crypt; largely XIIc; W _ front 
XIII ¢; presbytery end XIII c; 
parts central tower and choir XV 
c; nave aisles early XVI c. 

Rochester. Christ and_ the 


monastery and cathedral C. Part 
nave and crypt XI—XII ¢; rebuilt, 
W front, XII c; transepts and 
choir XIII c ; some windows, nave, 
clerestory, and roof XV ¢; aisles re- 
built XVII c; central tower XIX c. 

Romsey. SS Mary and Aethel- 
fleda. Benedictine convent C. 
Choir, transept, part nave, XII c; 
W end nave XIII ¢; choir trifo- 
rium, part N aisle, XV c. 

Saint Albans. S Alban. Benedictine abbey 
to 1539 ; cathedral C from 1877. Central tower 
and transept XI c; chiefly XII c; W end 
nave, presbytery, XIII ¢; Lady Chapel XIV ¢ ; 
much changed in restoration. 

Salisbury. Blessed Virgin Mary. Cathe- 
dral C. Almost entirely between 1220-1266 ; 

569 


CHURCH OF S. FANTINO, VENICE; 1510-1533. 


Tewkesbury. S Mary. Benedictine abbey 
C to 1539 ; now parish C. Early XII c; choir 
done early XV c; chapels XIII, XIV, XV c; 
wood spire fell 1559. 

Tintern. S Mary. Cistercian abbey C. 
Founded XII c; cloister XIII c; rebuilt XIV 
c; ruined. 

570 


CHURCH 
Waltham. Holy Cross. Augustinian abbey 
C; nave now parish C. Dedicated 1062; re- 
modelled XII c; W front and tower, XIV c; 
presbytery and transept removed XVI c; nave 


only remains. 
Wells. S Andrew. Cathedral C. Nave, 


transept, lower part W. bays choir, end XII ¢c; 
W front XIII c; central tower, choir, Lady 


CHURCH OF S. REDENTORE, VENICE. 


Chapel, XIV c; upper part W towers XIV— 
XV c; cloister XV c; most richly decorated 
English front. 
Winchester. 
and Swithin. 


Holy Trinity, SS Peter, Paul, 
Cathedral C and Benedictine 
monastery. Built XI c; E chapels XII c to 
early XIII c; presbytery piers and arches, nave 
remodelled, XIV-XVc; W front XIV c; pres- 
571 


VGAT ION 


E ae, iz ‘lex 
* rau ae rr ues e. i 


bytery remodelled An aisles pobre | XVI 6 ou 
longest medizeval C. 

Windsor. Virgin Mary, SS George and m 
Edward, King and Confessor. Royal and col-— 
legiate Chapel within the Castle ; aay 
Free Chapel of S George. XVc; “largest Eng- 3 
lish royal chapel ; beautiful fan vaulting. es 

Worcester. Christ and the Blessed Mara 
the Virgin. Cathedral [and Benedictine priory} _ 
C. Crypt, parts nave, W part choir, transept 
walls, XI c; to last quarter XIL ¢; 2 Ws bays 
nave ‘ast quarter XII ¢; choir, Lady Chapel, Ea 
transept, XIII c ; nave, save 2 bays, XIV c; — 
cloister XIV ce. .4 

Yarmouth. §S Nicholas. Parish C. Founded | 
rebuilt middle XIII c. ; 

York. S Peter. Cathedral C. W ype a 
XI c; Ecrypt XII c; transepts XIII ¢; nave, 
chapter house, XIII-XIV ec; choir and Hare a 
tery 1361-c 1420; towers XV c; nave and 
choir vaults (wood) XIX e. . 


FRANCE 


Abbeville. §S Vulfran. Collegiate C ; now 
parish C. Nave XV-XVIc; choir XVII cc; 
facade is one of the most beautiful flamboyant 
fronts, richly decorated. ee 

Albi. 8S Cécile. Begun 
1282; chiefly XIV c; rich S portal 1473- 
1501 ; fortified brick C ; interior wall paint- 

ings XV-XVI c; beautiful choir screen. 

Amiens. Notre Dame. Cathedral C. Be- — 
gun 1220; choir 1235-1240; done 1269; 
upper part W facade XV c; fléche 1529-1533 ; 
chapels XIV c; magnificent carved wood stalls | 
and portal sculptures ; largest French cathedral. = 

Angers. § Maurice. Cathedral C. Lower 
part nave XI c; nave vault (domical) middle 
XII c; N transept XIII c; choir 1274; W 
towers rebuilt XVI c. | 

Angouléme. § Pierre. Cathedral C. 
Chiefly early XII c ; repaired XIV, XV, XVI c; 
domical C; W front sculptured throughout 
with Last Judgment. 

Arles. § Trophime. Cathedral C to 1801. 
“Eglise Primatiale.” XI-XII ¢; choir 1430 ; 
beautiful cloister, XII, XIII, XIV c; elabo- 
rately sculptured portal. 

Auch. S Marie. Cathedral C. XV-XVI 
ce; W towers and facade 1685 ; magnificent 
carved wood choir stalls and glass of XVI ec. 

Autun. § Lazare. Cathedral C. Roman- 
esque body (XII c) enclosed with Gothic 
chapels c 1465 ; central tower and spire c 1465. 

Auxerre. § Etienne. CathedralC. Crypt 
XI c; choir XIII c; nave and transept XIV— 
XV c; lower facade XIII c; upper part XV c ; 
N tower beginning XVI ce. 

Bayeux. Notre Dame. Cathedral C. 
Fragments of XI—XII ¢ ; chiefly middle XIII c ; 
tower XV c with modern dome. 

572 


Cathedral C. 


CHURCH 


Beauvais. § Pierre. Cathedral C. Choir 
1240-1272; transepts XVI c; highest vault 


in France ; incomplete ; joined to old cathedral 


called “la Basse-G2uvre” built before ic, 

Bordeaux. S André. Cathedral C. “ Eglise 
Primatiale.” Lower parts of nave XI-XII c; 
choir 1260-1310 ; towers and transepts XIV 
¢; nave vaults XVI c; tower Pey-Berland 
(isolated) 1440. 

S Michel. Parish OC. XV-XVI c; 
isolated tower 1472-1492, with modern spire. 

Bourges. § Etienne. ‘Cathedral C. Crypt 
and side portals XII ¢; chiefly XIII-XIV c; 
nave chapels XV c; 5 aisles, 5 W _ portals 
(unique) ; no transept. 

Braisne. S Yved. Dependence of Premon- 
stratensian abbey ; now parish C. Begun end 
XII ¢; done early XIII c; W bays nave re- 
moved XIX c¢; one of the most charming 
French rural churches. 

Brou. S Nicolas de Tolentin. Augustinian 
abbey C; now seminary chapel. Built 1506- 
1536 ; architects, Jehan Perréal (1506-1512), 
Van ‘Boghem (1513-1536) ; remarkable OC 
with notable tombs of French princes ; 
tiful glass. Near Bourg-en-Bresse. 
Caen. S Pierre. Parish C. XIV ¢; re- 
touched XV c; tower, prototype of XIV ¢ Nor- 
man towers ; apse chapels XVI c; elaborately 
decorated in "flamboyant style. 

S Etienne. . 
Benedictine abbey C. Begun by William the 
Conqueror 1066; nave and tribune vaults 
middle XII c; W spires beginning XIII c; 
choir XIII c; nave injured XVI ¢; rebuilt 
XVII am central tower removed XVI c. 

La Trinité. ‘“ Abbaye aux Dames.” 
Benedictine abbey C. Founded 1062 by Ma- 
thilda ; contemporary with S Etienne ; almost 
wholly rebuilt XII c; S transept chapel XIiTe. 

Carcassonne. § 'N azaire. Cathedral C to 
1802. Nave XII c; choir and transept, 1310— 
1320; W front fortified; E part an exquisite 
and delicate type of Gothic. 

Chartres. Notre Dame. Cathedral C. S 
tower donec 1170; burned 1194 (crypt, facade, 
towers survived); rebuilt, choir dedicated, 
1198; transept porches 1230-1240; conse- 
erated 1260; N spire 1506-1514; beautiful 
sculptured choir screen XVI-XVIII c. 

Civray. S Nicolas. XIc; upper part W 
facade XV c; W front richly sculptured. 

Clermont-Ferrand. Notre Dame du Port. 
Collegiate C ; now parish C. Date uncertain, 
probably XI c; fine type of Auvergne Roman- 
esque; tribune over aisles with half barrel 
vaults buttressing nave vaults. 

Conques. S Foi. Benedictine abbey C. 
XII ¢; grand C in Auvergne Romanesque ; trib- 
unes all around interior. 

Coutances. Notre Dame. Cathedral C. 
Built 1205-1238; chapels 1251-1274 ; beau- 

573 


beau- 


“ Abbaye aux Hommes.” 


ey mao? a aa werty Lb oa ‘et y @ Pe ha ass OU ich ao xa”. ad 
PANO ay vay Pye he ee nd as Pia 38 es 
neers fi 


CHURCH 


tiful central lantern and tower ; 
of cathedral. | 

Dijon. Notre Dame. Parish C. XIII c; 
high W facade of two series of arches over 
open porch ; fine type of Burgundian C. 

Evreux. Notre Dame. Cathedral C. Parts 
nave XI—XII ¢; upper parts nave early XIII 
e; XIII—XIV e¢ choir larger than nave ; mag- 
nificent central tower XVI c¢; exterior much 
changed in restoration. 

Fontevrault. Notre Dame. Abbey C, called 
“Grand Moutier” ; now prison. XII c; clois- 
ter repaired XVI-X VII ¢; domical church. 

Issoire. S Austremoine. Benedictine abbey 
C; now parish C. Same character as Notre 
Dame du Port, Clermont, slightly later in date ; 
modern facade and towers. 

La Charité. S Croix. Cluniac priory C. 
Begun end XI c¢; nave burned XVI c; 4 bays 
rebuilt 1695; choir repaired XVII c. 

La Ferté Bernard. Notre Dame des Ma- 
rais. Parish C. Nave, transept, tower, 1450— 
1500; choir aisles, apse chapels, XVI c; spire 
destroyed 1740 ; fine flamboyant C. 

Laon. Notre Dame. Cathedral C. to 
1801. Built early XII c; choir, transept, 
nave, rebuilt 1155-1174; remodelled early 
XIII c; 6 towers carried above roof; one of 
the most beautiful early XIII ¢ churches. 

Le Dorat. S Marie. Abbey C. End XIc; 
first quarter XII c; tower beginning XIIIc; 
one of the finest Romanesque churches in cen- 
tral France. 

Le Mans. S Julien. Cathedral C. W 
facade, aisle walls and vaults, base S tower, 
XI c; upper parts nave, transept piers, 1150 ; 
choir (largest in France) 1217-1254; S tran- 
sept XIV c; N transept, upper part 8 tower, 
XV c; superb glass. 

Le Puy. Notre Dame. Cathedral C. XI-— 
XII ¢; parts of cloister much older ; nave vaulted 
with unique domes; exterior in black and 
white with mosaic patterns; fine group of 
dependent buildings. 

Lisieux. § Pierre. Cathedral C to 1799. 
Church of XII c, rebuilt in XIII c; nave 
chapels XIV c; Lady Chapel 1430; repairs 
XVI c; type of Norman transition. 

Loches. SOurs. Collegiate C ; now parish 
C. Chiefly XII c; first bay nave X c; nave 
aisles XII and XV c; unique nave roof of 2 
towers and 2 pyramids. 

Lyons. S Martin d’Ainay. Benedictine 
abbey C to 1790; now parish C. X-XIc¢; a 
5-aisled church with outer aisles of XIT or XIII c. 
S Jean. Cathedral C. ‘“ Eglise 
Primatiale.” Choir early and end of XII c; 
nave XIIIc; W facade XIV—XV c; towers at 
side of choir done 1480. 

Mantes. Notre Dame. Collegiate C. 
XII c; facade XIII c; choir chapels XIV c; 
a reduced copy of Notre Dame at Paris. 

574 


Norman type 


7 : ae Se i CA C i ~ gp = ry 
poe ee ey ae Pure, ea Soe Ry a ha ee ie 
, j ee eee BB, Ripe A dig oi hd bee Bae iy 
; “ oe ; mG = ea 4 ry 
4 . " a % 


CHURCH 


Meaux. S Etienne. Cathedral C. Choir 
middle XIII c; nave XV—-XVI ec. 

Melle. S Hilaire. Benedictine priory C. 
Apse, ambulatory chapels, XI c ; nave XIIc; W 
facade with ranges of richly sculptured arches. 

Moissac. S Pierre. Benedictine abbey C. 
Augustinian abbey C from 1618. Rebuilt 
XV c on site of C dedicated 1060; S portal 
XII ¢, elaborately 
sculptured with 
Last Judgment ; 
beautiful XII ¢ 
cloister with sto- 
ried capitals. 

Mont - Saint - 
Michel. 8 Michel- 
en- Péril-de- Mer. 
Benedictine 
abbey C. Tran- 
sept, larger 
part nave, 
1020- ¢ 
1135 ; choir 


CuurcH oF 8. PETER: PART OF NORTH FRONT, SHOWING CHOIR (TURNED 
COLOSSAL ORDER AND ATTIC; 
ALL OF 1536. CUPOLA OF CIRCA 1590. 


TO THE WEST). NORTHERN APSE. 


1450-1521; part nave destroyed 1776 ; clois- 
ter done 1288; one of the most picturesquely 
situated churches in Europe, with complete and 
extensive monastic buildings. 

Narbonne. S Just. Cathedral C to 1801. 
Choir 1270-1320 (only part finished) ; W end 
(fragments) begun 1708. 

Nevers. S Etienne. Benedictine abbey C ; 
now parish C. Chiefly XI c. 

Notre Dame de YEpine. Votive C. A 
superb example of the florid Gothic of the 
second half of XV ec. 

Noyon. Notre Dame. 

575 


Cathedral C to 


ay, , 
= ia ae 


ar ; 
P ep 
vi Gas r 


CHURCH 


= = 


1801. -Second half XII ¢; upper part towers “—- 
XIII c;.W porch XIV ¢; ; transepts terminated — a 
with circular apses. i : 
Orcival. Notre Dame. Secular priory C; a 
collegiate C from 1242; now parish C. XIe; 
similar to Notre Dame du Port, Clermont ; 
octagonal tower XIII ec. ‘i 
Paray-le-Monial. Notre Dame. Benedie- a 
tine priory C; now parish C. Chiefly XII c; 
remarkable C with closed W porch of two 
stories. a 
Paris. S Germain des Prés. Benedictine 
abbey C. XI-XII c; W door, nave vault, 
XVII c; modern polychrome decoration. cS 
Notre Dame. Cathedral C. Begun — 
1163; choir, parts transept, nave, done 1196; 
W facade, 1208-1223; repairs and changes 
1240-1245; transept facades 1257; nave chap- 
els 1260-1275; all done 1351; 5 aisles; one 
of the most sublime examples of Gothic archi- __ 
tecture. . 


S Chapelle. UpperC,LaS Couronne; 
lower ©, S Croix; Royal Chapel. Built by 
S Louis 1242 or 1245; done 1247; am 
double chapel; a gem of Gothic Nee 
architecture; upper C painted — 
throughout (modern restoration) 
and with superb glass. 

S Germain ]Auxerrois. — 
Royal C; now 
parish C.. Tower = 
Xilc; W facade, 
choir, apse, first 
half XIII ¢ ; outer 
S aisle, nave 
chapels, XIV c; _ 
porch, part W 
Bl iF) facade, nave, tran- 
| eat | i sept, choir chap- 
| els, XV—XVI ¢. 
S Eti- 
enne du Mont. 
Parish C. Begun 
1517; choir done 
1557; W portal - 
begun 1610; fa- 


mous jubé by ‘ 
Biard le péere jam 
1600-1609. 


S Eustache. Parish C. Begun 1532; 

done, save portal, 1642; W portal 1755-1788 ; 

unique application of Renaissance detail to Gothic 
forms. 


S Séverin. Parish C. Side portal, 
tower porch, parts aisles, and nave early | XIII c; 
tower, outer 8 aisle, XIV c; remaining parts and 
general rebuilding 1489- 1498. 

S Sulpice. Parish C. Begun 1646; — 
continued 1670, 1719, 1733, 1745; a vast ow 
church ; one of the most notable of later Parisian 
churches. 


Former Church of § Gene- 
576 


Panthéon. 


--vidve. 


.., 
4 
* 
ie 
a 
SS 


CHURCH 
Begun 1764 by Soufflot ; a great modern 
church, now secularized; wall paintings by mod- 


ern French masters. 


Périgueux. S Front. Abbey C (uncertain 
if Benedictine or Augustinian); cathedral C 
from 1669. First half XII c; greatly changed 
by modern restoration ; modelled on S Mark’s, 
Venice ; undecorated interior. 

Poitiers. S Pierre. Cathedral C. Begun 
1162; nearly done 1204; W facade XIII c; 


upper part N tower XV c; unusually wide W 


front ; “Angevin” vaults of domical form. 
Notre Dame laGrande. Collegiate C. 
Chiefly XI c; parts N wall nave IX or X c; 


CHURCH 


1277; choir done XV c; nave done XVI c; W 
facade, c 1530; transept tower 1510-1526; no 
W portal. 

Rouen. Notre Dame. Cathedral C. Parts 
W facade, c 1170; chiefly 1202-1220; transept 
portals 1280-1488; upper part N tower 1467 ; 
S tower 1485-1517; modern central iron 
spire. 2 
S Ouen. Benedictine abbey C; now 
parish C. Choir, part transept, 1318-1338 ; 
nave XVc; beautiful central lantern and tower 
done end XV ¢; walls almost wholly filled with 
glass; W facade 1846-1852. 

S Maclou. Parish C. Begun 1437; 


y. 
= 
G 


W 
ly 


CHuRCH OF §. MARIA DELLA SALUTE, VENICE. 


nave chapels XV-XVI ¢; central part W front 
repaired XV c; W front sculptured throughout. 
S Hilaire. CollegiateC. XI-XIIc; 
mutilated 1562; 7-aisled nave destroyed in Revo- 
lution and rebuilt 1855-1876. 

Pontigny. Cistercian abbey C. Begun mid- 
dle XII c; restored, after fires, 1615-1630 ; 
remarkably homogeneous; apparently built at 
one time. 

Pontoise. SMaclou. ParishC. Apse, part 
transept, middle XII c; facade XV c; trans- 
formed XVI c. 

Provins. S Quiriac. Collegiate C. Begun 
1160; choir XII-XIII c; transept portals 
XIII c: modern dome; no facade. 

Reims. Notre Dame. Cathedral C. Begun 
1212; choir nearly done 1241; nave and W fa- 
cade XIV ¢, on plans of XIII c; W towers 1428; 
superb sculpture in all parts. 
S Remi. Benedictine abbey C. Chiefly 
XI c; apse, portal, 2 bays nave, XII c; S tran- 
sept XV c. 

Rodez. 


Notre Dame. Cathedral C. Begun 


577 


done beginning XVI ¢; modern spire; richly or- 
namented porch, with carved wood doors. 

Saint-Avit-Sénieur. Abbey C. XII c; de- 
rived from 8 Front, Périgueux; domes replaced 
with domical vaults XIII c. 

Saint-Benoit-sur-Loire. S Marie. Benedic- 
tine abbey C. W porch XI c; chiefly XII c; 
nave vault 1218; majestic W porch in 2 stories ; 
one of the most important French Romanesque 
churches. 

Saint-Denis. S Denis. Benedictine abbey 
C. XIIc; restored end XII and beginning XIII 
c; upper parts choir, transept, and nave rebuilt 
1231; burial place of French kings; many nota- 
ble monuments. 

Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer. Notre Dame. 
Parish C. Fortified church of XII c. 

Saint-Leu d’Esserent. Benedictine priory C. 
Narthex XIc; choir end XII c; nave beginning 
XIII c; remarkable transition monument. 

Saint-L6. Notre Dame. Augustinian abbey 
C. XIV-XVIc; N tower XIII or XIV ec; 8 
tower, XV or XVI c; spires XVII c. 

578 


‘or Vie: — F Ls cey teat 
ae th on Pie. ‘s MES Sa aes: oe 


CHURCH 


Saint-Martin-de-Boscherville. S Georges. 
Benedictine abbey C. XIc; vaults rebuilt XII 
c; salle capitulaire 1157-1200; cloister (frag- 
ments) XIV c. 

Saint-Pére-sous-Vézelay. S Pierre. Bene- 
dictine C; now parish C. XIII c; porch partly 


0 si ‘tS amma 
GEE 


ine 
(<A a A 


rane 
As 
| . 
iv! = 


4 mas | 


caeemeae TUUURLTE TT ares 


rec | 


TTT 
XQ OT TTT HL 


q nut 
Mt Teri 


CuurcH or S. PAut: SoutH PART OF WEST FRONT. 


XIV-XV c; Burgundian type of Gothic; charm- 
ing tower. 

Saint-Pierre-sur-Dives. § Marie, Benedic- 
tine abbey C. Tower XII ¢; chiefly XIII, XIV, 
XVI ¢; apse chapels XIII c. 

Saint-Pol-de-Léon. Notre Damedu Creizker. 

579 


i Mite y 
om Hanae | 
iran lee is Built 1140-1168 ; S tower and por- _ 


I SOG He. i 


; OUTATATAIREOTAN 
Hjuuentinae 


i 
i —— 
ae 


Frail <i in, Siisien a: 
. % 2 ea 


<a & 


peat ac. 


Choir, tower, nave, XIV « oe laetea 


Chapel. 


side porches middle XV c tower the 4 


of several in the region. 
Saint-Quentin. Notre Dame. 


tower XIII or XIV c. 
Senlis. Notre Dame. 
C to 1801; now parish C. Buil 
1145-1183; spire XIII c; chapels 
XIV ¢; upper parts repaired an. 
transept finished XVI c. 
Sens. § Etienne. Cathedral C 


1515 ; top S tower XVI c. 

Soissous: 
Cathedral C. Built 1160—1170 
S transept 1176 ; 


arm transept, semicircular. 
Toul. 
facade XV c; 
XVI «. 
Toulouse. 
larly S Sernin. 
Sanctuary XIc; 


S Saturnin ; Pop 
Secular abbey 


able central tower, brick 
church in southern France. 
Tournus. S Philibert. Benedic- 


XIV or XV c. 

Tours. 
Begun ¢ 1175; chiefly XIII c; con- 
tinued XIV, XV, AV Tteg Ww: facade 
1426-1547 ; N tower done 1507 ; 
S tower done 1547; ; panelled W front. 

Troyes. SS Pierre et Paul. 
thedral C. In rebuilding 1214 ; 
and part transept XIII c ; transept 
XIV c; nave XV ¢; 
XVI «¢. 


S Urbain. 
papal C; now Parish C. Begun 
1262; character of XIV c ; nave un- 
finished ; a chef-d’ceeuvre of Gothic 
art. 

Vendéme. La Trinité. 
dictine abbey C. XII-XV c; nave 
XIV-XV c; nave chapels 1341 and 1545; 
choir begun c 1275 ; isolated tower middle XII c. 

Vézelay. La Madeleine. 
C. Nave 1096-1104; narthex 1128; choir 
1198-1206 ; upper part W facade XIII c; a 
grand church. 


DARD) Obras unaaiattt 
eeu 
HUTT TT 
4s 


580 


Cathedmall 


SS Gervais et Protais. 


choir done early 
XIII ¢; nave chapels. XIV c; one seas 


S Gengoult. XIII c; Ww a 
cloister first hal 


nave XIIc; re 
built as originally in XIII c; remark-— 
; largest 


tine abbey C; Nave and narthex — 
beginning XIc; largely XIc; tran- — 
sept and tower XII ie minor pari e- 


S Gatien. Cathedral C. P 


Ca-_ 
choir 


W facade - 


Collegiate and 


rare 


Bene- 


Benedictine abbey 


- §S Cassius and Florentius. 


CHURCH 


GERMANY 


Aachen. Cathedral C. Octagonal church 
by Charlemagne, 793-804, with gables of be- 
ginning XIII ¢ and roof of XVII c; choir 
1353-1413. 

Bamberg. 
rebuilt XIII ¢ ; 
E and W choirs. 

Bonn. Cathedral C ; former archdeanery 
E towers and 
choir XII c; nave and central tower XIII c. 

Cologne. S Peter. Cathedral C. Be- 
gun 1248; choir 1320; nave after 1322 ; 

S transept begun 1325; W nave and 
front completed XIX c; vast and. 


Cathedral C. XI-XII c; 
W choir and transept 1274 ; 


a Le eee ee 2) 


CHURCH 


1220; W parts nave XIII c; 
c; W towers rebuilt 1896. 
Hildesheim. § Michaelskirche. Benedic- 
tine abbey C; now Protestant parish C. 
Karly XI c; rebuilt in XII and XIII c; E 
and W transepts ; E choir removed 1560. 
Magdeburg. SS Maurice and Katharine. 
Cathedral C. Choir and transept XIII c; 
nave XIV c; W towers XIV-XVI c. 
Mainz. SS Maurice and Stephan. Ca- 
thedral C. XI, XII, beginning XIII c ; 
chapels XITI-XVI c; E and W apses. 
Marburg. § Elizabethkirche. XIII c; 
nave and aisles of equal height. 
Naumburg. SS Peter and Paul. 
Cathedral C. Founded XI c; nave 


choir XIV—-XV * 


‘splendid church; highest Gothic beginning XIII c; W choir 1248- 
vault. | | ES E2i2 = 0 (choit X1 Vite 53 
S Aposteln. XI c; =e towers XV c; S W_ tower 

choir XII-XIII ¢, of 3 apses porte 1894. 
supporting central dome ; fine ash ; Niirnburg. S  Sebaldus- 
group of towers. . kirche. Oldest parts XI c; 
S Gereons - kirche. sie enlarged XIV ¢ ; W choir XIII 
Collegiate C. Crypt and serine: STN ec; Echoir XIV c; W towers 
choir XI c; enlarged XII c; ZW . done XVc; best type of 
nave (irregular decagon) XIII ; i, LISS Zw German Gothic; equal aisles. 
c; choir vault XIV—XV ce. urn ie ' Oppenheim. § 
Erfurt. Marienkirche. — : ae a Wheat \ Katherinenkirche. Be- 
Cathedral C. Begun XII BESSA FOL LEGS gun middle XIII ¢; 
c; rebuilt middle XIII eel Neal Te] Se ayale choir done XV ¢; nave 


c; choir XIV c; nave | : 
and aisles XV c; lofty |# a 
slender choir without |; a 
aisles; nave narrower .2 
than aisles. Je 


elaborately decorated in 


German style. 
Paderborn. S8 Libo- 
1 rius. Cathedral C. 

al [eal (eal [a wt XI-XIII c¢; chiefly 


i, 


fy i 


1 Ft 
4) (oon) | SS 


a ‘i “ veil 
EE 


- : id itll N 
a B a 
\ | cee oa 


CHURCH OF §S. PAUL IN LONDON: SECTION THROUGH CUPOLA, 


i; nL NG 
i a et Be 
oi Se UC (cca | 8 ua 
MICO TN milli eat Mini So ell Hat 
i | HH Hi i ; i i : i 
i i ——e \! Se ie 
sess a NE 
Ne | al 
| | i | F | 
i 
il iF st A 
i) i Vh t ii | | 


Ue GM py GO IL 
oo LE 


SHOWING INNER Cupola, BRICK CONE, 


AND WOODEN OUTER SHELL; STONE LANTERN RESTING ON BRICK CONE. WORK OF SIR CHRISTOPHER 


WREN, 1680 To 1710 A.D. 


Freiburg. (Baden) Marienkirche. Cathe- 
dral C. Built 1230-1288; superb pierced 
spire 1270~1300. 

Halberstadt. 
Begun c 1179; 


S Stephan. Cathedral C. 
consecrated after rebuilding 
581 


1273-1280 ; S tower XV c¢; 


XIII ¢; 
Regensburg. S Peter. 


great W tower (no entrance) XI c. 
Cathedral C. Choir 
W facade XV c; 
W towers done 1859-1869; most charming 
German Gothic cathedral. 
582 


CHURCH 
Speyer. Cathedral C. Crypt XI c; chiefly 
XII c; most important German Romanesque 


C; grand dimensions ; typical Rhenish cathe- 
dral. 

Strasburg. S Maria. Cathedral C. Parts 
apse, fragments, beginning XII c; transept 
middle and end XII c; nave and choir XIII ¢; 
chapels XITI-XIV c; spire 1439; W front a 
high traceried screen. 

Trier. Liebfrauenkirche. 1227-1243 ; tower 
1492 ; polygonal church ; unique plan and con- 
struction ; vaults supported by angle piers of 
chapels without flying buttresses. 

Ulm. Cathedral C. Begun 1377; nave 
done 1470; tower XIV-XVI c; completed 
EAS: 
with tracery. 

Worms. 
C. Chiefly XII c; 
tower restored, XV c; 
E and W apses. 


SS Peter and Paul. Cathedral 
S portal XIV c; N E 
cloister removed, 1813 ; 


HUNGARY 


Cathedral C. XIV—XVc; most 
square, with 


Kaschau. 
important Hungarian Gothic C ; 
polygonal choir. 

Oedenburg. Benedictine abbey C. XIV- 
XV c; by German masters ; fine tower; plan 
similar to Cracow. 


ISTRIA 


Parenzo. Cathedral C. VI; retains origi- 
nal atrium and baptistery ; rare example of a 
complete VI ¢ basilica ; most important C on E 
shore of Adriatic. 


ITALY 


Assisi. S Francesco. Franciscan monastery 
C. Double C; begun 1228; lower C done 
1232; upper C dedicated 1253; one of the 
earliest Gothic churches in Italy; superbly 
frescoed by many early Italian masters. 

Asti. S Maria Assunta. Cathedral C. 
Chiefly first quarter XIII c (fragments XI ¢) ; 
S porch early XVI ¢; isolated campanile. 

Bari. S Sabino. Cathedral C. Part tran- 
sept and E end X ¢; rebuilt XI, XII, XIII c; 
interior XVIII c; 9-aisled crypt. 

Bologna. S Petronio. Begun 1390; con- 
tinued to middle XVII c; unfinished ; present 
C is nave of projected building ; many of the 
most famous architects of XIV and XV ¢ have 
laboured on it. 

Chiaravalle. Cistercian abbey C to 1797. 
XIJ-XIII c; Lombard C with enriched central 
octagonal tower. 

Como. Cathedral C. Nave begun 1396; 
facade XV c; choir and transept XVI ¢; 
cupola XVIII c; beautiful C with elegant 
detail ; one of the finest in north Italy. 

Ferrara. Cathedral C. Chiefly XII c; ad- 
ditions XIITI—XIV c; interior XVII ¢; campa- 

583 . 


'transepts ; interior modernized. 


outer walls and buttresses panelled 


oe Sane ipitan See 
ein aw aa 
as 


“CHURCH = am 

nile XV-XVI c; Lombard C; W fae e 
monumental screen with ranges of arches 
S Maria dei Fiore. Cathe 


Florence. 


C. Begun 1296; by Arnolfo di Cambio, towe: 2. | 


(Giotto, 1334-1337) done 1351 ; 
nelleschi) 1420-1436 ; 
earliest modern dome ; 


dome (Bru- 


outer walls panelled | in- 


mosaic ; baptistery (S Giovanni Battista), XII « Ce a 


S Maria Novella. Dominican C. 
Begun 1278; facade of red and white marhiew 
1448-1470 by ‘Alberti ; 
early Italian masters. x 
S Miniato al Monte. 


c; campanile 1519 ; 


mosaic patterns ; 
neered in coloured marble. 

Fossanuova. Cistercian abbey C to 1812; 
now Carthusian. 


XIV-<5 perhaps best remaining representa 
of an Ttalian medizeval monastery. 

Genoa. S Lorenzo. Cathedral C. Chiefly 
XII c; restored XIV c; crossing lantern and 


top campanile XVI ¢; facade and nave arches vs 


of black and white marble strips. 
Lucca. S Martino. 
XII ¢; choir XIV c; arcaded W fagade, richly 


decorated, begun 1204 ; majestic interior ; Lom- | 


bard C of Pisan type. 
Mantua. § Andrea. 
1470-1476; dome 1782, earliest type of Re- 


detail. 

- Milan. 8S Ambrogio. 
parts and apse rebuilt, nave restored, 824-859 ; 

restoration and atrium 868- 881 ; nave rebuiles 
second half XIT ce. 

S Mariz Nascente. Cathedral C. 
Begun 1386; choir consecrated 1418; cupola 
1490-1522 ; W.end nave 1685; spire 1772; 
facade XIX c; largest Gothic C save Seville 


lantern "1445-1461 ; — 


notable frescoes ~ by 3 
Benedictine fe, 
abbey C. Begun 1013; facade restored XIV 
ilustraten transition from 4 


basilica to Romanesque type; interior walls in by 
wood roof; outer walls ve-— 4g 5 


Built 1187-1208 ; fagadeum ’ 
| middle XIII c; cloister end XIII or beginning 


Cathedial 0.” San 


Masterwork of Alberti ME 


Monastery C. Upper 


“naissance C; fine proportions and lean aa 


cathedral ; brick, veneered with white marble; 


many statues ; painted vault tracery; one of 
the most impressive interiors in Europe. 

Modena. Cathedral C. Chiefly XII c; 
much sculpture on facade and at portals ; 
of the most notable Italian towers (XIII- 
XIV c). 

Monreale. Benedictine abbey C ; 
C from 1582. Built c 1175-1182 ; one of the 
finest monuments of Norman art in Sicily ; 
interior covered with magnificent mosaics ; Latin 
form, Roman colonnade, Byzantine mosaics, 
Greek sculpture, Saracenic and Norman detail. 

Murano. 8S Donato. Cathedral C. From 
middle X c; probably chiefly XII ¢; interior 
modernized, inlaid pavement (XII c). 

Orvieto. S Maria. Cathedral C. Begun 
12907; 

584 


one | 


cathedral — 


one of the most remarkable Gothic 


oe 
- 


_ churches; facade superbly sculptured and 


CHURCH 


decorated with mosaics; interior with many 


great frescoes. 


Otranto. S Maria Annunziata. Cathedral 
C. X, XI, XIII c; remarkable crypt of nine 
aisles, mosaic pavement of 1163. 

Padua. S§ Antonio (“Il Santo”). 1231- 
1307 by Niccolo da Pisa; nave and transept 
Romanesque ; aisles, facade, save door, choir, 
apse, Gothic, Lady Chapel Renaissance ; Ori- 
ental-like church with 7 domes; gorgeous in- 
terior with much painting and many shrines. 

Palermo. S Rosalia. Cathedral C. ‘The 
Matrice” XII c¢c; many 
changes XIII, XIV, XV c; 
external character of XIV c ; 
interior modernized (dome) 
1730-1801. 

Parma. S Maria Assunta. 
Cathedral C. Crypt X c¢; 
built middle XI c; largely 
rebuilt XII c ; Lombard Ro- 
manesque ; magnificent W 
front ; much colour on ex- 
terior; interior frescoes by 
Correggio and his pupils. . 

Pavia. Certosa. Car- 
thusian monastery C.  Be- 
gun 1396; continued to 
beginning XVI c ; splendidly 
decorated facade begun 1491; = —— 
most magnificent monastéry  —= 
in the world; interior with cra 
many great pictures. | | 
~§ Michele. Date 
uncertain ; probably XI—XII 
c; fine type of Lombard Ro- 
manesque. 

Piacenza. S _ Giustina. 
Cathedral C. XII-XIII c; 
crypt with many columns ; 
fine choir stalls. 

Pisa. §S Reparata. Ca- 
thedral C. Begun c 10638; 
consecrated 1118 ; campanile 
(Leaning Tower) 1174; 
tower belfry 1380; baptis- 
tery 1153-1278, XIV c¢; 
one of the most notable groups in Italy; of 
white marble beautifully tinted by age; walls 
have many subtle curves and variations. 

Pistoia. S Jacopo. Cathedral C. Built 
e¢ 1150; probably partly rebuilt c 1272 ; beau- 
tiful XII ¢ campanile ; contains many notable 
paintings ; interior modernized. 

Prato. Cathedral C. XII c; enlarged by 
G Pisano c 1317 ; campanile completed 1340 ; 
external pulpit by Donatello 1434 ; inlaid with 
black and green serpentine and white marble ; 
fine frescoes by Filippo Lippi. 

Ravenna. § Apollinare Nuovo. Originally 
Arian cathedral C. Basilica. Built 500 by 

585 


h 
: SSS SSS 


— Ht 


A i 


CHURCH 


Theodoric ; apse IX c¢; portico XVI c; mag- 
nificent mosaics chiefly 533-566. 

Ravenna. § Apollinare in Classe. Basilica. 

Begun 534 by “Julianus Argentarius”; conse- 
crated 549 ; mosaics 671-677. 
S Vitale. Begun 526 by “Juli- 
anus Argentarius”; consecrated 547 ; narthex 
destroyed 1688 ; octagonal church with some 
fine mosaics. 

Rome. S Agnese fuori le Mura. Basilica. 
Suburban regular parish C. Founded by Con- 
stantine ; rebuilt 626-640 ; restored 1490. 

S Clemente. Basilica. Now Irish 


I f, 
Fel 
: 


CHURCH OF S. Rocn, Paris: NAVE; CIRCA 1660 A.D. 


Dominican C. Rebuilt 1125 ; consecrated 1128 ; 
choir screen VI c; lower C contains V to XI c¢ 
frescoes ; rests on fragments of primitive Chris- 
tian C ; best extant type of early Roman basilica. 
S Giovanni in Laterano. Basilica. 
Ancient Episcopal C ; secular parish C. XIV 
c; restored XV ec; interior entirely rebuilt 
1644—1655 ; Capella Corsini and main facade 
1734 ; tribune and chair enlarged 1875-1885 ;. 
beautiful cloister early XIII c. 

S Lorenzo fuori le Mura. Basilica. 
Suburban regular parish C. E end by Con- 
stantine ; W end 432-440 ; joined and restored 
1216-1227 ; presbytery 1254; cloister XII c. 

586 


. CHURCH > 

Rome. S Mariain Cosmedin. Diaconal C ; 
secular parish C. Built 772-795; restored 
and reconsecrated 1123 ; facade 1718 ; campa- 
nile VIII or IX e¢. 
S Maria Maggiore. Liberian Ba- 
silica (Basilica Major). Secular parish C. 
Founded IV ¢; rebuilt 432; W campanile re- 
built 1375; chapels from XIII c; W facade 
and interior XII c, renewed XVIII c; repairs 
XIV c; Borghese Chapel 1611. 
S Maria in Trastevere. 
C. Rebuilt 1130; portico, 
Fontana. 


Secular parish 
DOV ALT ACG = DY 


S Paolo fuori le Mura. Basilica 

Suburban regular parish C. Built 
rebuilt 386; burned 1823; 
1854; cloister early 


Ostiensis. 
by Constantine ; 
rebuilt, reconsecrated, 
XIII ce. 

S Pietro in Vaticano. 
Secular parish C. Begun 1450; Bramante 
1506-1514; Raphael 1514-1520; Peruzzi 
1520—1536; Sangallo 1536-1546; G Ro- 


mano 1546; Michelangelo 1546-1564 (dome) ; — 


Giacomo della Porta 1588-1604 (dome done 
1590) ; Carlo Maderno 1604 (nave and fagade 
done 1614) ; largest Christian C. 
Siena. S Maria Assunta. 
Begun “c 1245; cupola done 1264; choir pro- 
longed 1317; great extension begun 1339; 


facade 1284-1380 ; designed by G Pisano, one. 


of the most notable Italian churches and one 
of the most sumptuous interiors ; superbly 
sculptured and decorated facade ; contains pulpit 
by N Pisano ; mosaic pavement by Beccafumi 


(c 1369) ; many great works of art. 
Torcello. S Maria. Cathedral C. Apse 
VII c; crypt, small apses, part walls IX c; 


rebuilt or restored XI c¢; choir (1008) repaired 
second half XII ¢; interior modernized. 

Toscanella. § Pietro. Cathedral C. Founded 
628 ; chiefly XI c¢; unusual type; interior has 
many Roman columns; curious sculptures on 
W front. 

Venice. § Giorgio Maggiore. Benedictine 

abbey C. Built 1560-1610 by Palladio ; a 
masterpiece of its architect. 
SS Giovanni e Paolo (locally § 
Zanipolo). Dominican C. Begun 1234; con- 
secrated 1430; the Venetian ‘‘ Westminster 
Abbey” with many notable monuments ; one 
of the most important Venetian Gothic churches. 
S Marco. Ducal chapel. Cathedral 
C from 1807. Built X—XI ¢; additions XIV ¢; 
mosaics restored XVII c; cruciform C with 5 
domes; splendidly decorated throughout with 
gorgeous mosaics; isolated campanile IX— 
XVI ¢; loggia of campanile by Sansovino 
1540. 


S Maria Glorioso dei Frari. Fran- 
ciscan C. Begun 1250; done 1280; tower 
XIV c; a remarkable brick C; many fine 
tombs of Doges ; the Venetian ‘‘ Pantheon.” 
587 


Basilica. 


Cathedral C.. 


plan of 2 domes ; ete placed at ent : 2 
of Canal Can oe 


Cathedeall 


Verona. S Maria Matricolare. 
C. XII c; substantially rebuilt ; especially _ 
interior, XIV c; interior, choir, screen, § 


chapels, XVI c; magnificent XII ¢ porch, 


NETHERLANDS, KINGDOM OF THE 
ee 
Built ej 


Haarlem. S Bavon. ‘“ Groote Kerk.” 
XV ¢; spire and wood vaults XVI c¢. a ‘ 
Utreont oo hry Cathedral C. XIIIc; | 


detached tower XIV c; nave fell 1674. 


NORWAY 


Hitterdal. Wood C of XI or XII c; wa 
characteristic type of early Norwegian C ; ed 
interlaced carved wood detail. i 

Trondhjem. Cathedral C. Transept XII ¢; a 
largely XIII c; interior E end XIV c. ee 


PORTUGAL 


Batalha. Mosteiro da § Maria da Victoria. a 
Built 1385; done before 1440; a florid type 


of Gothic. a 
Belem. S Maria. Convento dos Jeronymos 
de Belem. Built 1517-1551; choir 1551; 


florid Gothic church. 


SCOTLAND 


Edinburgh. 8S Giles. Parish C; collegiate 
C 1455-1653 ; cathedral C from 1661. XIV- 
XV c; N transept widened 1829. a 
Elgin. Holy Trinity. CathedralC. XIII, 


XIV, XV c; desecrated and injured XVII-— 
XVIII «. 

Glasgow. S Mungo. Cathedral C. Largely 
XIII c¢; nave end XIII or beginning XIV c; 
tower XV ec. e 

Kirkwall. Orkney. S Magnus. Cathedral 


C. Choir now parish C; XII ¢. 
Melrose. S Mary. Cistercian abbey C. 
1390-1505 ; ruined. 
Roslyn. S Matthew. Collegiate C. XVc. 


SPAIN 


Avila. S Salvador. Cathedral C. Chiefly = 
end XII and beginning XIII c; much gee ce 
XIV c; cloisters (now ruined) XiVie a 

Barcelona. S Eulalia. Cathedral C. Chiefly 
beginning XIII c¢; crypt S Eulalia, N transept, 
cloister, XIV c; done 1448; N WwW ig 
1890; ‘chapels XT1-XV ol cae 

Burgos. S Maria la Mayor. Cathedral C. 
Begun 1221; fabric XIII c; upper parts W 
towers (open spires) XV c ; central octagonal 

588 


_ of the finest monuments of ecclesiastical 


CHURCH 
lantern XVI c; cloister XIJI-XIV c; elabo- 
rately decorated chapels XV-XVI c; part W 
facade remodelled 1790. 

Cordova. Virgen de la Asuncién from 1238. 
Former Mesdjid-al-Djarni ’a (chief mosque). La 
Mezquita. Cathedral C. VIII c; enlarged 
IX, X c sqqg.; chapels XIV c; choir 1523- 
1607 ; tower from 1593 ; vaults 1713 ; Moorish 


mosque with Renaissance choir. 


Escorial. Real monasterio de S Lorenzo del 
Escorial. A vast church, built 1559-1584; 
designed by Giambattista ; built by Herrara. 

Gerona. Cathedral C. Fragments 
XI ¢c; cloister XII c; choir XIV c; 


Siri 4? Sa 
2%, 


CHURCH 


Toledo. S Maria. Cathedral C. (Catedral 

Primada.) Begun 1227; continued to end XV 
c; Santiago Chapel 1435; Capilla Mayor 1498- 
1504; cloister XIV c; Sala Capitular XVI ¢c; 
chapels XIITI-XVI c; double aisles; gorgeous 
choir screen. 
S Juan de los Reyes. Votive C; 
Franciscan monastery; now parish C. Built 
1476 by Ferdinand and Isabella; W_ portal 
begun 1553; continued to XVII c; rich 
C in late style; superb cloister elaborately 
sculptured. 


nave without aisles, XV-XVI c; by far 
the greatest Gothic vault ; W front begun 
1607, modernized 1733 ; chapels between 
internal buttresses. 


Granada. S Maria de la Encarnacion. 
Cathedral C. XVI c; W facade (un- 
finished) 1667 ; interior done 1703; one 


Renaissance in Spain. : 

Leon. S Maria de Regla. Cathedral 
C. XITI-XIV ¢; chapels XIV-XV c; 
W towers XV-XVI ce. 

S Isidoro. Collegiate C. Found- 
ed XIc; consecrated XII c; choir 
XVi-c, i 

Lérida. Old cathedral, now used by 

military. Begun 1203; chiefly XIII c. 


Murcia. §S Maria. Cathedral C. 
Founded XIV ¢; partly modernized, dome 
XVI c; tower 1522-1766; facade 
XVIII c. 

Oviedo. S Eulalia. Cathedral C. 


Begun XIV c¢; consecrated, S W tower 
done, XVI c; cloister XIV—XV c; Sala 
Capitular XIII ¢; Capilla del Rey Casto 
LPL 

Salamanca. S Maria de la Sede. 
Old cathedral C. Chiefly XII c; cloister 


chapels XIV, XV, XVI c; W facade mod- 
ernized ; stately central lantern and 
dome. 

Santiago di Compostella. Cathedral 
©. XI-XII ¢c; cloister XII, XVI c; exterior 
modernized XVI-XVII c; some modern chap- 
els; vast transept. 

Segovia. CathedralC. Built 1522-c1577; 
Capilla Mayor, 1563; apse chapels XVI ¢; 
cloister XV ¢; rich and elaborate vaults. 

Seville. S MariadelaSede. Cathedral C. 
XV-XVIc; dome rebuilt XVI c; (fell 1888); 
Capilla Real 1481-1575; Sala Capitular, 
XVI c; Segrario XVII c; 5 naves, Arab plan; 
the largest, and in some respects the grandest, 
Gothic church. 

Tarragona. Cathedral C. Chiefly end XIIc 
and first half XIII ¢; cloister first half XIII ¢; 
nave chapels XIV—XVIIIc; choir chapels X V— 
XVIII c. 

589 


CHURCH: FORTIFIED CHURCH, MUNSTER MAIFELD, 
GERMANY. 


Tudela. S Maria. Former cathedral C; 
collegiate C. Begun XII ¢; chiefly XIIT c; 
secularized 1238. 

Valencia. S Maria. Cathedral (popularly 
La Seo). Founded 1262; S transept facade, 
exterior apse, middle XIII c; lantern, nave, 
XVc; Sala Capitular Antigua XIV c. 

Zamora. Cathedral C. XII ¢; additions 
XV «c. 


SWEDEN. 


Lund. Cathedral C. XI-—XITI c; German 
style. 

, Upsala. Cathedral C. Begun end XIII c by 
Etienne Bonneuil ; continued XITV—XV ¢c; modi- 
fications XVIII c; French style. , 

590 


CHURCH BUILDING 


SWITZERLAND. 


Zurich. SS Felix and Regula. Cathedral C. 
Uncertain date; probably XI and XII ¢; clois- 
ter ¢ 1200; marked Italian influences; no W 
entrance. 


TURKEY. 


Constantinople. S Sophia (Turkish, Aya So- 
fia); now mosque. Begun 532; dedicated 537 ; 
dome rebuilt, reconsecrated, 566; greatest By- 
zantine C; built by Justinian ; Turkish minarets. 

— Barr FERREE. 

CHURCH BUILDING. The movement 
in this direction, which took place in the eleventh 
and twelfth centuries and culminated in the ear- 
lier years of the thirteenth century, is often com- 
mented on as almost inexplicable. Wonder is 
felt at the power shown by small communities in 
an unsettled land, and in a condition of almost 
constant local warfare, to produce so many and 
such elaborate buildings. Not only the great 
cathedrals which were begun between 1175 and 
1220, but thousands of churches of all sizes 
were undertaken at once all over Western 
Europe, France taking the lead, England, 
western Germany, the Low Countries, northern 
Spain, and northern Italy all following closely 
the example set. The work had been going on 
vigorously during the prevalence of the Roman- 
esque style; but the invention of the ribbed 
vault and the resulting architecture which we 
call Gothic aided greatly in the movement. 
The causes of the surprising enthusiasm and 
long-continued energy of the builders are to be 
found partly in the desire of the towns to erect 
monuments of importance which should express 
their own newly gained chartered privileges ; 
partly in the desire of the bishops to undertake 
works which should offset and surpass the build- 
ings of the great monasteries ; partly, also, in 
the desire of both the towns and the bishops to 
rival within the city walls the formidable castles 
of the nobles in the neighbouring country ; partly 
in the religious zeal and the belief that by con- 
tributing to these great structures piety was 
shown and a claim on heaven established ; 
partly by a common desire for a great place of 
assembly open to all the people and from which 
no privileged class could shut them out. That 
such works were possible, still, however, de- 
mands explanation ; and this is to be found, it 
is probable, in the low cost of labour, even of 
skilled labour, throughout Europe at this time. 
It has been frequently pointed out that during 
the earlier Middle Ages, stone, the material, was 
very expensive in proportion to even the most 
skilled labour, whereas in modern times the 
conditions are entirely reversed. Materials were 
hard to transport, and were, therefore, costly ; 
labour was easy to bring to the spot and very 
low money wages, accompanied by the necessary 

591 


CHURCH OF 
food and shelter of the simplest kind, were fe 


ficient to draw the best workmen from all that 
part of the land to an important undertaking. Us 


Forced labour also existed, and voluntary labour — 
such as was furnished for a certain number of 


days in the year by the willing volunteers on the ae 
bishop’s initiative ; but it is impracticable to say _ 
Certainly — a 
there was not, as under Roman imperial domin- _ 
ion, a great system of corvées which could be — 


how far this resource was available. 


counted on at all times. | 
As to the low price of labour applied to build- 


‘ 


ings, it is to be observed that, even to this day, a 
in lands where masonry has always been afamil- __ 
iar art, and where all buildings are chiefly built — 4 3 


of stone and brick with mortar, buildings of 


great size and of some magnificence are erected — 7 
by small towns of impoverished provinces or _ 
nations, and by individuals whose actual wealth __ 


in money is not very great. 


This was much 


more generally the case a century ago, or even eS 
in the earlier years of the present century. 


Great palazzi of Italian nobles were still erected 
during those years, and their gigantic size and 


ponderous structure are almost as difficult to 
explain as are the cathedrals of the thirteenth — 


century. A complete examination of the case 


is impossible here, nor does it appear that the a 
actual comparative cost of such a building as 


Notre Dame of Paris now and in the thirteenth — 
Until much care- 
| ful calculation of this sort has been entered into,  —_— 


century has ever been made. 


the problem of medizeval church building will 
not be finally solved. — R. S. 


CHURCH OF ALL SAINTS. Margaret 
One of the © 


Street, Cavendish Square, London. 


earliest and most important of the buildings — ; . 
of the Gothic revival in England, or of whatis 


ealled Victorian architecture. 
of William Butterfield, and was built about 
1855. It is celebrated for the free use of 
coloured decoration produced by the contrast of 
natural materials with inlay in the stone. 

C. OF ARA CQGLI. Properly, 8. Maria in 
Ara Coli; that is, at the Altar of Heaven ; 
in Rome, north of the Campidoglio, and reached 
by a long flight of steps. Beautiful Renaissance 
interior resembling an earlier basilica. 

C. OF BROU. 
church standing in the suburb Brou of the town 
of Bourg-en-Bresse, in the southeast of France, 
department of the Ain. 
fifteenth century, but abandoned ; and the work 
was recommenced at the expense of the Duchess 
Margaret of Austria in 1506. The most elab- 
orate preparations were made, and ample means 
were furnished. The building took twenty-five 
years to complete with all its fittings and the 
remarkable tombs which it contains ; and it is, 
with perhaps two other buildings, the most im- 
portant monument of late Gothic style. The 
church is of considerable, though not of the 

592 


A flamboyant Gothic 


It was begun in the © 


It was the design ~ ae? 


CHURCH OF 
largest, size ; 225 feet long, and about half as 
wide measured along the transept. 

See Havard, La France Monumentale, and 

the very full description in Joanne’s guide; 
also a volume especially devoted to the church, 
the Monographie de Notre Dame de Brou, 
by L. Dupasquier, Lyons, 1850. The descrip- 
tion of the site in Matthew Arnold’s admirable 
poem is entirely unlike the facts. — R. 8. 
Cc. OF LA TRINITE. Paris; built be- 
tween 1861-1867 by Albert Ballu, in a style 
which was a serious attempt at originality based 
upon the structure. The attempt was made to 
make the walls high, apparently that the six- 
story houses near should not dwarf it. 

C. OF NOTRE DAME. Paris and else- 
where. (See term Notre Dame.) 

C. OF NOTRE DAME DES DOMS. At 
Avignon ; the cathedral. A building contain- 
ing much work of the very early Romanesque 
epoch, and having a cupola which is supported 
on a very curious piece of lintel construction in 
the roof. The entrance porch is of very early 
date, and is thought by some to be of Imperial 
Roman design. The tower is crowned by a 
modern colossal statue of the Madonna, replac- 
ing the ancient pyramidal roof. 

C. OF NOTRE DAME DU PORT. Cler- 
mont-Ferrand ; one of the most important and 
valuable of the Romanesque churches of France. 

C.OF OR SANMICHELE. Florence; in 
the heart of the city ; originally a building used 
for different civic and business purposes, with 
an open arcaded story below. These arcades 
were filled with tracery and closed at a later 
date, and the building dedicated to 8. Michael. 
It contains the magnificent shrine designed and 
sculptured by Orcagna. | 

C. OF S. AGNESE FUORI LE MURA. 
Outside the walls of Rome; one of the eariiest 
basilicas, and less altered than most of the 
others. 

C. OF S. AMBROGIO. Milan; an early 
basilica partly rebuilt with twelfth century 
vaulting, but retaining its original atrium, 
although with rebuilt ambulatories. 

C. OF S. ANASTASIA. Verona; an 
Italian Gothic church with details of great 
beauty and interesting painted decoration. 

C. OF S. ANDREA. Mantua; the most 
important church of the early Renaissance ; the 
design of Leon Battista Alberti, and unaltered, 
although parts of it were completed according 
to the original design in the sixteenth century, 
and even later. 

C. OF S. APOLLINARE. Ravenna (called 
S. Apollinare Nuovo, ?.e. the new, to distin- 
guish it from the one “in Classe”); a basilica 
famous for magnificent early mosaics. 

C. OF S. APOLLINARE IN CLASSE. 
Ravenna ; so called because the sole remaining 
building of the ancient seaport of Ravenna, 
595 


CHURCH OF 


Classis, or Portus Classis, the City of the Fleet. 
A very ancient and little altered basilica. 

C. OF S. AUGUSTIN. Paris; an im- 
portant building designed by V. Baltard, and 
finished in 1868 in the Romanesque style elab- 
orately modernized. 

Cc. OF S. CARLO BORROMEO. At 
Vienna ; called the Karlskirche. An interesting 
eighteenth century structure with two decorative 
columns combined with its front. 

C. OF S. CLEMENTE. At Rome; one of 
the earliest basilicas of the city. The church 
stands in a part of the city where the surface of 
the ground has been raised about 16 feet by 
the accumulation of rubbish from the ruined 
buildings on the heights above. In consequence 
of this, an upper church was built upon the 
walls of the earlier one, which latter was then 
forgotten, and only explored in the second half 
of the nineteenth century. The date, even of 
the upper church, is not perfectly ascertained. 
It contains an almost unaltered choir enclosure 
and two ambones (see Ambo), probably of the 
eleventh century in their present form, though 
evidently of much earlier date in much of their 
details. 

C. OF S. CLOTHILDE. Paris; a modern 
Gothic church, begun by the queen of Louis 
Philippe. It is large, and of an interesting 
plan, but its style is debased. 

C. OF S. COSTANZA. Rome; the tomb 
of Constantia, or Constantina, the daughter of 
the Emperor Constantine ; a circular building 
with vaulted aisle, adapted for a church in the 
thirteenth century, but retaining its original 
character. Most important in the history of 
early Christian architecture. 

C. OF S. CROCE. Florence; built in the 
Italian Gothic style, having many chapels with 
important paintings, and an unexampled num- 
ber of monuments to important and interesting 
persons. The Pazzi Chapel, Brunellescho’s first 
building in the classical style, adjoins the 
church. The front is of the present century. 

C. OF S. DENIS. Near Paris; an abbey 
church, now a cathedral ; commonly known as 
la Basilique. The town of Saint-Denis is five 
miles north of Paris. The church is partly 


| Romanesque, partly Gothic, and was restored 


with great care by Viollet-le-Duc. 

C. OF S. ETIENNE DU MONT. Paris; 
an interesting church of the Renaissance, with 
a portal of the reign of Louis XIII., and a very 
curious jubé. 

C. OF S. EUSTACHE. Paris; a church 
of the earliest French Renaissance, begun in 
1532, and the best existing specimen of the 
attempted addition of semiclassical details to a 
Gothic structure. The portal is of the reign of 
Louis XV. 

C. OF S. FERMO MAGGIORE. Verona; 
valuable for the true Gothic feeling of its ex- 

594 


CHURCH OF 


quisite details ; 
Italy in which the Gothic style is used without 
marked impropriety. 

C. OF S. FRONT. Périgueux; once a 
historical monument of the first importance. 
Utterly destroyed by restoration. The modern 
church is still, however, an attractive building. 

C. OF S. GENEVIEVE (called LE PAN- 
THEON DE PARIS). At Paris; a monu- 
ment of the classical reformation undertaken in 
the reign of Louis XVI. ; an original and in- 
structive design; a church without windows, 
and lighted from the drum of the great cupola, 
and the occuli in the small cupolas. The de- 
sign was by Soufflot, but the supports of the 
great cupola were replaced by Rondelet for the 
sake of greater strength. 

C. OF S. GHEORGHE, BLOOMSBURY. 
At London ; an eighteenth century building, de- 
signed by Nicholas Hawksmoor ; famous for its 
extraordinary spire founded upon the form of an 
obelisk. The building is otherwise not without 
merit. 

Cc. OF S. GEORGE, HANOVER 
SQUARE. At London; eighteenth century ; 
designed by John James. Well known as for 
many years the place for the celebration of 
fashionable weddings. 

C.OF S.GEREON. Cologne; unique in 
plan and arrangement, having a long and nar- 
row choir of the eleventh century, and a nave 
of a singular oblong decagonal shape which 
replaces the ancient round church. It has also 
curious Gothic chapels. 

C. OF S. GERMAIN DES PRES. Paris ; 
valuable Romanesque building. 

C. OF S. GERMAIN L’AUXERROIS. 
Paris ; celebrated in history because the parish 
church to which the inhabitants of the Louvre 
naturally belong, standing opposite the eastern 
colonnade of the Louvre. 

C. OF S. GERVAIS, S.PROTAIS. Paris ; 
a building of several epochs with an important 
seventeenth century front. Begun by Louis 
XIII. (Compare C. of SS. Gervasio e Protasio 
and ©. of S. Trovaso.) 

C. OF SS. GERVASIO E PROTASIO. 
In Venice ; known to travellers by the local 
name 8. Trovaso, which see below. — 

C. OF SS. GIOVANNI E PAOLO. Ven- 
ice ; an important Italian Gothic church, famous 
for its splendid array of sepulchral monuments, 
and once for a sacristy which was burned in the 
middle of the present century. 

C. OF S. GIOVANNI IN LATERANO. 
(See Lateran.) 

C. OF S. GUDULE (properly, 8. Gudule 
et S. Michel). At Brussels ; the cathedral, an 
interesting Gothic church. 

C. OF S. ISAAC. St. Petersburg; the 
cathedral ; dedicated to 8. Isaac the Dalma- 
tian ; built between 1819 and 1860 from the 

595 


one of the few buildings in designs of the French architect Montferr 


CHURCH OF. 


The building has cost a vast sum of mo 
and is famous for its great solidity and t 
excellent quality of its material — all on i 
marble, and bronze. hy 

C. OF S. LOUIS. Paris; the chun con- a 
nected with the Hotel des Invalides. Though | 
large and dignified, it is without great impor- ; 
tance as a piece of architecture, except in. con- | | 
nection with the rotunda and its attendant — 
chapels, forming, altogether, a square building % 
of extraordinary massiveness, and generally 
called La Déme des Invalides, This was d 
signed by J. Hardouin-Mansart, and built in — 
the reign of Louis XIV. With all its ponder- a 
ous massiveness it is surmounted by a cupola 
of wood and lead, without even a stone lantern. 
In a crypt beneath the circular nave under thea 
cupola is the mausoleum of Napoleon I., visi- 
ble from above, and accessible by special door- 
ways below ; this work was done by Visconti in 
1840. 

C. OF S. MACLOU. Rouen; a most im- — 
portant monument of the latest French Gothic, 
and in perfect preservation, the spire only hays 
ing been added in modern times. an 

C. OF S. MARIA DEGLI ANGELI. 
Rome ; consisting of the tepidarium of the ther- 
mz of Diocletian. Arranged for a church by 
Michelangelo, and entirely rearranged by Van- Bt 
vitelli in the eighteenth century. The most 
interesting example of a Roman building of the 
Empire, stripped of much of its original decora- 
tion, but still suggesting its intended architec- _ 
tural effect. ce 

C. OF S. MARIA DEL FIORE (S. Maria': 7 
of the Flower, ¢.e. of the Lily). Florence; the __ 
cathedral ; formerly called 8. Reparata. Giot- “s 
to’s Campanile is its bell tower, and the famous 
octagonal baptistery with its bronze doors may __ 
be considered as an appendage. Brunellesco 
did his first important work in the cupola of 
this church. ei. 

Cc. OF S. MARIA DELLA SALUTE. ~~ 
Venice ; the church with the white cupola and 
large, scroll-topped buttresses on the south side 
of the Canal Grande where it enters the harbour 
of Venice. 

Cc. OF S. MARIA DELLE GRAZIE (8. 
Maria of the Graces, or of Grace). Milan, 
though the dedication is common to other 
cities. A beautiful church of the Renaissance 
with a remarkable polygonal tower containing ~ 
and concealing the cupola within. The refec- 
tory holds Leonardo da Vinci’s ‘‘ Last Supper,” 
now almost wholly destroyed by injury and 
repainting. “a 

C. OF S. MARIA DELL’ UMILTA. Pis- 
toia ; an important design of the Renaissance 
proper. This simple and grand interior should 
be compared with the Church of the Madonna 
di S. Biagio at Montepulciano. The plan is 

596 


CHURCH OF 
different, but the architectural means employed 
are similar. 

C. OF S. MARIA DEL ORTO. An Ital- 
ian Gothic church at the northern extremity of 
Venice. 

C. OF S. MARIA GLORIOSA DEI FRARI. 
Venice ; an important Italian Gothic church 
with many sepulchral monuments. 

C. OF S. MARIA IN CARIGNANO. 
Genoa ; built from the designs of Galeazzo Ales- 
sio, but with the west front much modified in 
the eighteenth century, and in a vulgarized 
form of the rococo style. The church is very 
large in scale, and is an important specimen of 
the later neoclassic. 

C. OF S. MARIA IN COSMEDIN. One 
of the earliest of the basilicas of Rome. It re- 
tains a splendid Romanesque campanile. 

C. OF S. MARIA IN TRASTEVERE. 
Rome ; a Romanesque church of the twelfth 
century. 

C. OF S. MARIA MAGGIORE. Rome; 
one of the larger of the ancient basilicas, much 
altered in detail and even in plan. Fine Ro- 


_manesque tower, which is the earliest remain- 


ing part, and eighteenth century facade. 

C. OF S. MARIA NOVELLA. Florence ; 
an Italian Gothic church with beautiful front 
of the earliest Renaissance, by Alberti. It is 
celebrated for its paintings in the chapels at 


the east end and for many other works of art ; 


also for its beautiful cloisters, attached to which 
is the famous Spanish chapel with frescoes of 
the highest importance. © 

Cc. OF S. MARIA SOPRA MINERVA. 
Rome ; the one {Italian Gothic interior existing 
in that city. The name comes from the temple 
to Minerva, upon whose ruins it was built. It 


contains Michelangelo’s wonderful statue of 


Christ. 

C. OF S. MARK (8. Marco). Venice ; 
originally the chapel of the Ducal Palace ; 
cathedral since the beginning of the present 
century. A Romanesque building adorned with 
marbles and with mosaics of many succeeding 
epochs. 

C. OF S. MARTIN. Cologne; called the 
Great Saint Martin (Gross Sanct Martin); Ro- 
manesque twelfth and thirteenth centuries, with 
a central tower of peculiar beauty. 

C. OF S. MARTIN’S IN THE FIELDS. 
In London, in Trafalgar Square; from the de- 
sign of James Gibbs, about 1725. 

Cc. OF S. MARY LE BOW. A church 
built by Sir Christopher Wren in London, in 
Cheapside, on the site of a much older building 
which was destroyed in the great fire. Bow 
Bells are celebrated, and the tower in which 
they hang, though small and far from lofty, is 
beautiful in design, and sometimes considered 
as Wren’s masterpiece. 

C. OF S. MARY LESTRAND. At Lon- 

597 


CHURCH OF 


don ; of the eighteenth century ; of merit as an 
architectural design. The work of James Gibbs. 

C. OF S. MARY OF THE CAPITOL 
(S. Maria im Capitol). Cologne ; church of the 
tenth and thirteenth centuries, preserving the 
typical Romanesque plan of three apses, on 
the east, north, and south of the central tower. 

C. OF S. MARY OVERIES. Same as 8. 
Saviour, Southwark. 

C. OF S. MINIATO. Near Florence; 
called Samminiato al Monte because crowning 
a steep hillside outside the walls on the south 
side of the Arno. An important Romanesque 
church. 

C. OF S. OUEN. Rouen. “The one 
large church begun and finished (except the 
lantern) in the fourteenth century in France ;” 
—this epoch having been filled up with the 
Hundred Years’ War, a time of infinite disorder. 

C. OF S. PAOLO FUORI LE MURA. 
Near Rome ; entirely rebuilt in the nineteenth 
century after a fire, but retaining its ancient 
distribution. 

C. OF S. PAUL. At London; the cathe- 
dral. The west front is of peculiar beauty and 
the vaulting of the interior original and fine. 
The flanks are fine as a composition, but here 
the second story is a mere screen hiding the 
aisle roof and clerestory. The cupola is fine 
in exterior proportion, but is merely a shell of 
wood and lead built round a cone of brick which 
carries the stone lantern. 

Cc. OF S. PAUL, S. LOUIS. Paris; a 
seventeenth century church of great interest, 
with an elaborate facade on the Rue 8. Antoine. 

C. OF S. PETER. (See C. of 8. Pietro in 
Vaticano.) 

C. OF S. PETRONIO. Bologna; begun 
in the Italian Gothic on a scale of magnitude 
exceeding that of any church in Europe; 750 
feet long. It should be compared with the 
first plan for the cathedral at Siena. Only 
the nave and aisles with their side chapels were 
ever built, and these alone make a very large 
church. 

Cc. OF S. PIETRO IN VATICANO. 
Rome ; begun to replace the old basilica of 8. 
Peter’s and intended by Pope Julius II. to con- 
tain his own tomb which he had _ ordered 
Michelangelo to prepare. The long nave now 
existing was never proposed until the seven- 
teenth century ; as Michelangelo left the plans 
it was still a Greek cross, and the dome which 
he designed, though others built it after his 
death, would then have been as effective from 
the front as it-now is from the Vatican gardens. 
In spite of adverse criticism the church remains 
one of the most valuable and instructive in 
Europe. 

C. OF S. REPARATA. (See Arnolfo.) 

C. OF S. ROCH. Paris; a church begun 
in the seventeenth century and having a most 

598 


CHURCH OF 


interesting and vigorous interior ; the facade is of 
the eighteenth century ; on the Rue St. Honoré. 

Cc. OF S. SAVIOUR, SOUTHWARK. 
At London, on the Surrey side. Retains much 
of its original Gothic structure. 

C. OF S. SOPHIA (called also Aya 
Sophia ; Hagia Sophia). Constantinople ; the 
most important monument of the Byzantine 
style, and, so far as its interior is concerned, 
probably the most beautiful church in Europe. 

C. OF S. SULPICEH. Paris; begun in the 
reign of Louis XV. and finished by Servandoni 
half a century later. It is as large as a first- 
rate cathedral and has a very interesting neo- 
classic west front with an upper and lower 
colonnade. 

C. OF S. TROVASO. In Venice; the 
name being a popular abbreviation of SS. Ger- 
vasio e Protasio, a cinquecento building of 
interest with important paintings and a beauti- 
ful altar and pulpit. 

C. OF S. WULFRAN. In Abbeville 
(Somme) ; one of the most important of the 
late Gothic buildings of France, containing in 
itself an almost complete exposition of the 
florid style, although never completed according 
to its original plan. 

C. OF THE BADIA. 

C. OF THE FRARI. 
Maria Gloriosa.) 

CHURCH OF THE HOLY SEPULCHRE. 
At Jerusalem ; built under the Latin kingdom 
of Jerusalem which was founded by the Cru- 
saders in 1099. Even if the work of the Latins 
amounted only to the rebuilding, it seems to 
have been complete, as the building is Occidental 
in character with Byzantine modifications. 
The general plan, including a circular structure 
carrying a cupola which is assumed to cover the 
actual sepulchre of Christ, has served as a plan 
for churches in different parts of Europe. Such 
a church exists at Cambridge, England, and one 
at Neuvy-Saint-Sépulcre (Indre), It is com- 
mon to speak of these buildings as churches of 
the Holy Sepulchre, that being accepted as a 
name for the peculiar plan. 

C. OF THE INVALIDES. 
(See Church of 8. Louis.) 

C. OF THE LATERAN, or of 8. John 
Lateran. (See Lateran.) 

C. OF THE MADELEINE. Paris ; begun 
in the reign of Louis XV. and continued accord- 
ing to a quite different design by the orders of 
Napoleon I.; but not completed until 1832. 
It is a Roman temple in exterior design, and of 
enormous size, more than 350 feet long, octo- 
style with twenty-five columns on either flank. 
The interior is arranged to resemble a great hall 
of Roman antiquity with three cupolas sup- 
ported on pendentives which spring from 
columns standing clear of the great piers; the 
decoration is extremely rich. 

599 


(See Badia.) 
(See Church of S. 


At Paris. 


~ Montepulciano, 


a i was + E 


C. OF THE MADONNA DI S. BIA Ps 

in Tuscany; by Antonio di < 
Sangallo, a remarkable design of simplicity and 
rational building carried to an extreme. The 
church should be compared with that of the ra 
Madonna del Calcinajo, by the same artist, on A 
the hillside near Cortona. a 

C. OF THE MADONNA DELLA con. 
SOLAZIONE. Todi, Umbria; a cruciform — 
church, the four arms being rounded like Apses : 
and covered with half domes, while a cupola on 
a high drum covers the centre ; one of the finest 
buildings of the true Renaissance. ae 

C. OF THE MADONNA DEI MIRACOLI. 
At Brescia ; a Renaissance church with a singu- 
larly beautiful facade, hardly suggestinga church, 
but full of the most delicate detail. ; 

C. OF THEMADONNA DEIMIRACOLI. 
Venice ; a beautiful church of the early Renais- __ 
sance ; completely restored about 1865, but still 
retaining its general effect and the semi-Byzan- 
tine character which makes it, with a few other _ 
Venetian buildings, representative of a special 
variety of Italian Renaissance. ! 

C. OF THE MIRACOLIT. 
Madonna Dei Miracoli.) us 

C. OF THE NATIVITY. Bethlehem, 
Palestine ; a basilica with many dependent 
buildings and large cloister, ete. The church 
is thought to have been built during the reign) 
of Constantine, and the tradition is that it oc- 
cupies the site of the building in which Christ 
was born. There is no doubt that much of the 
church is of the time of Constantine. 

C. (properly CHAPEL) OF THE SOR- 
BONNE. Paris; built inthe seventeenth cen- 
tury at the expense of Cardinal Richelieu and 
containing his tomb. It has an interesting — 
cupola which is considered as the first success- — 
ful one in Paris. 

C. OF THE SUPERGA. On a hill three 
miles from Turin; built in the eighteenth 
century by the King Vittore Amadeo and in- 
tended as a votive church and burial place for 
the royal family. The church proper is closely | 
combined with the buildings of the convent a: 
which carry two towers, these forming an 4 
interesting group with a large central cupola. 
This cupola springs from eight free columns, 
behind which are eight great piers dividing 
chapels. 

C. OF THE THEOTOKOS. In Constanti- 
nople ; an important late Byzantine church. 

Cc. OF THE VAL-DE-GRACE. Paris : 
built by Louis XIV. and finished in 1665; at 
first an abbey church, the whole foundation 
being an offering from Anne of Austria, mother 
of the king. It has a beautiful cupola, but not 
of masonry. ; 

C. OF VAUX. In the suburbs of Laon in 
northern France ; with a beautiful early Renais- 
sance nave and a somewhat later choir and 

600 : 


(See C. of ees iq 


CHURCH OF 
central tower, early flying buttresses and wheel 
window ; an important piece of architecture. 

C. OF ZANIPOLO. Same as C. of SS. 
Giovanni e Paolo; the popular Venetian 
abbreviation. 

CHURRIGUERA, DON JOSEP; sculptor 
and architect ; d. 1725. 

A native of Salamanca (Spain), he went to 
Madrid in 1688. At Madrid he designed the 
great catafalque for the obsequies of the Queen 
Maria Louisa (d.1689), built the new portal of 
the church of 8. Gayetano, a palace for Don 
Juan de Goyeneche, and executed various pieces 
of sculpture for altars of churches and con- 
vents. He was succeeded by his sons Gero- 
nimo and Nicolas. The term Churrigueresque 
is applied to the extravagant style which he 
affected. 

Stirling-Maxwell, Annals of the Artists of 
Spain ; Bermudez, Diccionario. 

CHURRIGUERESQUE ARCHITEC- 
TURE. In Spain, the more elaborate work of 
the latter part of the seventeenth and of the 
eighteenth centuries ; so called from Churri- 
guera (Don Josef) of Salamanca and his two 
sons, Geronimo and Nicolas, to whom is gener- 
ally attributed the initiative toward the extray- 
agances and eccentricities of the style, especially 
in church architecture. The style is character- 
ized by a disregard of the canons of classic 
design and the combination of its features, or 
members, or fragments of them, in the most in- 
congruous and grotesque assemblages conceivable. 
Stucco and gilding were lavishly used, and broken 
pediments, twisted shafts, and contorted scrolls 
abound. High altarpieces, fantastic doorways, 
and picturesque towers are also characteristic. 
The result is, like nearly all Spanish work, 
highly decorative, and not without a certain 
theatrical splendour, but lacks the essentials of 
propriety, refinement, and structural reasonable- 
ness. About 1750 a more academic style, due 
to Italian masters, began to displace the Chur- 
rigueresque. Written also Churriguresco. 
(See Spain.) 

CHUTE. An inclined or vertical trough or 
shaft, for conveying materials of any kind to a 
lower level, as coal from the sidewalk into a 
cellar, or grain from an elevator into a vessel, 
or rubbish from the upper floors of a building, 
in process of alteration, to the ground, or ashes 
from a fireplace to a receptacle in the cellar. A 
mail chute is a patented device for conveying 
letters from the different floors of a building to 
a letter box near the street. The term has been 
extended to mean an inclined plane or slide for 
the amusement of coasting in toboggans, or 
rollers, or in flat boats which slide into a pool, 
river, or other water at its base. 

The words chute and shoot are often con- 
founded ; shoot is more commonly used in Great 
Britain. — A. D. F. H. 

601 


CIBORIUM 


CIACCHERI. (See Manetti, Antonio Ciac- 
cheri.) 

CIBBER, CAIUS GABRIEL ; sculptor ; b. 
1630 (at Flensburg, Holstein) ; d. 1700. 

Caius Cibber was the son of a cabinet maker 
employed by the king of Denmark. He studied 
sculpture in Rome, and went to England just 
before the Restoration. He was employed by 
Sir Christopher Wren (see Wren) and John 
Stone, and assisted in the decoration of Hamp- 
ton Court, Chatsworth, the Royal Exchange, 
and other important buildings. He was the 
father of Colley Cibber, actor and dramatist. 

Walpole, Anecdotes of Painting; Redgrave, 
Dictionary of Artists. 

CIBORIO. In modern Italian churches, a 
closed receptacle for the safe keeping of the con- 
secrated wafer, differing from the monstrance in 
that it is closed solidly. The term is evidently 
the Latin ciborium modified, and its significance 
is, perhaps, nearer to the original meaning than 
the definition given under that term. There 
are two common forms of the ciborio: one is a 
cupboard, like an ambry, but usually close to 
the altar, and having commonly a richly adorned 
door and door frame, often of marble sculptured 
in relief; the other is a vase-shaped hollow ter- 
mination to a substructure, as in the baptistery 
or chapel of 8. Giovanni at Siena, in Tuscany, 
where the large vase with its supporting clus- 
tered pillar rises out of the centre of the font. 
This meaning is closely connected with the 
familiar one of a portable covered vessel serv- 
ing the same purpose. (In this sense, written 
only as above, but see Ciborium, Cibory, Civery, 
Severy.)—R. S. 

CIBORIUM (pl. Ciboria). A fixed can- 
opy over a Christian altar, supported either on 
columns or cross beams, and resembling an in- 
verted cup, hence its name. The ciborium 
came into use, as an accessory to an altar, as 
soon as the Christians began to build churches 
having any architectural value, and it is still in 
use, both in Eastern and Western Christendom. 

Ciboria are made of wood or metal or alabas- 
ter, or of other lasting materials or combina- 
tions of two or more of the same. That of 8. 
Sophia at Constantinople (4.p. 534) was an 
octagonal pyramidal dome of silver, resting upon 
four silver columns and crowned with a cup, 
formed of acanthus leaves, holding a globe sur- 
mounted with a cross, and the whole enriched 
with damascening. This ciborium was further 
enriched with hangings of cloth of silver shot 
with gold and embroidered with coloured silks, 
representations of Christ, the Virgin Mother, 8S. 
Peter, and S. Paul, together with a multitude of 
beautiful ornamental designs. 

Where there is a ciborium within a ciborium, . 
—a dome over a dome, —as in the church of 8, 
Paul Fuori le Mura at Rome, the smaller one 
is called a peristeritum. The columns support- 

602 


CIBORY 


ing it sometimes rest on the footpace and some- 
times on the retable of the altar. 

The most celebrated ciboria are those of the 
high altar of S. Peter at Rome, of 8. Mark at 
Venice, of S. Ambrose at Milan, of S. Niccolo 
at Barri, of 8. Apollinare at Ravenna, and of 
S. Paul the Apostle at New York. 

(For the different extensions of meaning which 
this word has received, see Ciborio and Severy.) 

Ch. Rohault de Meany. La Messe, Paris, 1888 ; 
X. Barbier de Montault, Construction de L Ameu- 
blement, Paris, 1885.— CaryL CoLEMAN. 

CIBORY. Same as Ciborium. 

CIEL. (The French word meaning heaven 
or sky ; hence a canopy, etc.) The tester of a 
bed ; especially the under side of such a tester 
considered as a surface for decoration. 

CIGOLI. (See Cardi, Luigi.) 

CIMABUE, GIOVANNI; painter; b. 1240; 
d. about 1302. 

Of the early Florentine painters Cimabue 
was the first to emancipate himself from the 
formalities of Byzantine painting. He was the 
principal painter employed in the decoration of 
the “upper church” at Assisi (Karl Frey, op. 
cit.) in which work his pupil Giotto (see Giotto) 
was associated with him. 


cs Frey, Studien zu Giotto; Woltmann and 

Woermann, 
£ Geschichte 
‘ der Malerei. 


” sede mig cares 
ie ysis 


i 
a 
Ho gers 


CINQUE CENTO DESIGN: PALAZZO DEI CONSERVATORI AT ROME; 


CLOSING YEARS OF 16TH CENTURY. 
603 


“CINQUE | CENTO 


CIMBORIO. In Spanish architects th 
cupola or lantern which rises from the roof im- 
mediately above the high altar, or the choir, or 


in the immediate neighbourhood of that sacred — r 


part of the church. By extension, any tower — 


usually low and broad, rising above the roofs 


of a church as at the Crossing. 
CIMELIARCH. A room in, or attached to, 


a church for the keeping of the cimelia or valu- 


ables, such as vestments and jewels; the treasury 
of a church. (Originally, the custodian of the 
cimelia.) 


CINCTURE. The ring or annular fillet at — 2: 


the top or bottom of the shaft of a column of 
classic type, forming the lower member of the 
astragal or the upper member of the base; 
ordinarily it is understood to refer to the latter. 

CINERARIUM. A receptacle or depository 
for sepulchral urns containing the ashes of in- 


cinerated bodies ; particularly, in ancient Roman 


pagan and early Christian tombs, a place pro- 
vided with niches for that purpose. | 
CINERARY URN. Properly, a receptacle 


for the ashes of a corpse which has been in- _ 


cinerated. The term is connected with the 
Latin verb meaning to burn to ashes; and is — 
connected either with the original use of vessels 


of burnt or baked clay for the purpose, or by 


allusion to the burning of the bodies of the dead. 
Usually the term carries with it the signification 
of a vaselike vessel circular in plan, with a — 
much rounded body and a cover and a foot ; 
and in this sense the term is applied to 
marble vases as well, and perhaps _ 
to those of bronze or other mate- 
rial. In the stricter sense, 
however, antique urns are 


and approximately 
rectangular in shape, 
and those even in Tus- 
cany and central Italy 
are perhaps more fre- 
quently of this general 
form. Some of them are 
richly adorned with re- 
liefs once richly painted — 
and sometimes gilded, 
and representing myth- 
ological and sometimes. 
unexplained scenes and 
incidents. — R. 8. 
CINQUE CENTO. 
In Italian art and lit- 


The term 
five hundred 
or the five hun- 
dred, and ap- 
plies to those 
years from 
1501 to 1599- 


Het century. 
Wt 6 means 


as often square oroblong 


erature, the sixteenth — 


CINQUEFOIL 


CINQUEFOIL. (See Foil.) 

CIONE, ANDREA DI. (See Orcagna.) 
CIONE, BENCI DI. (See Benci di Cione.) 
CIONI, ANDREA DI. (See Verrocchio.) 
CIPOLLINO. Same as Cipollino Marble ; 
under Marble. 

CIPPUS. In ancient Roman and Greek art, 
a short stone column or pillar, set up as a land- 
mark, or in commemoration of some event or 
person, or as a tablet for public notices ; a stele. 
The term is Roman, but is often used of Greek 
as well as of Etruscan and Roman pillars. 

CIPRES, PEDRO ; architect. 

According to a document of the cathedral of 
Gerona (Spain) Ciprés succeeded in 1840 the 
French architect Vautier as director of the 
works of that cathedral. 

Vifiaza, Adiciones al Diccionario historico. 

CIRCUIT BREAKER, ELECTRIC. (See 
Electrical Appliances. ) 

CIRCUS. In Roman archeology, an open 
place surrounded by seats for spectators, and 
used for chariot races, and sometimes for other 


CISSING 


sage which they would occupy at the beginning 
of the race. That is to say, every chariot had 
an equal chance of arriving first at the meeting 
point in the middle of this track, and thus each 
had an equal opportunity of choosing the pre- 
ferred part of the broad road. (See Carcer.) 
The spina also was set, not parallel to the rows 
of seats, but slightly diverging, so that the track 
in which the chariots started was wider at the 
beginning than toward the turning point ; this 
evidently, because the chariots on starting would 
be all together in a cluster, which would thin out 
as the race proceeded, the chariots reaching the 
upper end of the course in sequence rather than 
all together. The spina was adorned with 
various structures and movable objects intended 
partly for decoration, partly to keep the order 
of the races. Statues, trophies of arms, and 
even rather important architectural structures 
were built upon the spina, and it was terminated 
at each end by structures called the mete, 
each of the two being crowned by tall obelisks 
or slender cones ; though it does not appear that 
the same form was always employed. — R. 8. 
CIRCUS FLAMINIUS. In the ancient 
Campus Martius near the present Palazzo 


Circus oF MAXENTIUS, NEAR ROME, ITALY. 


games. The earliest in the city of Rome was 
that which was called afterward the Circus 
Maximus, which gradually grew up in the low 
valley south of the Palatine Hill. The building 
was continually altered and added to, and after 
Julius Cesar had rebuilt it, in whole or in part, 
it was reputed to hold 150,000 people. The 
seats, being still commonly of wood, were often 
consumed by fire, and Trajan seems to have 
finally completed it in marble, increasing its 
general effect of splendour. Other such buildings 
are mentioned below. 

The essential peculiarity of the circus was 
that its plan allowed chariots to pass along 
one side, keeping the seats of the spectators on 
their right; and on their left a long raised 
mound, or wall, called the spina. Turning at 
the upper end, and keeping the spina still on 
their left, the chariots returned nearly to the 
point where they had started. In order to 
facilitate the starting of all the chariots equally, 
the carceres, in which they stood until the 
signal was given, were arranged in a curve, not 
on the axis of the circus, but with its centre at 
a fixed point on the axis of the track or pas- 

605 


Mattei. The remains lie under buildings of con- 
siderable importance, and have not been studied. 

CIRCUS MAXIMUS. (See above.) Very 
little of the structure remains ; partly because 
the low walls and the location in the medizval 
city allowed of constant quarrying in its ruins. 
The substructures, however, have been partly 
uncovered and studied. 

CIRCUS OF CALIGULA AND NERO. 
At the foot of the Vatican Hill, nearly where 
now stands the sacristy of S. Peter’s church. 

CIRCUS OF MAXENTIUS. On the 
Appian Way, two miles from Rome; it is in 
better preservation than any of those in the 
city. Its splendid decorative marbles have 
disappeared, but the external wall of masonry 
remains largely intact, and the vaults which 
supported the seats, though often ruined, are 
traceable ; also, the wall above the carceres can 
be made out almost completely, as well as the 
spina. It is mainly from this circus that our 
knowledge of the plan and apparent uses of all 
these structures have been derived. 

CISSING. In painting, a preparatory opera- 
tion for graining wood. 

606 


-CIST 


CIST. Commonly a movable case, box, or 
chest, especially applied to objects of classical 
antiquity. By extension, same as Cistvaen. 

CISTERCIAN ARCHITECTURE. (See 
Monastic Architecture.) 

CISTERN. A structure or compartment for 
the reception and storage of water; built of 
brick or stone, or of wooden staves ; one differ- 
ently built being usually called a Tank. Cis- 
terns are built underground of a round shape, 
except those of unusually large sizes, which are 
made square or rectangular. The size of a 
cistern is determined by the amount of rain 
water to be stored, and depends also on the 
area of the roof and the rainfall. To prevent 
contamination, cisterns are built perfectly water- 
tight, and the inside, when of masonry, is 
plastered with Portland cement. The overflow 
pipe from a cistern must never connect with a 
house or street sewer, and is best carried into an 
open ditch or road gutter, the outfall being pro- 
tected by a flapvalve, grating, or bar strainer. 
The top of such a cistern is arched over and 
covered with iron or stone cover, and the surface 
graded away from same. Cisterns should be 
well ventilated, to prevent the water from 
becoming stagnant. (For the cisterns used in 
plumbing, see Tank; Water-closet. See also 
Vera da Pozzo.)— W. P. GrRHaARD. 

Supply Cistern. A reservoir or cistern from 
which the water service of a house is wholly or 
partly drawn ; it is generally excavated in the 
earth, lined with brick, stone, or cement, domed 
over at the top, and generally furnished with a 
chain pump, for aerating purposes. (Called also 
Supply Tank.) 

CISTVAEN. A Celtic sepulchral chamber 
of flat stones set together like a box, and covered 
by a tumulus, 

CITADEL. Thestrongest part of a fortress; 
especially in the case of a fortified city, that 
part of the works which is peculiarly strong, 
and is capable of separate defence, even after 
the city has been taken. 

CITY. A town of size and importance — 
the distinction between it and other towns 
differing widely in different countries and times. 

A, In England, generally a town which con- 
tains a cathedral church, and is therefore the 
seat of a bishop and the centre of a bishopric. 
The name is often retained even when the 
bishopric is abolished or changed. 

B. In the United States, a town which has 
been incorporated by act of the legislature of a 
state, and which has a mayor and other officers 
forming a specially recognized government — 
most commonly a legislative assembly of one or 
two houses. The term is open to misunder- 
standing —thus, according to the definition, 
Washington, the federal capital of the United 
States, is not a city, being governed directly by 
the federal authorities, and administered by a 

607 


CLAPBOARD 
commission. It used to be said in the middle 
of the present century that the state of Vermont 
had only one city, and that one only a vuln, 
Vergennes.— R. 8. 

CITY HALL. The chief public building of 
a city — that in which the mayor’s office, and 
generally the chambers of the legislative body, 
are located, together with offices for other 
officers, and perhaps some court rooms for city 
courts. That of New York City is peculiarly 
interesting to Americans as being one of the 
earliest buildings of architectural character and 
considerable pretensions erected in the United 
States, and exceptionally good. It is admired 
by critics of all the schools. (See United 
States, Architecture of, Part II. Compare Bro- 
letto ; Hétel de Ville.) 

CIVERY. A. Same as Ciborium. 

B. A compartment in a vaulted roof or in a 
canopy.— (A. P. 8.) 

CIVITALI (or CIVITALE), MATTEO; 
sculptor and architect ; b. 1436; d, 1501. 

Matteo was born at Lucca, Italy, but was 
probably trained in Florence, in the atelier of 
Antonio Rossellino (see Gambarelli, A.). One 
of his early works is the statue of 8. Sebas- 
tiano, in the cathedral of Lucca. His most im- 
portant undertaking is the monument to Pietro 
da Noceto, in the cathedral of Lucca (about 
1470), which resembles the monument of Leo- 
nardo Bruni, by Bernardo Rossellino (see Gam- 
barelli, B.). About 1473 he made a retable 
for Domenico Bertini, of which two figures 
remain in the cathedral of Lucca. In this 
building he also made the balustrade of the 
chancel, the octagonal shrine called Volto Santo, 
and the altar of S. Regulus. The Palazzo 
Pretorio at Lucca is ascribed to him. 

Yriarte, Matteo Civitale ; Mintz, Renaissance; 
Perkins, Tuscan Sculptors. 

CIVORY. Same as Ciborium. 

CLAMP. A piece or instrument for secur- 
ing or holding, generally distinguished from 
other devices used for that purpose as being 
applied to the surface of the parts, and not 
passing through the material, although perhaps 
entering a short distance. It may be a member 
to unite two or more parts of a structure per- 
manently together, as a cleat or strap; or a 
tool to hold temporarily one or more pieces of 
material in process of being prepared or finished, 
as a carpenter’s screw clamp. 

CLAPBOARD. A. A board for the out- 
side covering of the walls of a wooden building, 
intended to be applied horizontally, each board 
overlapping the one below. eee are 
usually 6 to 8 inches wide, about 2 of an inch 
thick at the lower edge, diminishing nearly to a 
feather edge at the top. They are made of 
clear pine, cedar, or cypress, and are laid with 
about 4 or 44 inches to the weather. An 
attempt has been made to limit the term 

608 


i an eee ee ae eee 


a ee? ST ee ae 


‘OAOGE WOTFBOUNUUIOD JO SOMI][VS YIM VPUNIOI poUsisep [eM ATIOA V SUT[[Y OIL] OY WIT IpIO YwoIS poatooor sey oyM ‘quIOQo]y uyor sem qooqTyore 
pue uvd ur repnoa1o ‘asvorreys ouojs e[qnop o[qvAIUIpY UY UIGYA SI oTayT, oY) {ZIRT oLofoq yMq sea ay ‘purlsy uRWeYULyY jo yavd uleynos ayy 
‘UsISep [Njoovls puv yonb ay} 1OF s}usNys JO SUOTFVABUOS SNOLINO BOM pue 04 peUyUoD A410 JoTTeUIS PUR ]eUISIAIO ey} LOF yJIMq ‘YIOX MON JO ywy, 


ova ALE) 


" ee ai Pe & ( oi 


db. 
& 


XIX FAL¥ 1d 


CLAPHROS 


specifically to a particular kind of such boards 
made in New England. These are made in 
lengths of 4 feet by cuts radiating from the 
centre of the log, so that each board is quarter- 
sawed, and hence superior to those as usually 
worked. According to this distinction, all other 
such boards would be merely bevelled siding. 

B. In English usage, one of a certain variety 
of imported oak boards for-wainscotting. The 
term formerly signified an unfinished stave or 
shook.— D. N. B. 8. 

CLAPEROS, ANTONIO; sculptor. 

A sculptor of Barcelona (Spain), who worked 
on the cathedral of that city after 1440. In 
(1449 he executed certain work for the cloister of 
that church, and, in 1458, statues of the twelve 
apostles for the facade of the cathedral of 
Gerona. 

Vifiaza, Adiciones al Diccionario historico. 

CLARKE, GEORGE, D. C. L.; amateur 

architect ; b. 1660; d. 1736. 
_ Dr. Clarke was educated at Oxford, and was, 
as Walpole says, “ classically conversant ” with 
architecture. He assisted Nicholas Hawks- 
moor (see Hawksmoor, N.) in designing the 
towers of the quadrangle of All Souls’ College, 
and himself designed the library of Christ Church 
College. He was associated with Henry Aldrich 
(see Aldrich), and shared with him the honour 
of having designed three sides of Peckwater 
Square (Christ Church), and the gate of the 
church of All Saints, in the High Street. All 
these buildings are in Oxford. In the large 
collection of books and manuscripts which he left 
to Worcester College was a copy of Palladio, 
with Italian manuscript notes and drawings by 
Inigo Jones (see Jones, I.). 

Walpole, Anecdotes of Painting; Redgrave, 
Dictionary of Artists ; Ackerman, History of Ox- 
ford. 

CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. That of 
the Greeks and Romans, and hence, that of a 
style derived directly from the Greco-Roman. 

The word classic is applied to art and litera- 
ture with two different meanings. The nar- 
rower and more pregnant meaning includes the 
allied arts and allied literatures of the Greeks 
and Romans, and is really equivalent to Greco- 
Roman. The doctrine which grew up with the 
Renaissance, that these arts and literatures 
monopolized all excellence in their kinds, led to 
the vaguer and more popular use of the word 
to imply an excellence which secures perma- 
nent recognition and is independent of the 
changes of fashion. It is often used, by anal- 
ogy, to indicate qualities which are the special 
praise of Greek and Roman work — stateliness, 
elegance, and the careful codrdination of all the 
parts of a composition. In this sense the 
word is chiefly applied to literature, yet it 
evidently has had a real, though undefined, 
influence in architecture and the other arts 

609 


CLEAR . 


by perpetuating the impression that what- 
ever is classic in the stricter sense of Greek or 
Roman is so in the looser sense — that is, is of 
standard excellence. This impression has doubt- 
less helped to stimulate various quasi classic 
revivals that have appeared in architecture dur- 
ing the last three centuries, and has encouraged 
a common feeling that any application of classic 
forms is good enough, without concern for the 
artistic purposes that are embodied in them, or 
the limitations which belong to them. (See 
Neoclassic ; Pseudo-classic.) In this work the 
word classic will be used in its stricter sense, 
denoting the architecture of Greece and Rome 
and their colonies or provinces. — W. P. P. 
LONGFELLOW. 

CLASSICISMO. In Italian art, the formal 
style of the sixteenth century, resulting from 
the Risorgimento, Rinascimento, or Renais- 
sance, and passing gradually into the Deca- 
denza. The term denotes a supposed reference 
to all the principles and details of the art to 
purely Greco-Roman models. 

CLAUS (NICHOLAS) DE WERVE; 
sculptor and architect. 

A nephew of Claus Sluter (see Sluter, C.). 
He is first mentioned in 1398, when he took 
charge of the construction of the monument of 
Philippe le Hardi during the illness of Claus 
Sluter. He executed nearly all the sculpture of 
this work. This monument was broken up dur- 
ing the Revolution, but has been restored, and is 
now in the Museum at Dijon, Cote d’Or, France. 
The latter part of his life was spent in great 
poverty and distress. The design of the monu- 
ment of Jean.Sans Peur, also at the Museum of 
Dijon, has been ascribed to him (see Jean de la 
Huerta). 

Lami, Dictionnaire des Sculpteurs frangais ; 
Chabeuf, Dijon; Gonse, L’ Art Gothique. 

CLAUX SLUTER. (See Sluter, Claus.) 

CLAYTON, JOSEPH; architect. 

Clayton published Zhe Churches of London 
and Westminster built by Sir Christopher 
Wren (1 vol., folio, 1848-1849), and A Col- 
lection of Ancient Timber Edifices of Eng- 
land (1 vol., folio, 1846). 

Redgrave, Dictionary of Artists. 

CLAY WALLING. A primitive method 
of wall construction in regions abounding in 
clay, as in Mesopotamia, in some parts of 
Great Britain, and of the Southwestern states 
of the United States. The wall is sometimes 
formed of compacted or stamped clay in the 
mass (pisé), sometimes and more often of un- 
burned bricks dried in the sun, called in the 
United States and Spanish America adobe. (See 
Mesopotamia.) In some cases the clay wall is 
baked at least in part by fires of fagots built 
against it. (Compare Vitrified Work.) 

CLEAR (n.). Unobstructed space; open- 
ing considered as between the inside limits of 

610 


CLEAR 


two opposite parts. Chiefly used in the ad- 
jectival phrase, in the clear — i.e. taken or 
measured at the narrowest part of an opening ; 
in general, the shortest or perpendicular dis- 
tance so taken. (Compare Over all; Out to 
out. 

Ble (adj.). A. Open, free of obstruc- 
tion. See Clear (n.). 

B. Clean, without impurities or defects ; 
without admixture. Thus, clear cement is 
cement unmixed with sand or lime. 

C. In connection with lumber, free from 
knots, shakes, sap, and the like. 

CLEHARCOLE. In Great Britain a species 
of sizing or priming used as an undercoat in 
painting old work or plaster, or in preparing 
old papered walls for fresh papering with- 
out scraping down. It is composed of 
white lead ground in water and mixed 
with sizing, a pound toa quar (In 
the French form, Clairecolle.) rare 
in the United States. — (A. P.S.) 

CLEARSTORY. That part 
of a building which rises above 
roofs of other parts, and which 
has windows in its walls. 
The term is especially used 
for medizval churches, 


NET: 
Ses 


a central nave 
and side aisles 


= 


Pe 


CLEOPATRA’S NEEDLE 


term Batten Door would be better described as 


cleat door, for the transverse piece is short and 
need not be heavy ; it may be thought, however, 
that the battens referred to in this term are the 
longitudinal or principal pieces. (Compare 
Batten in sense A. For the term as used in 
electric wiring, see under Electrical Appliances.) 

B. A device for temporarily attaching a cord, 
—as of an awning ; usually of metal and con- 
sisting of a shank or short leg from which two 
arms extend in opposite directions. The cleat 
being secured in place by the shank, the cord 
may be wound about the arms. 

CLEAVAGE. The natural tendency of cer- 
tain materials, especially of stones and crystals, 


tions determined by the molecular or physical 
structure of the material ; also, the direc- 
tion or manner in which such materials 
tend to divide. Thus, stones which 
have a stratified structure are com- 
monly capable of being readily di- 
vided in the direction of the 
layers. — A. D. F. H. 
CLEITHRAL. Same as 
Clithral. 
‘CLEMENT, MICHEL ; 
architect. 
Michel Clément suc- 


a 
Ait 
A oy y 
LOSS 
SAv/ 
NON 
¥ 
OS 
N 
\ 
5 
\ 
Ai 
\ 
\\' 
\ ; 5 
i s 
l | : Pe Ws eyes eee 
iT} , SSE =} 
WSea= 4 RMT 
~ 4 ~~ %e 7h GH 
~ 4 SS i 
= y 4SAiiu! 
I 
t 


Berneval (see 


iW 

of less width iy Berneval, C. 
and height de) as maitre 
made the de l’ceuvre 
opening of the 
up of the church of 
wider cen- S. Ouen 
tral nave 4 at Rouen 
a natural about 1440. 
and ob- Quicherat, 
vious ar- Construc- 
range- tion de NS. 
eae CLEARSTORY: CHURCH OF VILVORDE, BELGIUM, WITHOUT A Ouen @ 
dates back, CLEARSTORY. Rouen. 
therefore, 


at least as far as the earliest Christian basil- 
icas. A similar arrangement is, however, trace- 
able in some buildings of Roman antiquity. 
The term, if used for such buildings, is used 
with a sense of extending the application of 
it beyond its usual meaning. (Cuts, cols. 613, 
614.) —R. S$. 

CLEAT. A. A strip of wood nailed, screwed, 
or otherwise fastened across a number of boards 
to hold them together or to stiffen or otherwise 
strengthen them ; or secured to a wall or other 
upright as a support for a shelf, or the like. 

The cleat differs from the Batten generally in 
being smaller and in having only the significance 
of a piece used to secure together planks or 
boards laid edge to edge, or of stiffening a very 
wide piece of plank or board. The common 

611 


CLEOMENES ( KLEOMENES ) ; architect 
and engineer. 

Cleomenes is mentioned by various authors 
as the builder of the city of Alexandria 
(Egypt). 


Brunn, Geschichte der Griechischen Kinstler. 


CLEOPATRA’S NEEDLE. An obelisk 
which, having been brought originally from upper 
Egypt for the decoration of Alexandria, stood 
near the beach until 1879, when it was brought 
to New York City. It now stands in Central 
Park. The companion obelisk, which had lain 
for centuries on the sand, was removed to Lon- 
don in 1877; and, since that time, the two 
are sometimes called the two Cleopatra’s Nee- 
dles ; but the term had been applied for many 

.GT2 


to fracture or split in certain definite direc- 


ceeded Colin de 


sqeis jo dn yIMq exe syTeM oy, “ueu fq poszsyte AYSts mq useq sey ory 
"IVJIOUL BqOpe UI prey puv odvys 07 usyorq Ajapna ‘sliqep sn[e  ‘WITO ay} Jo sAooTe [BaANyeU *B UL J[aYs V UO SpuRys ‘sSuIptMg a0 ‘sutoOa JO dnoas 
“HILO oy} Wors ‘ssul[jemp Flo [[v UL sv ‘pezooTes ‘ou0js peyTyesys Jo syooTq puw siggy, “opeszojog ‘uoyRD soouvyy ul ‘asnoyy sary, vonadg sy} paleo ywuy, 


ONITIAMA AATTO 


Kae aly Id 


= Pe DoD) gale te Nie OR Sia i ee i ee i 
CMa aN OP gre Lee nage NP he, fa! Se 


CLERESTORY 


years to the standing one only. Each of the 


obelisks is about 70 feet high, without th 
pedestal. 

Egyptian Obelisks, by Lieutenant Commander 
Henry D. Gorringe, U.S.N.(the officer who brought 
the obelisk to New York). 

CLERESTORY. Same as Clearstory. 

CLERK OF WORKS. A person who 
keeps records, on the spot, of the materials used 
and labour expended upon a building or other 
structure, and who assists in supervising 
the work, and explaining the design and 
specifications to the workmen. As the 
title indicates, this was chiefly a clerical 
function, in the times when builders 
were paid upon the basis of the 
quantities of material and labour 


=\=1=]=[ 


CLIFF DWELLING 


extra service. But he is rarely a practical man, 
generally in fact he is less so than the superin- 
tendent, and has less initial authority, being 
not a deputy or substitute for the architect (as 
the superintendent is) but only a junior repre- 
sentative. In this capacity, however, he per- 
forms valuable duties and some of the office 
routine is conveniently done in the temporary 
office; and having usually worked upon the 
original drawings, he has full familiarity 
with them, which is useful in interpreting 
them to the foreman. It is probable 
that further development of these 
functions in America will be in this 
direction. (See Architect ; Builder ; 
Superintendent.) — Ropert W. 
GIBSON. 


CLEARSTORY;LEFT OPEN BY THE HIPPED ROOFS OF THE AISLES; CATHEDRAL OF ANTWERP, 
BELGIUM 
| ‘ 


| 


supplied, by ‘“day’s work” as it was called. 
At the present time, when the amount of com- 
pensation is usually agreed upon in advance, 
the clerk of works has comparatively little of 
recording work, and more of supervising. He 
is usually an assistant to the architect with 
a practical, rather than theoretical, training, 
whose duty it is to be constantly watchful of 
the quality and correctness of the work, accord- 
ing to the contract ; but who has nothing to 
do with design, or original orders. His whole 
time is spent at one edifice and his presence 
fills the intervals between the architect’s visits 
and continues his authority. The clerk of works 
is usually paid by the owner, but selected by the 
architect and responsible to him. His employ- 
ment is an established custom in England upon 
works of any importance, and in that country are 
to be found qualified men, with distinct methods 
and customs and traditions. In the United 
States the growth of architectural practice has 
produced the necessity, in an indefinite way, 
without any corresponding supply of trained 
skill. The term Clerk of Works when used here 
is applied to a representative of the architect ; 
different from the usual superintendent, in that 
he is always on the works, and has no duties else- 
where, and is properly paid by the owner as for 
613 


CLIFF DWELLING. An American Indian 
house built in a cliff, either in a cavelike open- 
ing, a gallery, or onaledge. Especially applied 
to structures in the cliffs of the Southwestern 
United States and Northern Mexico, built by 
Indians similar to the present Pueblos. Stone 
slabs and adobe mortar were the materials com- 
monly used and the architecture was of the 
usual Pueblo style. Some of the small buildings 
were temporary abodes occupied during the 
growing season of crops planted in near-by 
fertile valleys or canon bottoms ; others were 
storehouses or granaries, while others, particu- 
larly the large groups, were permanently occupied. 
In some of the huge conchoidal recesses common 
to certain sandstone formations, whole villages 
were built, numerous ruins of which remain. 
In other formations, where there was a soft 
series of strata between harder ones, the softer, 
disintegrated by nature, or, probably, sometimes 
partly dug out by the Indians, formed a gallery 
with a flat floor and a flat, or almost flat, ceiling, 
8 or 10 feet high. The front of a gallery like 
this would be closed by walls of masonry, 
excepting openings for windows or doors, and 
perhaps a space at the top, left for a smoke 
outlet. Entrance was had at one end, or if 
possible at other points. The galleries were 

614 


CLIFF OUTLOOK 


divided by transverse walls. Where the over- 
head stratum was too high or too shelving to 
form a natural roof, one was constructed in the 
usual Pueblo manner. Cliff houses were often 


yo 


ul 


[ 


: — 
¢ ——s 
SS 

<i > 
g 


CLIFF DWELLINGS: A RUINED VILLAGE. 


near a village, or other houses, built on bottom 
lands, and in some instances were part of such 
village or houses. The motive for cliff building 
was frequently defence, but the desire for a 
comfortable, secluded abode, contiguous to farm- 
ing lands, was also an important factor. It 
was to some extent an adaptation to environ- 
ment. Sometimes a community had a village 
in a valley and another in a mountainous, 
defensible place, whither they fled in times of 
danger. In his narrative of Coronado’s expedi- 
tion of 1540, Castaneda says: ‘“ The whole 
nation left two very fine villages, which they 
had on either side of the river, entirely vacant, 
and went into the mountains, where they had 
four very strong villages in a rough country 
where it was impossible for horses to go.” Some 
of the best examples of cliff ruins are in Canon 
de Chelly, Arizona, and in Mancos Canon, 
Colorado. Cliff dwellings were not all occupied 
at one time, some groups being vacant while 
others were fully inhabited. Some were occu- 
pied after the Spanish conquest of New Mexico. 
The Moki of to-day are practically cliff dwellers, 
though they occupy the summits of cliffs. (See 
Cavate Lodge, under Lodge ; Communal Dwell- 
ing; Mesa Dwelling.) —F. 8S. D. 

CLIFF OUTLOOK. A form of Cliff Dwell- 
ing; a little house, or small group of houses, 
built by American Indians of the Pueblo type 
in a recess of a cliff, for a shelter while tending 
crops. —F. 8. D. 

CLIMAX. In Greek architecture, the radi- 
ating passages with steps in an ancient theatre 
leading from the orchestra to the various tiers 
of seats. (See Theatre.) 

615 


- CLOCHAN 

CLINCH (n.). That which clinches; a 
clinched fastening; the turned-over point of a 
clinched nail. 

CLINCH (y.). To bend over and hammer 

down the protruding point of a nail so 
that it cannot be withdrawn ; to secure 
or fasten a nailed structure by so doing. 

CLINCHER. A _ wrought-iron nail 

_ used in clinching, having usually a broad 
head. (Called also clinching nail and 
clinch nail.) 

CLITHRAL. Roofed over, as distin- 
guished from hypeethral, especially in the 
discussion of Greek and Greco-Roman 
temples. 

CLOACA. In Roman archeology, a 
sewer. The Cloaca Maxima, or greatest 
sewer, was built in the early days of the 
city of Rome in order to drain the forum 
and the neighbouring low grounds. It is 
a remarkable piece of Etruscan work 
vaulted in stone in three rings of vous- 
soirs. 

CLOAKROOM. A room for the de- 
posit and care of overcoats, hats, etc., 
as: A. In a theatre, lecture hall, or 

similar place of resort, a room where the prop- 
erty of persons attending the performance can 
be cared for. 

Bb. In a private house, a room for hanging 
up out-of-door garments when not in use. In 
this sense, a toilet room, water-closet, etc., are 
often contained in the cloakroom, or in a separate 
enclosure adjoining, and the one term covers 
them all. (Compare Coatroom. ) 

CLOCHAN. A kind of prehistoric stone 
building of which many more or less ruined 
examples are found in Ireland, especially the 
southern and western counties. They are mostly 
of small size, some square or rectangular, some 


CruiFF DWELLING RvIN. 


oval or round, generally of a domical or beehive 

shape in elevation, of rude and heavy masonry 

laid up without cement. Some of them have 

been occupied as cells by hermit monks, but 
616 


a Ne iy 
eee es 
+. - f 


ute Oe 
as q 


“OSSL ynoqe ‘ernqooyryore 
O1YIOX) JO VUIL} JSOUY OY} JO ST YOM SITY} JO [TV ‘[[VA oY} Jo ssouyoryy 
oy} UL SuTyNVA Jo soaId snoliMd wv AIIvO UVEIOS BY} JO SOYOIe SUTYVUIIY[V 
ey, ‘“yoor Ayo, puv doeys ATjvanyeu v& uodn ssurIpying oy} jo dn surid 


94} WOIJ SouIOD UOT}ISOdsIp snolmMd sIyy, ‘*AIOJS IOMOT B DAOG POSTeI 
SI JOST Oy ‘s.1a7vAayYD Sap 2])VKS 9YY JO JooI oyY ynq ‘spoq uspieS puv 
ssvis Jo yoyed 10 Yes & Jou SI Aloye[NquIe oy} Aq posojous voeds oy} 
qvy} ul onbiun ‘ Apuvullon Jo ysvoo oy} UO ‘[eyOIP “S JUL, JO ALYY, 


daLSLOTO 


DOS GRA (IRI 


u 


CLOCK TOWER 


they were built in pagan times, and their pur- 
pose is a subject of speculation. 


CLOISTER 


space for affording light to the windows of a 
church or the like, and as affording a place for 
the clergy and their assistants to walk and take 
the air without going into public places. The 
space within the covered walks (see Alure; 


CLOISTER: CATHEDRAL OF Noyon (OIsE): ViEW oF East SIDE oF CHAPTER House AND Part oF 
CLOISTER. 


CLOCK TOWER. A tower whose chief 
object is, or appears to be, the containing of a 
large clock, usually in a prominent and easily 
seen position. The term. is generally applied to 
the one tower, of many, which holds a clock, 
as the clock tower of the Palais de Justice at 
Paris, or a tower having a clock of remarkable 
character, like the Torre del Orologio at Venice. 

CLOCK TURRET. A small tower or turret 
bearing on one or more of its faces a clock ; 
distinguished from a clock tower by its subor- 
dinate character with reference to the rest of 
the building, or by its smaller dimensions. It 
usually stands upon or rises out of the roof, and 
is consequently in most cases a framed structure. 
A well-known example is that on the Hotel de 
Ville at Paris ; the City Hall at New York has 
one built about 1814, and they are common on 
public buildings, especially town halls. 

CLODION. (See Michel, Claude.) 

CLOGHAN. Same as Clochan. 

CLOISTER. A court surrounded by ambu- 
latories which, in a convent or the like, or in 
connection with a cathedral or any ecclesiastical 
structure having subordinate buildings, is used 
as a means of communication, as a reserved 

617 


Ambulatory) is called the Garth or Cloister 
Garth ; it is sometimes used as a garden, some- 
times merely as a <a 
grass space ; and / 
sometimes a foun- 
tain for ornament, 
or the supply of 
water is located 
within it. 
Cloisters of the 
Gothic age are 
still numerous in 
Europe, and are 
often very beau- 
tiful ; the oppor- 
tunity afforded by 
the vaulting of 
the ambulatory 
and by the arcad- 
ing along the 
garth having been 
used to produce 
beautiful etfects of 
combined — sculp- 
ture and archi- 
tectural design. 


CLOISTER: CARMINE CONVENT, 
BRESCIA. 


618 


CLOISTHRED ARCH 


Some few instances of still earlier treatment 
exist, as in the famous Romanesque cloister of 
S. Trophime at Arles. After the Gothic epoch 
fewer cloisters were built, apparently because 
of the number already existing, but some inter- 
esting neoclassic examples are to be found in 
Italy, Germany, and especially in France, as in 
the great monastery, now ruined, of Villeneuve- 
lez-Avignon. Ambulatories are generally only 
one story high in whatever style they are car- 
ried out ; but, in connection with the cathedral 
at Verona, there is one two stories high, and at 
Monte Oliveto Maggiore, near Asciano, in Tus- 
cany, the great cloister, famous for its fresco 
paintings, has ambulatories in three superim- 
posed stories. At Assisi, in Umbria, a change 
of level between the two sides of the cloister is 
met by a two-storied ambulatory. At Mont 8. 
Michel, on the coast of Normandy, the great 
cloister is built upon the roof of a vaulted cham- 
ber below ;.this because the whole group of 


structures, church and convent, with refectories: 


and lodgings, is piled high upon the top and 
sides of a steep and almost inaccessible rocky 
hill. 

In a long-established ecclesiastical or monas- 
tic institution, the cloister becomes the particu- 
lar recreation ground and place of meeting for 
the inmates, the clergy of high rank appropriat- 
ing to themselves one side of the ambulatory, 
or the whole, at certain hours of the day. The 
buildings of occupancy frequently took their 
light from the open space, and one sees a little 
apparatus of wires or cords by means of which 
the occupant of a third-story room will draw 
water in a small pail from the fountain or well 
in the middle of the garth without having to 
leave his window. Lavatories, and sometimes 
large fountains for the monks to wash before 
going to meals, are sometimes provided under 
cover in rooms, or in widenings or extensions 
of the ambulatory. It is usual to have the 
garth accessible from the ambulatory only in 
one, two, or four points by means of a gap in 
the dwarf wall which carries the columns of the 
arcade. This evidently to save the gardens or 
the patch of grass from too constant and un- 
necessary invasion. — R. 8. 

CLOISTERED ARCH. Same as 
tered Vault. (See Vault.) 

CLOISTER GARTH; CLOISTER 
GREEN. (See Cloister.) 

CLOIT, CHRISTIAN; bell founder. 

In 1448, with the assistance of Heinrich 
Brodermann, Cloit cast the great bell called 
Pretiosa of Cologne cathedral, one of the finest 
in existence. The name of the bell, the date of 
its casting, and the names of the makers are 
inscribed upon it. 

Allgemeine deutsche Biographie. 

CLOSE. (Sometimes pronounced to rhyme 
with dose.) The plot of ground occupied by a 

619 


Clois- 


- “GOLUB HOUSH 
cathedral and its dependent buildings, and 
formerly always enclosed by a wall. The closes 
of some English cathedrals are extensive, and 
contain fine trees of great age; the buildings 
also, being grouped in a picturesque fashion, 
give a parklike character to the whole. 

CLOSER. The last stone or brick laid 
in a course, or part of course, fitted to the 
opening so as to complete the row. In brick- 
work, the closer may be a whole brick or less. 
Queen closer is less than half a brick ; king 
closer more than half a brick ; brick or brick-. 
bat, any portion of a brick having one unbroken 
end. 

CLOSET. A. Originally, a private room ; 
the sitting room or chamber of a person of some 
distinction. 

B. In modern usage, a place for storage, 
distinguished from a cupboard only as being 
larger, perhaps large enough for a person to 
enter. By extension, the term covers such a 
small room when fitted with conveniences for 
washing, and the like, as a wash closet, a dress- 
ing closet. 

Plate Closet. In Great Britain, a closet 
or small room connected with the butler’s 
offices for the custody of plate. When the plate 
is of much value, such a closet is commonly 
made fireproof and is called a plate room or 
plate safe (Kerr). In the United States, 
usually a much less pretentious compartment 
called silver closet, silver safe. 

Silver Closet. (See Plate Closet.) 

CLOSURE. A wall, balustrade, or arcade 
serving as a screen ; but where standing at the 
edge of a roof, gallery, or the like, serving as a 
parapet. The term is especially used for a 
short length of such wall, etc., which is set be- 
tween two columns, having usually no connec- 
tion with the columns, but standing free. 

CLOTHES DRYER. A frame on which 
to hang clothes and the like for drying; an 
apparatus consisting of such a frame in an 
enclosure, together with appliances to supply 
artificial heat. (See Laundry.) 

CLUB HOUSE. A building occupied by a 
club. The main requirements of such a house 
are usually those of social intercourse, as read- 
ing rooms, conversation rooms, dining rooms, 
etc., with usually some arrangements for a 
library, and the necessary offices for the clerks 
and steward, or superintendent, as well as for 
the house servants. Some clubs having a 
special purpose, as political, literary, or artistic, 
require to be provided also with picture gal- 
leries, with large rooms for gatherings, or for 
libraries of unusual size. The most important 
clubs and the most costly and elegant houses 
have been generally those of London. They 
stand on Pall Mall, St. James Street, Piccadilly, 
and neighbouring streets, and are sometimes very 
stately mansions. Club houses have recently 
620 


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Cuus House: UNIverRsiry CLtus, NEw York; SECOND PRINCIPAL FLOOR. 


622 


621 


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CLtuB House: UNIVERSITY CLUB, NEw York; ONE OF THE Two MEZZANINES. 


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BED ROOM BED 


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PRIVATE DINING ROOM 


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Cius House; UNIVERSITY CLUB, NEw YorRK; THIRD PRINCIPAL FLOOR. 


628 624 


CLUNCH 


been built in American cities vying with those 
of London in importance. — R. 8. 
CLUNCH. In local British usage, a stiff 
clay or chalk, used in primitive building. 
CLUNIAC. Pertaining to the monastic 
order of Cluny. (See Cluniac Architecture.) 


CLUSTERED PIER 


ing of the proto-Gothic buildings of the east 
and northeast of France, especially the church 
of S. Denis. It is also claimed for them that 
they established a school of sculpture of singular 
intelligence and artistic feeling. (See Roman- 
esque Architecture. ) 

CLUNY, HOTEL OF. (See Hotel de Cluny.) 

CLUSTERED PIER; PILLAR. A _ pillar 
or pier composed of a number of shafts grouped 
together, usually around a central, more massive, 


EEL, 


PPP, 


tag 


FES LE 


=== 
Fe LF, 


= 
C7 


jor ras 
oo @, 


Cius House: UNIVERSITY CLUB, NEW YorK. (SEE PLANS.) 


CLUNIAC ARCHITECTURE. That of 
the style developed by the Cluniac monks, and 
especially that of the great abbey of Cluny in 
the French department of Sadne-et-Loire. The 


Cluniac architecture and sculpture has to do | 


especially with this abbey and with its immediate 


effect upon buildings erected in its neighbour- | 


hood. The abbey church of Cluny, finished in 
the earlier years of the twelfth century, is 
thought to have been the most splendid 
Romanesque building in France. It has now 
entirely disappeared. It is claimed for the 
Cluniac monks that they were the most scientific 
builders of the Romanesque epoch, and that 
their study of geometry led directly to the build- 
625 


shaft or core, as in the piers separating the 
aisles of medizeval churches. This clustering of 
shafts, which became general after 1200 in 
Western Europe, seems to have grown out of 
the use of boltels at the angles of the early 
Norman and Romanesque square piers. Except 
in England, the minor shafts (each of which 
usually corresponds to a particular vaulting rib 
or pier arch moulding) were almost always 
engaged in the central mass ; but in Great Britain 
they were frequently in the early English period 
detached, tied together at intervals by moulded 
bands forming bond stones, and made of dark 
Purbeck marble to contrast with the lighter stone 
of the masonry. 
626 


COACH HOUSE 


The clustered papyrus stalk or lotus columns 
of Egyptian tombs and temples are, properly 
speaking, not pillars, but columns of quatrefoil 
or octofoil plan. (See Column; Gothie Archi- 
tecture; Pier.) (Cut, col. 629.) —A. D. F. H. 

COACH HOUSE. Same as Carriage House. 


COATING. According to English usage, 
the aggregate of several coats of paint, varnish, 
or plaster, applied in close succession as rapidly 
as permitted by good work. 

In United States usage, same as Coat; or 
the operation of applying a coat. 


CLUSTERED PiERS: NORWICH CATHEDRAL, C. 1100. 


COAMING. A frame around an opening in 
a floor or roof, rising above the surrounding level 
to prevent the flow of water into the opening. 
Especially when around a scuttle. 

COARSE STUFF. In England, the first 
or rough coat of plaster applied to the masonry 
or laths. It is composed of lime, sand, and 
cow’s or goat’s hair in proportions varying 
according to the quality of the lime or local 
practice. In the United States, generally 
called Scratch or Scratched Coat. (See Plaster ; 
Plastering. ) 

COAT. A layer of paint, plaster, mortar, or 
the like as applied to a wall or floor. The term 


CLUSTERED PIER: COGENHOE, NORTHAMPTON- 
SHIRE. 


is restricted to a liquid or semiliquid substance 
so applied. (See Veneer for a covering of solid 
material.) 

627 


COAT OF ARMS. Inheraldry, a complete 
arrangement of the bearings belonging to one 
person ; usually an achievement. The term is 
without precise significance, for its original 
meaning is the embroidered surcoat of a man at 
arms in which his armorial bearings were shown, 
and in modern usage it covers sometimes the 
whole achievement, sometimes the escutcheon 
alone. 

COATROOM. A room where out-of-door 
garments, small baggage, parcels, etc., may be 
left on temporary storage ; as in a hotel, a rail- 
way station, or the like. (Compare Cloakroom. ) 


CLUSTERED Pier: S. Mary’s ABBEY, YORK, 
c. 1250. 


COB. A mixture of clay, straw, and gravel, 
or of similar materials, for the construction of 
walls of a primitive class. 

628 


ye eee et OT es ee % ' en ps 
1 =e Nos ee 7 Sie RE: ere 


Ab 
scbchak oS 
Bell. 


Neck-mold. 


g 
x —— {2} 
x? 


SHAFT. 


PIER. 


OF SMALL COLUMNS. 


a 


Plinth. 
Yuu Base-mold. e 
< 
a 7 
| 
ied is a 
rd Base-mold. Ba 
pete tetas ey 2 ° 
d Plinth, or ° 
ground table. Ss 


CLUSTERED PIER. 


COBBLESTONE. A medium-sized stone 
worn round by marine or fluvial action. Cob- 
blestones are used to make a very primitive 
and objectionable pavement for city streets; to 
pave the gutters of macadamized roads ; and in 

629 


COCKERELL 


some parts of Yorkshire (England), as well as in 
parts of the United States, to build the walls of 
cottages. 

COB HOUSE. A house constructed with 
walls of cob. 

COCHIN CHINA, ARCHITECTURE OF. 
(See Farther India, Architecture of.) 

COCHLEA. A winding stair; also a tur- 
ret or tower containing such a stair. 

COCHLEARY: COCHLEATE; COCH- 
LEATED. Spirally or helically twisted, like a 
snail shell; as, a cochleary stair. 

CockK. A mechanical device for controlling 
the flow of water or other liquid, either at any 
point in the line of pipe (stop cock), or at an 
outlet end of a pipe line, in combination with a 
nozzle or discharge spout at a plumbing fixture 
(bibb cock, faucet). Cocks are designated by 
the fixture for which they are intended (as a 
basin or bath cock); by the service which they 
are intended to render; by their mechanical 
construction (ball cock, compression cock, three- 
way cock, ground key cock, self-closing cock) ; 
or by the fluid flowing through them (water, 
gas, steam cock). (See Faucet.) — W. P. G. 

Bibb Cock. (Sometimes abbreviated 
“bibb.”) <A fitting for the discharge of water 
into fixtures, usually with a bent down nozzle. 

— W. P.G. 

COCKERELL, CHARLES ROBERT ; ar- 
chitect and archeologist; b. April 28, 1788; 
d. Sept. 17, 1863. 

C. R. Cockerell was the second son of Samuel 
Pepys Cockerell (see Cockerell, 8. P.), and in 
1809 became an assistant of Sir Robert Smirke 
(see Smirke, R.) during the reconstruction of 
Covent Garden theatre, London. In 1810 he 
commenced a tour of Greece, Asia Minor, Sicily, 
and Italy. April, 1811, with Baron Haller von 


| Hallerstein (see Haller von Hallerstein), archi- 


tect of the king of Bavaria, Baron Stackelberg 
(see Stackelberg), and others, Cockerell went to 
/Kgina and excavated the ruins of the temple 
of Minerva (then called temple of Jupiter Pan- 
hellenius). In 1812 they excavated the ruins 
of the temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassve, 
near Phigaleia in Arcadia. The frieze of this 
temple was bought by the British Museum in 
1813. Cockerell published the results of his 
investigations under the title The Temple of 
Jupiter Panhellenius at dAigina and of Apollo 
Epicurius at Basse, near Phigaleia in Ar- 
cadia (London, 1860, 1 vol., folio). His studies 
of the Temple of Jupiter Olympus at Agri- 
gentum were published in 1830 with other 
monographs by W. Kinnard, T. L. Donaldson, 
W. Jenkins, and W. Railton in a volume sup- 
plementary to the Antiquities of Athens by 
Stuart and Revett. He was appointed surveyor 
of S. Paul’s cathedral in 1819. About 1830 
he began the National Monument in Edinburgh, 
which was never completed. In 1833 he suc- 
630 


COCKERELL 


ceeded Sir John Soane (see Soane, Sir J.) as 
architect of the Bank of England. He was 
elected associate of the Royal Academy in 1829, 
and in 1836 Royal Academician. From 1840 
to 1857 he was professor of architecture at the 
Royal Academy, London. In 1847 he suc- 
ceeded Harvey Lonsdale Elmes (see Elmes, H. 
L.) as architect of S. George’s Hall, Liverpool. 
His designs for the sculpture of the pediment 
of this building were published in the papers of 
the Royal Institute of British Architects (1863- 
1864, p. 17). Cockerell was president of the 
Royal Institute ‘of British Architects in 1860- 
1861, Chevalier of the Légion d’ Honneur, mem- 
ber of the American Institute of Architects, 
etc. He was buried in S. Paul’s cathedral. 
Much of his success was due to his skill in 
drawing the human figure. 

Sidney Smirke, Professor C. R. Cockerell, in 
R. I. B. A. papers, 1863-1864; Obituary in 
Builder, 1863, p. 683. 

COCKERELL, FREDERICK PEPYS ; ar- 
chitect; b. 1833; d. Nov. 7, 1878. 

A son of C. R. Cockerell (see Cockerell, C. 
R.). He built the memorial column at Castle 
Howard (England), and the Freemasons’ Hall 
in London. 

Obituary in Builder, Nov. 16, 1878. 

COCKERELL, SAMUEL PEPYS; archi- 
tect; b. about 1754; d. July 12, 1827. 

Cockerell was descended from Paulina, a sis- 
ter of the famous Samuel Pepys, author of 
Pepys’s Diary, and secretary of the admiralty 
in the reign of Charles II. He was a pupil of 
Sir Robert Taylor (see Taylor, R.). He was 
surveyor of the Hast India House, and held 
other important offices. (See Cockerell, C. R.) 

Redgrave, Dictionary of Artists. 

COCKING. Same as Caulking. 

COCKLE. A. The same as Cochlea and 
Cochleate ; used either as a noun or adjective ; 
helically winding. 

B. A kiln or furnace for drying (1) hops ; 
(2) porcelain ware or biscuit after it has been 
dipped in the glaze, and before the burning. 

COCKLOFT. The loft or garret under a 
roof, above the highest ceiling; usually waste 
space, or used for storage. A story in the 
roof, finished for occupancy, with ceilings, win- 
dows, etc., is not a cockloft. 

COCKPIT. A. An enclosed area for cock 
fighting ; hence, by extension, a building for 
such a purpose. 

B. The pit of a theatre. Obsolete; in use 
as late as the close of the sixteenth century ; 
so called from its form and general appearance, 
resembling that of A. 

C. In local English usage, the Treasury or 
Privy Council Chambers, from the popular name 
of the building opposite Whitehall, Westminster 
(London), in which these offices were formerly 
domiciled. 

631 


COFFER 

CODUCCI, MAURO (MORETTO), of 
Bergamo, “ Moro Lombardo” (Miintz) ; archi- 
tect and sculptor. 

In a document dated July, 1476, the design 
and construction of the fine church of S. 
Michele in Isola at Venice is ascribed to 
‘“‘Moretto di Lorenzo da Venezia” (Moschini, 
op. cit.). In 1482 “ Moretto” took charge of 
the works at the campanile of 8. Marco, and 
June 12, 1483, was chosen proto-maestro of the 
new church of 8. Zaccaria (Venice), begun by 
Antonio Gambello (see Gambello, A.). He built 
the great stairway of the Scuola di 8S. Marco. 
In the memoranda of a lawsuit between his 
heirs and the authorities of the church of S. 
Maria Formosa (Venice), in 1506, Mauro di 
Coducci is mentioned as the architect of that 
building. The names Moro, Moretto, Moreto, 
appear frequently in the Venetian records at 
this time, but they do not always refer to the 
architect Coducci. 

Paoletti, Rinascimento, Vol. II.; Mitintz, Ren- 
atssance ; Moschini, Guida di Venezia. 

CCBLANAGLYPHIC. (See Relief.) 

COELMANN, EGIDIUS ; architect. 

Egidius Coelmann rebuilt the choir of the 
Liebfrauenkerke at Amsterdam, which had 
been destroyed by fire in 1452. 

Galland, Holldndische Baukunst und Bildnerei. 

CC@i|NACULUM. In ancient Roman 
houses, the supper room, and hence often any 
upper room or suite of rooms, because the ceena 
was commonly eaten in an upper room. It is 
also applied to a banqueting room, and in a few 
instances to boxes in the upper tier of a circus. 

COFFEE HOUSE. In England, in the 
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, a kind 
of tavern, especially devoted to the taking of 
coffee and chocolate, indulging in conversation, 
etc. The custom is obsolete except in history 
and literature. At the present time, a place of 
refreshment, often one from which alcoholic 
drinks are excluded. 

COFFEE ROOM. In England, and until 
very recent times, the principal eating room and 
sitting room of a hotel; the hotels not being 
large, or affecting much elegance before the 
middle of the nineteenth century, there was little 
in the way of reception room or drawing-room. 
Ladies were supposed to have a sitting room of 
their own, and gentlemen guests met friends in 
the coffee room, which served also for meals. 

COFFER. In classic and neoclassic archi- 
tecture a recessed panel, usually square or 
octagonal. Such panels are common in the 
inner surfaces of cupolas, wagon vaults, and the 
like, and are, in original Roman construction, as 
in the Pantheon, the basilica of Maxentius, etc., 
a sinking in the solid masonry. In modern 
work, coffers are most often produced in lath 
and plaster, or other thin and cheap material. 
(Same as Caisson, IT.) 

632 


COFFER DAM 
_COPFER DAM. A temporary dam made 


to exclude the water from a place upon which 


it is desired to build. In the usual form it is 
composed of an outer and an inner row of piles 
with waling pieces, or stringers, to guide and 
support the sheet piling which is driven be- 
tween the piles of each row, forming a double 
enclosure. The space between the rows is then 
cleaned of all material not water-tight, and 
filled in with puddled clay and gravel to make 
the enclosure water-tight. It is sometimes 
made of large timber piles driven close together, 
jointed and caulked, and tied together with wal- 
ing pieces. A bank of earth is sometimes sufti- 
cient in shallow water. The water is pumped 
out, and the construction proceeds. — W. R. H. 

COFFERING. The whole of the coffers of 
a ceiling, or the system of coffers constituting 
its design. (See Caisson, II.) 

COGGING. (See Caulking.) 

COG HOLD. A connection for securing 
two intersecting horizontal timbers in a framed 
structure, consisting of a tongue formed in the 
upper part of one timber which engages in a 
notch cut in the under side of the other. 

COIGNE. A. Primarily, a wedge ; hence, 
the corner of a building, and finally, one of the 
stones forming the corner. In this sense these 
forms are obsolete. (See Quoin.) 

B. A wedgelike block resting on any in- 
clined surface to bring the masonry up to a 
level bed. 

COILANAGLYPHIC. (See Relief.) 

COIN. (Sée Coigne.) 

COIT. In England, an early type of build- 
ing combining a cattle stable, barn, and dwell- 
ing (Addy). 

COLARD (COLART) DE GIVRY ; archi- 
tect ; d. Dec. 18, 1452. 

Colard appears to have succeeded Jehan 
dOrbais as maitre doeuvre of the cathedral 
of Reims in 1416. He built the great choir 
screen (jubé) of that cathedral, which was de- 
stroyed in 1747. 

Bauchal, Dictionnaire ; Lance,- Dictionnaire. 

COLAS, ANTHOINE (ANTOINE) ; 
architect. 

Maitre Woeuvre et expert juré of the city 
of Troyes. About 1461 he succeeded Simon 
Royer as maistre des macons of the cathedral 
of Troyes, and undertook the decoration of the 
beautiful southern portal. In 1470-1473 he 
worked on the pillars and vaults of the nave. 

Assier, Les Arts et les Artistes dans Vl ancienne 
Capitale de la Champagne; Bauchal, Diction- 
naire. 

COLD GRAPERY. A building, mainly of 
glass in light sash, used for the cultivation of 
grapevines, but without artificial heat. (See 
Greenhouse. ) 

COLDROOM. A room for cold storage ; 
that is to say, one in which, while nothing 

' 633 


COLLEGE 


shall be frozen, everything shall be kept at a 
low temperature. This is usually done by the 
presence of ice which, as it melts, chills the air 
within the room; but precautions have to be 
taken to carry away the water which flows 
from the ice, and to prevent too great a fall of 
temperature. 

COLECHURCH, PETER OF. (See Peter 
of Colechurch.) 

COLIN, ALEXANDER; sculptor and 
architect; b. 1536; d. 1612. 

There is a contract dated March 7, 1558, 
between the elector Otto Heinrich and the 
sculptor Alexander Colin of Mecheln, for carv- 
ing the coat of arms over the door of the Otto- 
Heinrichsbau in the castle at Heidelberg, 
Germany, and for fourteen statues and four- 
teen windows. After finishing this work Colin 
was called to Innsbruck (Austrian Tyrol) by 
the Emperor Ferdinand I., to complete (1562— 
1566) the monument to Maximilian I. in the 
Hofkirche which had been begun by Peter 
Abel. Attributed to Colin are the fountain in 
the Thiergarten at Innsbruck (1564), the 
monument of the Emperor Ferdinand I. in the 
cathedral of Prague (1564-1589), and other 
monuments at Innsbruck and elsewhere. 

Ritter von Schoénherr, Alexander Colin und 
siene Werke, in Mittheilungen des Heidelberger 
Schlosses ; Rosenberg, Quellen zur Geschichte des 


Heidelberger Schlosses ; Koch-Seitz, Das Heidel- 
berger Schloss. 


COLIN DE BERNEVAL. (See Berneval, 


Colin de.) 


COLISEUM. The largest Roman amphi- 
theatre known to us. It stands in Rome south- 
east of the Forum, in a flat which continues 
the valley in which the Forum is situated. Its 
exterior is well preserved for about four fifths of 
its perimeter, except that the fittings of the up- 
permost part are uncertain. It was built by 
Vespasian and his son and successor, Titus, at 
least as far as the top of the third story of the 
exterior, the solid wall with pilasters forming 
the fourth story having been added in the third 
century. (Also spelled colosseum.) 

COLLAR. A. A decorated cincture, belt, 
or band about a column or other member, 
whether actually a separate piece, or a mould- 
ing formed in the substance itself of the column. 
Hence, a necking in a classic Tuscan or Doric 
or Greek Ionic capital. (See Order.) 

B. A metal band applied for strengthening, 
as to the head of a pile to prevent splintering. 

C. A collar beam. 

COLLEGE. A. An institution governed by 
a body of men associated for literary or ecclesi- 
astical pursuits; especially an institution of 
learning to which students resort after leaving 
the ordinary schools, and at any age, usually 
from sixteen to twenty years. 

B. A building intended for use in higher 

634 


COLLEGE 


education, or more commonly a group of buildings 
forming together the necessary accommodation 
for a number of students and their professors 
and other teachers. The colleges of the English 
universities are separate corporations which 
unite in having a common tie in the University 
Senate and its chancellor or vice chancellor. 
Each college has one or several buildings, and 
these are generally arranged on the four sides 
of open courts, generally called quadrangles. 
The essential buildings are the rooms of lodging 
for students and tutors, fellows, and chiefs of 
the college, for the lecture rooms are usually at 
another place, in a building common to the 
university. The older colleges have, however, 
each a very stately hall and sometimes also a 
chapel ; and in certain cases the chapel is a 
building of peculiar magnificence, as in the 
instance of King’s College at Cambridge. The 
buildings of the colleges are so commonly of an 
interesting type of Tudor or Jacobean architec- 
ture that those styles when applied to domestic 
and civic work have gained the name of Col- 
legiate Gothic. 

In America, colleges are independent of one 
another, and a university is merely a college 
which is rich and has added postgraduate and 
other courses to its usual academic course. The 
architecture of colleges and universities is, there- 
fore, the same, and the tendency is to build 
separate and detached buildings standing about 
in the grounds occupied by the institution with- 
out much common plan. A serious attempt 
was made at Yale College, beginning in 1868, 
to enclose with the different dormitories, chapels, 
etc., a very large quadrangle, but the spirit of 
continuity was not: sufficient, and the plan did 
not wholly succeed. Trinity College in Con- 
necticut, near Hartford, was designed by William 
Burges of London, with three small quadrangles. 
The great Baltimore institution, Johns Hopkins 
University, has no decorative buildings, but 
simply such structures as are absolutely needed 
for the lecture rooms, laboratories, etc., and 
these are scattered about the city. Columbia 
University, New York, has moved twice within 
forty years, first from what is now the business 
part of the city to Forty-ninth Street and Madi- 
son Avenue, and, in 1897, to West One Hundred 
and Sixteenth Street where a large plot of ground 
has been secured and where buildings of great 
cost and permanence have been erected. These 
colleges differ among themselves in that some 
have dormitories and others provide no lodging 
rooms whatever.— R. 8. | 

Christ Church College. One of the old es- 
tablished colleges of Oxford University, occupy- 
ing buildings which surround a very large court. 
The hall is peculiarly interesting because of the 
interior of the hall proper, which was built under 
the direction of Cardinal Wolsey in a beautiful 
late Perpendicular style, with an open timber 

635 


Cl a DS Some ee 


Cree Be hd 22) eee 


COLLEGE 


roof of oak, richly carved, and a beautiful vesti- 
bule built in 1640 and roofed with fine vaulting 
in a style of an earlier period. It is also the 
largest hall in Oxford, the dimensions usually 
given being 40 feet wide by 50 feet high to the 
ridge, and about 114 feet long. The great court 
or quadrangle is known as “Tom Quad,” the 
name being derived from the great bell in the 
tower over the gateway, always called Tom or 
Tom of Oxford, or the Mighty Tom, and said to 
weigh seventeen thousand pounds. The college 
has another quadrangle called Peckwater, the 
principal buildings upon which are of Palladian 
architecture built in the eighteenth century. 
The cathedral at Oxford, the smallest, but one 
of the most interesting, in England, is immedi- 
ately connected with Christ Church College and 
is entered from the Tom Quad. —R. 8. 

Keble College. One of the colleges of 
Oxford University; a new foundation, dating 
from 1868, and named after the Rev. John 
Keble, author of The Christian Year. The 
buildings are of an interesting type of Victorian 
Gothic by one of the best masters of the style, 
Butterfield. The Keble Memorial Chapel is 
peculiarly interesting. 

King’s College. One of the colleges of 
Cambridge University, England. Founded by 
Henry VI., and the earliest important es- 
tablishment in Cambridge, but containing none 
of the earlier buildings except the chapel. The 
hall is, however, interesting, with a splendid 
Jacobean screen of carved wood. The great 
row of buildings designed by Gibbs and built in 
the early part of the eighteenth century is an 
interesting piece of late neoclassic work. 

King’s College Chapel. The oldest part of 
the college and an unsurpassed building of English 
Perpendicular architecture. 
ceiling is one of the three important pieces of that 
singular and wholly English design existing (the 
other two being 8. George’s Chapel at Windsor 
and Henry the Seventh’s Chapel at Westminster) 
and this exceeds the others greatly in size. 
No cathedral in England has a more impressive 
interior than this superb building, more than 300 
feet long and divided into twelve uniform bays. 

Magdalen College; Tower. (Always pro- 
nounced Maudlin.) One of the earliest colleges 
of Oxford, founded in the fifteenth century, and 
retaining some of its ancient buildings. The 
tower, of Perpendicular Gothic, and said to be 
145 feet high, is near the head of the bridge 
over the Cherwell, and is one of the finest 
Gothic towers existing. The hall is mostly of 
the sixteenth century, but the ceiling is much 
later and not appropriate. The Gardens (Mag- 
dalen Groves), and Magdalen College Walks are 
celebrated, partly on account of the view of the 
college buildings which they afford. 

Medical College. An institution for the 
training of physicians and surgeons. The build- 

636 


4 


The’ fine vaulted - 


eyer1oqrya puve saredor teeq ove 
sInwooyyore opny, Ajrva Jo Joyoerveyo ayy ‘Arnquso 4 


YT e104} Ysnoyyye pur § LOFT Tun unseq you sem 
POULPIUTVUT [JOA Teaq sey  Surprmnq PUL “IFT PY2 UO Tey pro ony ¢ SSUIpPT MG Sututolpe oy. TIAL ‘Taquvyg 


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AYOLODLINOUVY ALVIOVTION 


MIXX ALV1d 


COLLEGE 


ings for such an institution require some rooms 
and halls peculiar to the course of study, and 
not found elsewhere (see Anatomical Theatre ; 
Dissecting Room). Medical colleges are usually 
located in the great cities on account of the 
opportunities for observing clinical treatment 
and surgical practice. Even in cities, however, 
it is quite usual to found a hospital in immediate 
connection with a medical college for the express 
purpose of furnishing clinical instruction. The 
treatment in such hospitals, or at least in the 
open wards of them, is usually gratuitous, the 
patient submitting to the comparative publicity 
of treatment in the way of compensation for the 
medical and surgical aid furnished. Labora- 
tories and rooms for histological and other 
forms of research form part of a highly organ- 
ized medical college, but their presence does 
not involve any architectural peculiarities. 
‘ee ae , —R. 8. 
New College. One of the oldest colleges of 
Oxford University, founded by William of Wyke- 
ham in the fourteenth century, and retaining 
still many buildings of that epoch. The chapel 
is of peculiar importance in the history of Eng- 
lish Gothic, as it is reputed to be the earliest 
Perpendicular building, and of very beautiful 
design. 

Robert College. Near Constantinople, on 
a hill overlooking the Bosphorus; founded by a 
New York merchant and built about 1865. 

Saint John’s College. A. One of the old 
colleges of Cambridge University, England. 
The buildings are of different dates, from about 
1500 to 1831, and enclose three courts or 
quadrangles on the right bank of the Cam, and 
one on the left bank, each of these groups 
forming a separate structure of architectural 


- importance. - The oldest buildings are of fine 


Tudor (Collegiate Gothic) style, as is the bridge 
which connects the two groups. The dining 


hall is a noble room with an open timber roof, | 


dating from about 1610, and the combination 
room is a low-ceiled Jacobean hall of great 
beauty. 

B. A college of the University of Oxford, 
founded in the middle of the sixteenth century. 
Part of the front is of a still earlier time, the 
remains of a monastery of the fifteenth century ; 
but the most celebrated part of the building is 
the second quadrangle, which was built by Inigo 
Jones in continuation of earlier work, and which, 
in grace and refinement, is the nearest approach 
in England to Italian Renaissance architecture. 
Bronze statues of King Charles I. and of Queen 


Henrietta Maria fill niches over the gateways. 
The stone work has suffered much from the 


weather, but this adds antique charm to the 

whole without detracting from its proportions. 

Trinity College. The most important 

foundation of Cambridge University. It was 
637 


COLOMBE 


founded by Henry VIII., and the chapel was 
built during the reigns of Mary and Elizabeth, 
though since refitted and lined with neoclassical 
woodwork and an enormous columnar altarpiece. 
The great court upon which the perpendicular 
windows of the hall look has towered and 
battlemented gateways of interest, and a late 
neoclassic fountain. A small court called 
Neville’s Court is in part faced with buildings 
by Sir Christopher Wren in Roman Doric and 
modified Ionic styles, which decorate the exterior 
of the library. — R. 8. 

COLLEGE HALL. The large general 
meeting room of a college; especially, in Eng- 
land, a room usually forming a building by itself 
with windows on both sides and often a roof 
whose interior construction is made decorative. 
Such halls form usually a part of the quadrangle, 
or more properly of the continuous wall of build- 
ings which enclose a quadrangle. (See College ; 
Hall.) 

COLLEGIATE ARCHITECTURE. Archi- 
tecture having the characteristics of a college ; 
particularly used of the style employed in the 
medizeval and Elizabethan colleges of the great 
British universities, with their quiet courtyards 
or quadrangles, mullioned windows, battle- 
mented parapets, picturesque chimneys, bays, 
and _oriels. 

COLOMBE, MICHEL; sculptor and archi- 
tect ; b. about 1430; d. 1512. 

Colombe probably came from _ Brittany 
(France). About 1445 he visited Burgundy, 
and came in contact with the works of Claux 
Sluter (see Sluter, C.), Claux de Werwe (see 
Claux de Werwe), and others of the Burgundian 
school. About 1460 he opened an atelier in 
the Rue des Filles-Dieu, at Tours (Indre-et- 
Loire, France). About 1480 he designed: a 
monument for Loys Rohault, Bishop of Maille- 
zais in Poitou, France, and a retable for the 
church of S. Saturnin, at Tours, which was 
destroyed in the Revolution. His most im- 
portant work is the monument which Anne de 
Bretagne, queen of Louis XII., ordered in 1502 
in memory of her father, Francois II., Duke of 
Brittany, and his second wife, Marguerite de 
Foix. The design was made by Jean Perréal 
(see Perréal, J.), and the execution super- 
intended by Colombe after his seventieth year. 
This monument was broken up in 1792. The 
fragments were put together in 1817 and 
placed in the transept of the cathedral of 
Nantes. His fine bas-relief of ‘“‘S. George and 
the Dragon,” formerly at the chateau of Gaillon, 
is now in the Louvre. 


Palustre, Michel Colombe in Gaz. d. Beaux 
Arts (1884) ; Miintz, Les Sculpteurs de la Renais- 
sance ; Fillon-Rochebrune, Poitow et Vendée ; 
Roulliet, Michel Colombe et son Gfuvre; Miintz, 
La Renaissance a UEpoque de Charles VIII. ; 
Brownell, French Art; Charvet, Jean Perréal. 


638 


COLOMBIER 


-COLOMBIER. In French, a pigeon house. | 


In English, a large building of the sort, a sepa- 
rate tower of con- 
siderable size and 
importance, such 
as were attached 
to large farms, 
manor houses, 
and strong cas- 
tles in the Middle 
Ages. The main- 
tenance by the 
lord of the manor 
of a great number 


CoLoMBIER AT Boos (SErnz- Of pigeons which 
INFERIEURE); HALF-PLAN fed freely on the 
oF TOWER, HALF-PLAN OF field fons 
Roor. (SEE SECTION.) elas of his ten- 

ants was one of 


the crying abuses of the feudal system. 
Throughout France, these towers were com- 
monly destroyed at the time of the Revolution, 
but a few of great interest remain. (Cuts, 
cols. 641, 642.) 

COLONETTE. Any diminutive col- 
umn, whether employed in architecture 
proper, like those which cluster in 
the triforium piers of medieval - 
churches, or in the industrial 
or accessory arts, in which 
architectural forms are 
imitated on a, minute 


COLONNADE 

results of transferring the classic designs of the 
eighteenth century to a new country where 
wood was largely used and where the work- 
men were far less restrained by an educated 
public opinion. The greater part of the build- 
ings of the style are purely classic in their 
intent ; but there exists in New England a 
number of buildings in which a much earlier 
tradition of building and simple decoration ex- 
ists. An Elizabethan or Jacobean freedom of 
treatment, especially in interior work, is to be 
found in some of these structures. (See United 
States, Architecture of, Part II.) mis 

Wallis, Old Colonial Architecture and Furni- 
ture, Boston, 1887; The Georgian Period, pub- 
lished by the American Architect and Building 
News Co. (Part IV., 1899) ; Chandler, The Colo- 
nial Architecture of Maryland, Pennsylvania, 
and Virginia; Corner and Soderholz, Examples 
of Domestic Colonial Architecture in Maryland 
and Virginia and Examples of Domestic and 
Colonial Architecture in New England; and 
Crane and Soderholz, Examples of Colonial Archi- 
tecture in South Carolina and Georgia; and 
especially, for evidences of English traditional 
ways of work, Early Rhode Island Houses 
and Early Connecticut Houses, by Norman 
M. Isham and Albert F. Brown, Provi- 

dence. — R. S. 


COLONNADE. A number of 
columns arranged in order, 


usually in one line, and con- 
sidered in connection with 


all the details of the 


scale. The earliest 


order, and sometimes 


examples are those 
figured in Assyr- 


with the roof, 


ian reliefs as sup- 


pavement, stylo- 


porting the archi- 


bate, and other ad- 


traves of a sort of 


juncts. The term is 


clerestory windows ; 
they are not uncom- 
mon on late Roman 
sarcophagi, and _be- 
come very frequent 
in medieval art. 


usually limited to 
structures’ in which 
the columns carry an 
architrave, and ex- 
cludes the arcade. 
When a colonnade is 


~ ASS 


COLONIAL AR- 


carried along three or 


CHITECTURE. 


four sides of the ex- 


That of a colony, or 


terior of a building, 


colonies ; especially, 


or of a large court or 


in American use, that 


garden, it is called a 


which prevailed in 


peristyle. When at- 


the British  settle- 


tached to a building 


to which it serves as 


ments in America 


previous to 1776, 
and by extension, and [{{a.- 0% 
because the style 
cannot be dis- 
tinctly separated 
into chronological 
periods, as late 
as the beginning of the present century. It 
is a modification of the English Georgian 
style, and deserves some part of the attention 
which it has received because of the singular 
639 


ey 


COLOMBIER AT Boos (SEINE-INFERIEURE) ; CROSS-SECTION. 
(SEE PLAN.) 


entrance porch, it is 
called a portico ; and 
this meaning is 
often extended to 
roofed colonnades 
of any descrip- 
tion. Colonnades 
in Grecian architecture are peculiar in the 
placing of the corner column, as in the ex- 
teriors of Doric temples, at a smaller distance 
from the two neighbouring columns than the 
640 


q 
r 
-: 


ne a ee re 


wT 


COLONNE DE JUILLET 


other columns are from one another, this on 
account of the supposed need of greater effect 
of solidity at that point. The columns being 
all set somewhat out of the true vertical (see 


i Ry 
\\ NP, 
AN IN Wifes 


SUNS 
ASS 


J 
reall 


wl 
Latte Tes ea i 
qn wi ie 
SII mf 
Y al 
1) ‘ MN 


COLOMBIER ON A Farm AT Pouauss (NIEVRE) ; 
CROSS-SECTION, 


Refinements in Design), the corner column is 
put the most out of plumb. (For the dis- 
tances between columns in a colonnade, see 
Intercolumniation.) The Grecian and Greco- 
Roman builders did not employ coupled col- 
umns; but this modification was introduced 
soon after the revival of classical architecture 
in the fifteenth century, and some of the most 
important architectural effects of the last four 
centuries have been produced by this arrange- 
ment; such as the great colonnade of the 
Louvre, built in the reign of Louis XIV. 
—R. 8. 

COLONNE DE JUILLET. A memorial 
column in Paris, erected on, or near, the site 
of the Bastille. It was built in the reign of 
Louis Philippe. 

COLONNE VENDOME. A memorial col- 
umn in Paris, erected first by order of Napo- 
leon I., and originally crowned by a statue of 
the emperor in classical costume. ‘This statue 
was taken down under the Restoration, and 
was replaced under Louis Philippe by a statue 
of Napoleon in his military dress, replaced 
later by another studied from the original 
statue. The column was destroyed in 1871 

641 


COLUMN 


by the revolutionists of the Commune, but it 


was rebuilt in 1874 with the old material. 


COLOUR IN ARCHITECTURE. (See 
Polychromy.) 

COLUMBARIUM. In Roman architec- 
ture, a dovecote ; and hence, from the fancied 
resemblance in appearance : — 

A. A series of small niches in a sepulchre, 
to contain the cinerary urns with the ashes of 
the deceased. The urns were commonly sunken 
in the floor of the niche, disclosing only the 
top to view. 

B. In modern usage, a tomb or group of 
sepulchres provided with loculi or niches as 
above described, of which many examples exist 
in Rome, and not a few in other parts of Italy 
and near Naples. 

©. In recent times, a room or hall connected 
with a crematory and provided with niches to 
receive the cinerary urns. 

COLUMBHION. A fountain in the atrium 
or forecourt of a Christian basilican church ; 
its analogue is the fountain of ablutions in the 
courtyard of a Moslem mosque. 

COLUMELLA (pl. —2). A colonette ; the 
Latin diminutive. Used sometimes for a 
baluster. 

COLUMN. A. A pillar or post; a pier 
rather slender than thick and especially one that 


carries a weight and acts as an upright support- 
_ ing member. 
_ has been applied to the supporting parts of iron 
| frames of all sorts ; so that where the uprights 


In this general sense, the word 


of a piece of carpenter work would commonly 


i Ky 


a 
» is mm = ie te x AY iy 
Oe i ao h WS ; 
ALL Qe ’ ET EN 5 f 
elise iis Te a NE 
$f ais “i tT t eae ; cb aie: Sy ies auUy 1) 1G 
Ry Se 7 | Uda Snes 
Fag ieee 
HL PZ es Se oe ils as == 
te dy = Be ae ee 


COLOMBIER: PROVENCE AND LANGUEDOC; 
TyPpicAL ForRM. 


be called posts, the cast-iron or wrought-iron 
uprights are called columns. 
B. In special architectural sense, a support- 
ing member of stone or some material used in 
642 


- COLUMN 


close imitation of stone and composed of three 
parts, capital, shaft, and base ; the shaft, more- 
over, being either cylindrical or approximately 
so, —that is, a many-sided prism, or a reeded 
or fluted body whose general shape is cylin- 
drical. In this sense a column need not carry 
a weight at all large in proportion to its mass ; 
thus the decorative use of columns for memo- 
rial purposes involves the placing of a statue, a 
bust, a globe, a vase, or similar object slight in 
proportion to the column itself as the only weight 
superimposed up- 
on the capital. 
The term is 
stillemployed 
where some one of 


teristics does not 
exist ; thus, in the 
: earliest columnar 
eta y architecture,— 
| that of the Egyp- 


tians, — there 
is no base, and 


of the Greeks, 
namely those of 
the Doric order, 
were also with- 
out bases. Capi- 
tals are, however, 
universal, and are 
to be considered 
as mainly decora- 
tive in character. 
(See Capital. See 
also Colonnade ; 
Entablature ; Or- 
der; Shaft; and 
the names of the 
different classical 
orders, as well 
as the different 
styles of architec- 
ture. Forcolumns 
used for monu- 
mental purposes, 
see Memorial 


umnar structures 


: a Column.)—R. S. 
\OLUMN OF PAPYRUS-BUD YPE,; 
Tesiae raree (Cut, cols. 647, 
648.) 
Annulated Column. (See Annulated.) 
Attached Column. Same as Engaged 


Column. 
Banded Column. (See Banded.) 
Clustered Column. Same as Clustered Pier; 
the term “column” in this sense is not accurate. 
Commemorative Column. (See Mortuary 
Column below ; also Memorial.) 
Coupled Column. In plural, coupled col- 
umns; those set in a pair or in pairs. These 
643 


the above charac-. 


~~ COLUMN 
may be in a continuous colonnade, as a peristyle 
or portico, and the disposition is then called 
Areosystyle. (See Accouplement ; Intercolum- 
niation.) ; 

Engaged Column. (See under E.) 

Knotted Column. A column, the shaft of 
which is shaped to appear as if tied in a knot, or 
as if composed of two ropelike parts interlacing. 

Manubial Column. Properly, a column 
decorated with spoils of the enemy; hence a 
triumphal or memorial column of any kind. 

Memorial Column, (See under M.) 

Midwall Column. 
which carries a part of a wall much thicker 


CoLtumMN: ROMAN; FROM ToMB OF CAtIus-CESTIUS 
AT ROME. 


than its own diameter and which, therefore, 
stands about halfway between the face and the 
back of the wall, its axis being about the same 
as the axis of the wall. In some medieval 
styles, slender columns are seen carrying very 
thick walls which rest upon them, and this dis- 
position affects greatly the general design. 
Mortuary Column. Among the American 
Indians of the Northwest Coast, a wooden 
column, or two together, set up to support a 
box containing either the ashes or the body of 
the dead. Sometimes this column was elabo- 
rately carved. —F. 8. D. 
644 


A column or the like 


‘ =A > 4 . 
+e f= “a “ae ao 
ee a ee eee 


se 


f- 


A. The Columna 
Rostrata or pillar 
adorned with the 
beaks of ships, 
which stood in the 
Roman Forum, hav- 
ing been originally 
erected in commem- 
oration of the vic- 
tory of C. Duillius, 
260 B.c. Other me- 
morial and votive 
pillars of similar 
character were 
erected at different 
times, generally, as 
it appears, in com- 
memoration of 


~ naval victories. 


B. In modern 
usage, a pillar in 
which sculptured 
representations or 
suggestions of beaks 
of ships are used 
as decorative addi- 
tions ; 
erected either alone 
or in connection 
with other monu- 


mentsin recognition 


of naval prowess. 

 §Symbolical 
Column. A column 
used to support a 
representative fig- 
ure or emblem, as 


p COLUMN: 
_ Rostral Column. 


sometimes _ 


ae, 
4 
+ 


eet ot, 


ih & 
re 


Missa ne 


COLUMNA CAILATA 


cote tak 
4 


— A tf wth 


{¥ 
eA) 


As alg ied coal 
he Ap Ay hp ip ip — 


pat 
a 


CoLuMN: SyRIAN ROMANESQUE; PoRTICOES OF HovUsES 
NEAR SERDJILLA IN SYRIA. 


the columns of 8. Mark in Venice and other cities 
of the ancient Venetian dominion; or to com- 
Iemorate an event or person, as a rostral column, 
the column of Trajan, the column in the Place 


CoLumns: ITALIAN 
ROMANESQUE; OF 
S. ZENO, VERONA. 


Venddme in Paris, ete. 

Trinity Column. A 
monument of slender and 
shaftlike proportions built 
triangular in plan, for at 
least a part of its height, 
as a specially sacred me- 
morial. Several exist in 
Europe, but all of the sev- 
enteenth and _ eighteenth 
centuries, from which it ap- 
pears that the fashion is of 
late origin. 

Triumphal Column. 
Same as Manubial Column 
above. . 

Unbending Column, A 
column of which the diam- 
eter is of such proportion 
to its height, that, under 

645 


ships’ prows, in memory 
of a naval victory ; 
c. triumphalis, 


from which all distances 
measured. 


COLUMNA CZILATA. A 
column adorned by carving, said 
especially of one whose shaft is 
so adorned, as those of the tem- 


ple of Artemis at Ephesus. 


one shaft of which the sculp- 


ture is best known was 
adorned with probably 
eight figures of life size 
and larger; these are 
carved on the lowest 
drum of the shaft about 


9 feet high and 6 feet in Cotumn: 


diameter. This drum is 
in the British Museum. 
646 


a triumphal 
column like that of Trajan for 
his Dacian victories; c. milli- 
aria or milliarium aureum, 
marked the centre of Rome 


vertical pressure, it 
cannot be fractured 
transversely by any 
tendency to  lat- 
eral bending. This 
proportion of safety 
varies according to 
the material used, 
a column of iron or 
steel being much 
more slender for a 
given service than 
one of stone or 
marble, which finds 
its idea of stabil- 
ity in the propor- 
tions of the Greek 
orders. 

Wreathed Col- 
umn. A column so 
shaped as to present 
a twisted or spiral 
form. 

COLUMNA. In 
Latin, a column ; 
sometimes used in 
modern descrip- 
tions, In many cases . 
with a qualifying 
adjective to desig- 
nate special forms 
of column. Thus the 
columna rostrata 
was one adorned 
with effigies of 


were 


The 


FRENCH RkE- 
NAISSANCE; CEME- 
TERY OF §. MAcLou, 
ROUEN. 


COLUMNAR 


COLUMNAR. A. Having the character- 
istics or form of a column. 

B. Composed, or partly composed, of a 
column or columns ; having columns as the prin- 
cipal, or as a very important, element of a design 
or structure. 

COLUMNAR ARCHITECTURE. One in 
which free columns form 4 an important part 


pea 


[ 


ee = SS Nz: 
ed ge a yt 
eed : ay 
ae. AYN F Me a 
as LC , 
~ *{ q 


— 


f 


CoLtumns: ITALIAN ROMANESQUE; CLOISTERS, 
MONREALE, SICILY, c. 1187. 


of the structure and design. (For the architec- 
tural character and history of such styles of 
architecture, see Grecian Architecture ; Greco- 
Roman Architecture ; Greece, Architecture of ; 
Neoclassic Architecture ; Peristyle ; Portico.) 
Columnar architecture has been so much 
studied by architects and archeologists that 
its technical terms, especially those indicating 
important differences in the character of its 
647 


; columns can hardly be said to exist. 


COLUMNAR ARCHITECTURE 


manifestations, are in common use; and their 
right understanding is necessary to the com- 
prehension of much critical and historical writ- 
ing on matters connected with architecture. 
Thus, the spacing of the columns in a portico, 
as in the front of a temple or the like, is de- 
scribed by a number of terms, some really clas- 
sical in their origin, others of modern coinage, 
made to resemble, as much as possible, the an- 
cient ones. Thus, for porticos of two columns, 
see Distyle; Distyle in Antis. Those of three 
For those 
with four columns, see Tetrastyle. For those 
with five columns (a very rare arrangement), 
see Pentastyle. For those with six columns, 
see Hexastyle. For those with seven columns 
(also very rare), see Heptastyle. For those with 
eight columns, see Octastyle. For those with 
nine columns, see Enneastyle. For those with ten 
columns, see Decastyle. For those with twelve 
columns, see Dodecastyle. 

A building of any kind with columns ar- 
ranged along the front of it forming a portico 
open at the ends is said to be prostyle. One 
with such a portico at each end is said to be 
amphiprostyle. In this way, a building with 
an open portico of four columns at one end, 
and within that a closed portico with two col- 
umns between two wing walls and two ante, 
would be described briefly as follows: prostyle 
tetrastyle with pronaos distyle in antis. The 
temple of Nike Apteros at Athens may be de- 
scribed as amphiprostyle tetrastyle with pro- 
naos and opisthodomos distyle in antis. 

A building having columns all round is said 
to be peripteral, or peristylar ; and the term 
amphistylar (more common in scientific uses) 
may be applied to buildings having columns 
at each end (see Amphiprostyle, above) or on 
each side. One with two rows of columns all 
round is said to be dipteral. It is, therefore, 

not necessary to speak of the temple of 
Apollo Didymzeus at Miletos as perip- 
ce teral dipteral; the latter word alone 


LW, ne 7 ° . . . ° 
»— suffices for the description ; or, if it is 


SY" desired to state that it has ten columns 
abreast in the front, it might be spoken 
of as decastyle dipteral. The term mo- 
nipteral has been used for buildings which have 
no cella, or naos, or secos; but this seems an 
awkward term. It is probable that decastyle 
temples were generally dipteral, because the 
naos was not needed wider than in an octastyle 
building, and the additional space was more 
apt to be given to the external splendour and 
convenience of a portico. On the other hand, 
the space of a large portico might, with care 
and skilful building, be obtained without the 
necessity of a double row of columns. Pseudo- 
dipteral has been used to describe a temple 
which has a portico on each side wide enough 
to hold a double row of columns, but actually 
648 


COLUMNAR ARCHITECTURE COLUMNAR ARCHITECTURE 


containing only one such row. Some writers, | umns built into the wall of the naos. The 
however, use this term for the temple or the | term arzeosystyle has been invented to express 
portico where there is a semblance of an inner | the idea of that which is composed of coupled 


g row of columns ; namely, a row of engaged col- | columns ; thus, the great colonnade of the Louvre 
s is called arzeosystyle, by its columns being in 
r CLASSICAL, pales ; . 

. a: It is to be noticed that these terms ending 
‘ in -style are generally adjectives. They are, 
; | ej | however, often used 

; Dp TARR PR ee FP sec teasthewsl- substantively sO 

; : g SER a ie: 7 

g a | that it is not sur- 

: 4 pin fr ae at prising to see the 

. A OTIS IRIS? =oveee so-called Basilica 

4 fis spoken of more ac- 

a Sed Fain. curately as the oe oree 

a “enneastyle at Qozumnar ARCHITECTURE: 
g ai Peestum.” On this AMPHIPROSTYLE TEM- 
s account, the alter- PLE; EACH PorTIco Dis- 
% BORE TYLE IN ANTIS. 

Q Neck Moulding. nate form ending in 

2 -stylar is sometimes used adjectively, and this 
: is peculiarly necessary in the case of peristyle, 
$ which is so commonly used as a noun that. 
o peristylar must needs be employed as an adjec- 
7 tive to qualify a building so disposed or so 


decorated. (See Peristyle ; see also Peripteral 
and Dipteral.) 

Buildings having the above characteristics 
are named by Vitruvius as follows: A hexastyle 
building is called hexastylos ; an octastyle build- 
ing, octastylos ; a decastyle building, decastylos ; 
a peristyle building, peristylos ; an amphipro- 
style building, amphiprostylos. In. imitation. 
of these words the modern terms, pentastylos 
and enneastylos, have been introduced for pen- 


> Base Mouldings, 
“Plinth, 

COLUMNAR ARCHITECTURE : SO-CALLED TEMPLE OF 
THESEUS, ATHENS; 5TH CENTURY B.C. 


—— Hexastyle peripteral temple ; pronaos and epinaos, each distyle 
— ee in antis. 


§ub-plinth. 


tastyle and enneastyle buildings, and others, such 
as heptastylos, may exist. Vitruvius also calls 
a dipteral building dipteros ; a pseudo-dipteral 
building, pseudo-dipteros ; a peripteral build- 
ing, peripteros; and he uses the term hype- 
thros for a decastyle building of peculiar 

Sa eree character. (See Hypzethral.) 
+ (For the terms used in describing the spac- 
ing of columns, namely, Arzostyle, Arzosys- 
tyle, Diastyle, Eustyle, Picnostyle, Systyle, 
see Intercolumniation.) (Cuts, cols. 651, 652.) 
See bibliographies under Grecian; Greco-Ro- 


COLUMNAR ARCHITECTURE: COMPOSITE ORDER; man ; Neoclassic; Order; Roman Imperial; also 
NOMENCLATURE OF MEMBERS. under Architecture. — R. S. 


649 650 


PEDESTAL. 


Plinth. 


COLUMNA ROSTRATA 


COLUMNA ROSTRATA. Same as Ros- 
tral Column, A (which see under Column). 

COLUMNIATION. The employment or 
setting of columns, or the system or method of 
arranging them. 

COLUMN OF ANTONINUS PIUS. A 
memorial column which stood in Rome not far 


Y 


ce 

Tt i 
Ee 6B 
‘ge a an 
— 
r 
ia 


= 


aS 


SY 
Sa wae Ma est ES Se 
es a ee a * 


ar 
SERRE Se 


| 


i 
penn 
iercoeees 


EL 
aS 
ay 
Bua 


[ee 
Jat J. 


SIRES 


: or. 3 nh eae Be: ae, 


COLUMN OF PHOCAS- 


COLUMN OF DIOCLETIAN. 
andria ; same as Column of Pompey. 

COLUMN OF JULY. (See Colonne de 
Juillet.) 

COLUMN OF MARCUS AURELIUS. 
Erected about 176 a.p. in honour of the em- 
peror who had finished the war with the Ger- 


oie 
BERREEP AER EA 
x Sa MK OOK ED 


mi Ak A A, 
ESr 
Jat 


SEcesecesesseittt 
f- -~- -f [- 4---+ J - +--+ 3 |. -|—-4- J =o 
hed Fetiwtiete 


HH 
Rae 


ae 
Lt 
la 


ednee tJ 
e160. eee ar De. 


CoLUMNAR ARCHITECTURE: OCTASTYLE PERIPTERAL TEMPLE (PARTHENON AT ATHENS). 


Two hexastyle porticoes within ; BpInaok (to left), hypostyle with four columns. Larger division of naos thought by some to 
have been partly hypethral. 


from the existing column of Marcus Aurelius. 
It had a granite shaft about 50 feet high, which 
has been destroyed ; but the marble pedestal, 
decorated with reliefs, is in the Giardino della 
Pigna, in the Vatican. 

COLUMN OF CUSSI. A few miles south- 
west of Beaune (Cote d’Or) in Burgundy ; of 


mans and Sarmatians, and which was copied 
closely from the column of Trajan. It stands 
in Rome in a square which opens out of the 
Corso. 

COLUMN OF MENANDROS. At Melassa 
in Asia Minor, among the ruins of the ancient 
Mylassa ; a column of the Corinthian order. 


CoLUMNAR ARCHITECTURE: OCTASTYLE PERIPTERAL TEMPLE AT BAALBEK IN SYRIA; THE ENTRANCE 
Portico DIPTERAL. 


The shafts of the outer peristyle are smooth ; the eight shafts within are fluted and form a pronaos with its own entablature. 


Roman epoch. It has still standing a pedestal 
in two stories and a part of the shaft. The 
capital is also in existence, having been found 
serving, with the centre hollowed out, as a well 
curb ; a destination which reminds one of many 
of the cistern heads of Venice. (See Vera da 
Pozzo ; Memorial Column.) 
651 


COLUMN OF PHOCAS. An antique col-. 


umn of Rome, and bearing a dedication to the 
Byzantine Emperor Phocas (602 to 610). It is 
thought by archeologists that the column be- 
longs to an earlier time, and was either taken 
from a large ancient building, or had previously 
been dedicated to another person. 

652 


In Alex- 


es ae eS 


eo 


COLUMN OF POMPEY 


COLUMN OF POMPEY. In Alexandria, 
Egypt ; erected under the direction of a Roman 
prefect, named Pompeius, in honour of the Em- 
peror Diocletian. As it now stands it is 104 
feet to the top of the Corinthian capital. 

COLUMN OF TRAJAN. Erected by the 
Senate in honour of the emperor ; built during, 
or immediately after, the reign of Trajan in con- 
nection with the gigantic forum, basilica, and 
temple which are all dedicated to that emperor. 
The column served as a model for that of An- 
toninus and for some modern works of the kind. 


It is in all 128 feet high without counting the. 


statue, and originally occupied the centre of a 
court of relatively small size, apparently intended 
to allow the figure sculptures which covered the 
shaft to be seen and studied from the galleries 
around it. It is composed of large blocks of 
marble, and a spiral flight of steps goes to the 
top. The reliefs commemorate the wars and 
triumphs of Trajan. 


COLUMN VENDOME. (See Colonne de 


_ Vendéme.) 


COLYN, JACOB; sculptor; d. 1601. 

The most celebrated work of the sculptor 
Colyn is the fireplace of the Rathhaus at 
Kampen, Holland (1543-1545). He appears 
first in Utrecht in the accounts of the Buurtkerk 
(1544-1545). In 1580 he made the monument 
of the Archbishop Frederik Schenk van Touten- 
berg, and in 1585 the monument to Govert van 
Reede in the church of the village of Amerongen, 
Holland. 


Galland, Holldndische Baukunst und Bildnerei. 


COMA, PEDRO. (See Pedro de Coma or 
Cescomes. ) 

COMACINE. (See Guild.) 

COMBINATION ROOM. In English uni- 
versities, a room serving the same purpose as 
common room; in a general way the charac- 
teristic of Cambridge University, as common 
room is of Oxford. 

COMBING. Same as Coaming. 

COMINELLI, ANDREA ; architect. 

Cominelli built between 1720 and 1750 the 
Palazzo Labia in Venice, famous for its frescoes 
by G. B. Tiepolo (see Tiepolo, G. B.). One of 
the most important palaces on the Canal Grande. 

Gurlitt, Geschichte des Barockstiles in Italien. 


COMITIUM. In Roman archeology, the 
meeting place of the original tribunes of Rome, 
and afterward the centre of legal authority. 
It appears to have been an open place, perhaps 
a part of the Forum, but its location is not 
accurately known. 

COMMACINE. (See Guild.) 

COMMAND (v.). To contain within itself 
the only or the principal passage to another 
room or set of rooms ; said of a room other than 
a corridor or hall. In many ancient dwellings 
even of importance the rooms commanded one 

653 


COMMON ROOM 


| another ; that is to say, there were no arrange- 


ments made for separate entrances to all; as 
when each room in one wing of a country house 
filled the whole width of it with windows on 
either side. 

COMMANDERY. A building used by one 
of the military orders, such as the Templars, as 
the place of meeting and of the central control 
of a district. There were many such buildings 
in Europe as well as in the East, but they were 
usually of small importance. Some few, how- 
ever, were strongly fortified and were formidable 
as places of defence. (Compare Preceptory.) 

COMMESSO (Opera di). A kind of marble 
mosaic practised in Italy during the Middle Ages 
resembling opus Alexandrinum in the geo- 
metrical character of its design, and opus sectile 
in that each piece was cut to a particular shape 
fitting into those next it. The pavement of the 
baptistery at Florence is an example. Pictorial 
inlay, as in the floor of the Duomo at Siena, 
and Florentine picture mosaic, were later de- 
velopments of the art. 

COMMISSION. <A. The sum paid an 
architect for his professional services, usually 
reckoned by a percentage on the cost of the 
work. The amount fixed by common consent 
in the countries of Western Europe and in the 
United States is 5 per cent for all buildings 
of a not unusual character; but buildings of 
very small cost or of great elaborateness require 
a larger allowance; and again a smaller com- 
mission is calculated on very costly structures. 
In like manner it used to be customary to charge 
3 per cent for ‘ stores,” that is to say, large 
plain buildings for business purposes with but 
little architectural detail and no difficult problems 
involved in their structure. 

B. Payment received by an architect from 
any person other than his regular employer. 
This is generally condemned by the profession 
and by persons employing architects ; because, if 
the architect receives payment from a contractor 
and the seller of a certain building, mill, or the 
like, he is apt to be, to a certain extent, secured 
for the interests of that person, and is less free 
to superintend thoroughly and enforce his deci- 
sions boldly. 

COMMITTEE ROOM. A room especially 
provided for the meetings of a committee or 
committees. Such rooms are necessary in all 
legislative buildings, and in’ the buildings of 
organized bodies such as clubs, exchanges, and 
associations. They are usually of moderate size 
and somewhat retired from the more public por- 
tions of the building. In legislative buildings 
they should open from special lobbies or cor- 
ridors accessible only to members, and should 
be in convenient proximity to the legislative 
hall. 

COMMON ROOM. In an English college, 
a room which forms the place of gathering of 

654 


COMMUNAL DWELLING 


the fellows and others, who control the affairs 
of the college, and who generally live in its 
buildings. It is, however, the hall, and not the 
common room, which is used for dinner and 
usually for other meals. The term originating 
in Oxford is general now except in Cambridge. 
(See Combination Room.) 

COMMUNAL DWELLING. That occu- 
pied by two or more families In common; a 
joint tenement. Habitations of aboriginal 
Americans were generally communal, whether 
tipi, wigwam, iglu, or stone or adobe house. 
Environment largely determined the form and 
material; expedience and necessity, the situa- 
tion. In character and location remarkable 
variety existed, giving rise formerly to theories 
of distinctly different races in America, but 
variation in form, material, or in situation 
of dwellings does not necessarily imply race 
variation. The communal principle pervaded 
American constructions, no matter what their 
form or situation, and dwellings each occupied 
by several related families were everywhere 
grouped in more or less compact villages of 
considerable permanence. A tribe held together 
for security as well as for social and agricul- 
tural reasons. Farming was carried on by 
most tribes, those living in arid regions where 
game was scarce being more farmers than 
hunters. To accomplish best results, groups 
of related families combined their work and 
their living, and such a group was the basis of 
American Indian organization and the origin 
of their communal dwellings. Game secured 
and crops produced by members of a gens or 
clan, as this group has been called, were prop- 
erty of the whole gens or clan, not of individual 
members, and the gens or clan. assumed care 


and distribution of such property. Defence 


and subsistence thus dictated organization and 
also the character and position of dwellings. 
Forest regions supplied bark houses, but arid 
districts compelled a reliance on the soil for 
chief building materials, producing the mono- 
lithic or rock-excavated dwelling, the adobe 
house, and the stone house. Less willingly 
abandoned, these structures were comparatively 
permanent, and when finally deserted their 
ruins remained ; while of the bark houses and 
similar dwellings nothing indicates their former 
existence. Of the bark communal dwellings, 
that of the Iroquois was one of the best 
examples (see Long House); while of the more 
durable constructions of adobe and stone there 
are still to be seen numerous good examples 
now occupied by the Pueblo Indians of the 
southwestern United States, as well as others 
in ruins. 

(For details see, in this work, Casa Grande ; 
Casas Grandes ; Cavate Lodge ; Central America, 
Architecture of, Part I. ; Cliff Dwelling ; Iglu ; 
Iglugeak ; Mexico, Architecture of, Part I.; 

655 


- COMPASS 


Pueblo Houses; Tipi; Tupik; United States, 
Architecture of, Part I.) 

Morgan, Houses and House Life of the Ameri- 
can Aborigines; the writings of Dr. J. Walter 
Fewkes ; Professor Ad. Bandelier ; Mr. Victor Min- 
deleff, a paper in the Highth Annual Report of 
the United States Bureau of Ethnology ; and also 
other papers in this series of reports. 


—F. 8. DELLENBAUGH. 


COMMUNION TABLE. A table for the 
Lord’s Supper, introduced by the Protestant 
Reformers as a substitute for an altar, and to 
mark their protest against the doctrine of 
transubstantiation inculcated in the Sacrifice 
of the Mass. At first it was nothing more 
than a board set on trestles, and this was often 
taken apart and placed on one side when not in. 
use ; later it took the form of a domestic table. 
Its place in the church varies among the differ- 
ent sects, but usually it is placed against the 
east wall or in front of the pulpit, and some- 
times it is elevated one, two, or more steps 
above the floor. (See Altar.) —C. C. 

COMPARTMENT CHILING. A ceiling 
divided into compartments or panels separated 
by mouldings or ribs; particularly one in which 
the compartments or panels are not all uni- 
form rectangles. (See Caisson, II.) The earliest 
were those of the Romans, some vaulted, some. 
flat. They are almost innumerable in Renais- 
sance architecture. 

COMPASS (I.) (generally in the plural, 
Compasses). -d. An instrument used in draw- 
ing and in the building trades for laying off, 
dividing, or measuring distances and for describ- 
ing circles or arcs of circles. A pair of com- 
passes of the ordinary type consists of two legs 
pivoted together at one end, and either pointed 
at the other (see Dividers) or provided with 
fixed or removable pencil, pen, and needle 
points for describing circles. For draughtsmen 
they are usually finely made of metal and 
commonly with steel points. Carpenters’ and 
masons’ compasses are much heavier, of steel 
or wood, and generally with an arc and thumb- 
screw for securing the legs at any angle. 

B. (For Compass as used in surveys, see 
Surveying.) 

Bar Compass. A. A compass of which one 
leg can be lengthened by inserting a piece with 
sockets and screws between the joint and the 
point, for the purpose of drawing a circle or are 
with larger radius. 

B. Same as Beam Compass below. 

Beam Compass. One for describing circles 
larger than are practicable with the ordinary 
jointed compass. The two legs of the compass 
are secured by clamped slides to a long, light, 
and rigid beam or bar of wood or metal. In 
the finer instruments, this is provided with a 
scale and the slides with verniers for accurate 
adjustment. 

656 © 


COMPASS 


Bow-Compass ; Bowspring Compasses. 
Small compasses having the legs held by a 
strong spring instead of a pivot, and adjustable 
to any span by a fine screw which compresses 
the spring. They are used for minute work 
for which ordinary compasses are too coarse or 
heavy. A complete set comprises bow-dividers 
or spacers, bow-pen, and bow-pencil. 

Three-point or Triangular Compasses. 
Those having three legs by which three points 
can be laid off at once. 

COMPASS (II.) (adjectival term; the 
noun used attributively). Having, in part, a 
circular form or outline; as compass-headed 
roof, one whose inner surface is that of a 
circular semicylinder, or nearly so; compass 
brick, a brick having one side shaped to a cir- 
cular arc, as for building a curved wall. 
COMPENSATION (of architects). (See 


- Commission.) 


COMPETITION. In architectural practice, 
the submitting by different architects of designs 
for one and the same building, in order that 
the person or association proposing to build 
shall choose from among them. Architects 
regard competitions in very different ways, and 
with different degrees of disapproval. The 
difference of opinion is radical between those 
who think that the proper outcome of a compe- 
tition should be the choice of a design to be 
carried out with but slight changes in actual 
execution, and those who think that the proper 
result is always the choice of an architect. It 
is said with some foree by those of the latter 
way of thinking that in this case a competition 
is rather an absurdity ; because, in most cases, 
an architect is better judged by his previously 
executed work than he can be by one design. 
The answer to this is merely that the problem 
involved in a competition will be judged of 
differently by different architects, and that it is 
well to ascertain which of the architects com- 
peting approaches the problem from the point 
of view agreeable to the employer. On the 
other hand, those who think that a design 
should be selected as the result of a competition 
are met by the answer that it very commonly 
happens that the design executed is widely 
different, and that even in its very essence, 
from the design accepted in the competition. 

The whole matter of employing professional 
men in this way is, of course, abnormal and to 
be deprecated. The architect, like other pro- 
fessional advisers, should be called in at the 
very commencement of the work, and his opin- 
ion is as much needed in the choice of the site 
and the first formation of the owner’s ideas as to 
what is needed for his building, as it is in the 
preparation of working drawings. 

The terms under which competitions are con- 
ducted differ so very widely, and opinions about 
these terms and regulations are so very diverse, 

657 


COMPOSITE ORDER 


that they must be looked for in the columns of 
periodicals. Even during the past ten years, 
and in the United States alone, the contribu- 
tions and communications printed in the differ- 
ent architectural journals would fill a large 
volume. — R. 8. 

COMPLUVIUM. The opening in the roof 
of a court, atrium, or caveedium of a Roman 
house. -The roof sloped toward the com- 
pluvium from the surrounding walls, discharg- 
ing its rain water into the impluvium (tank or 
reservoir) in the court beneath it. (See Cave- 
dium.) 

COMPO. A colloquial trade abbreviation 
of the word composition, applied to various 
plastic cements or pastes which harden on 
exposure, like papier-maché and similar sub- 
stances. 

COMPONENT. In mechanics, one of two or 
more forces which make up the force with which 
the constructor is concerned ; or into which that 
force may be considered as being divided. Thus, 
in estimating the force of wind against a sloping 
roof, that force may be considered as resolved 
into two components, viz. one acting normal to 
the roof and producing a transverse stress 
on the rafters, the other acting in the direction 
of the slope and tending to overturn the roof. 
(See Parallelogram of Forces.) 

COMPOSITE. Composed or compounded 
of a number of elements, especially somewhat 
diverse elements, 
united or har- 
monized into a 
congruous whole ; 
used chiefly of 
artistic design, 
the corresponding 
term compound 
being employed 
in structural sci- 
ence. Thus we 
say a composite 
capital, a com- 
pound truss. But composite is sometimes used 
in structural nomenclature with reference to the 
union of divers materials, as timber and iron, in 
one construction. (Cut, cols. 659, 660.) 

COMPOSITE ORDER. One of the five 
orders recognized by the neoclassic architects 
and described by the writers of the sixteenth 
century. In its original form it is a classical 
Roman adaptation of the Corinthian order ; one 
of very many modifications which that order 
received to make it still richer and more elabo- 
rate, especially in the ornamentation of the capi- 
tals. As described by the sixteenth century 
writers, the capital consists of volutes and ovolo 
between them, borrowed, with modifications, 
from the Ionic capital; and of the circle of 
acanthus leaves applied to the lower part of the 
bell as used in the Corinthian capital. (See 

658 


CoMPOSITE: EARLIEST USE OF 
Ir IN ARCH OF TITUS. 


COMPOSITION 


Greco-Roman Architecture ; Neoclassic Archi- 
tecture ; Order.) — R. 8. 

COMPOSITION (I.). A. In fine art, the 
act of arranging parts in a design; the term 
being equally applicable to colour taken by 
itself, or to line taken by itself, or to masses of 
light and shade, or to all the elements of the 
work of art considered as making up the general 
result. Also, the act of making such arrange- 
ments in design. . 

B. <A design, considered as the result of 
several or many parts or elements combined 
into one. (Cut, cols. 661, 662.) 

(For both these meanings see Design.) 


COMPOSITE CAPITAL IN LATERAN MusrEuUM AT ROME. 


COMPOSITION (II.). A material made up 
artificially and used in modelling decorative 
friezes, centrepieces, and the like; a general 
term used for plastic material of unknown or 
unspecified make. 

COMPOSITION OF FORCES. (See Paral- 
lelogram of Forces.) 

COMPRESSION MEMBER; PIECE. In 
a framework, truss, or the like, a Brace, a Post, 
or a Strut, which are the more specific terms 
for pieces calculated to resist strains of com- 
pression in the direction of their length. The 
term is not usually understood as applying to a 
piece of material which merely sustains a weight 
through its resistance to crushing, as a template. 

659 


CONCRETE 
CONCALLI. In Aztec building, a store- 
house. (See Calli.) 


CONCERT HALL. A room especially in- 


tended for musical performances in public, and 
consisting of a stage or platform for the per- 
formers and singers, as well as instrumental 
musicians, and an auditorium which may be 


fitted with permanent seats or left unincum- 


bered for the purposes of occasional use for 
dances and the like, the seats being movable. 
The size and character of such a room varies 
from the small recitation hall intended for a 
few performers and two or three hundred per- 


sons in the audience, as the upper room of a 


village or town hall, to a hall 
seating several thousands of 
persons, and allowing of a 
large orchestra and chorus con- 
sisting of many hundreds of 
performers. (See Acoustics ; 
Auditorium; Theatre; and 
for the conditions governing 
the transmission of sound in 
such a room, see Music Hall.) 

CONCH. A concave mem- 
ber ; a half-cupola or a part 
usually less than half of a 
sphere. The term is less fre- 
quently applied to the semi- 
dome of an apse, and more 
frequently to the head of a 
niche or of a trompe or to a 
pendentive. 

CONCIERGERIE. A. In 
French, the office or rooms of 
the concierge ; that is to say, 
of the janitor or custodian of 
a large and important building. 

B. <A prison, attached to 
the Palais de Justice in Paris, 
and which has been celebrated 
in connection with different 
tragedies of past history, the 
most celebrated being the mas- 
sacre of prisoners during the 
early weeks of the French 
Revolution. 

CONCOURS. In French, a competitive 
contest of any kind, as a competition among 
architects, or an examination of students con- 
ducted by means of drawings, designs, or the 


like, which the students make unaided and — 


which are judged by comparison with one 
another. Used in English, especially in th 
latter sense. 
CONCRETE. A building material made 
by mixing small fragments of hard material 
with mortar, so as to form a kind of artificial 
stone. There are different ways of mixing, and 
also of applying it ; thus, in good work, granite, 
trap rock, or other hard stone is broken into 
pieces with a given limit of size, as when it is 
660 


4 


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ee Le ee ee Pe ee ee ee ee 


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te SET, 
Ba 


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COMPOSITION: HOUSE OF JACQUES CGiUR, BOURGES; ELEVATION OF FRONT NEXT THE 
STREET. 


661 662 


CONDITIVUM 


specified that every fragment shall pass through 
a ring of 2 inches inside diameter [but this 
precaution is often very improperly dispensed 
with]. So in putting the concrete into place ; 
it is sometimes mixed on the spot, shovelled 
into place, rammed, and left to harden; but 
formerly many English engineers have required 
that it should be thrown from a height into the 
trench or box which is to receive it, a defec- 
tive method generally abandoned. Concrete 
may be made in solid blocks, being rammed in 
a mould; and these may be used to build with 
even in the form of lintels, as, if made of good 
materials, it is capable of enduring a consider- 
able transverse strain. It is most commonly 
used in the way of foundations by filling up 
trenches in the ground and so forming a level 
and permanent bed for the mason work above. 
Even in foundations laid upon solid rock, great 
use is made of concrete, by means of which the 
irregular broken surface left from the blasting 
or the pickaxe can be smoothed to a perfectly 
uniform bed capable of receiving the most care- 
fully laid walling. (See Béton.)— R. 8. 


The concrete of to-day is made of broken 
stone or gravel, usually not more than 24 inches 
in any dimension, with a mortar the composi- 
tion of which varies with the purpose of the 
work. If the natural light-burned cements are 
used in concrete for foundations not under water, 
and for the backing or hearting of heavy walls, 
two parts of sand to one of cement and five 
parts of broken stone and gravel is sufficient. 
For subaqueous work, for foundations, for walls 
much exposed to the weather, Portland cement 
only should be used, which will bear more sand 
and consequently more of the hard material ; 
two and a half to three parts of sand may be 
mixed with one part of cement and five or six 
parts of broken stone and gravel. They are 
mixed preferably by machinery; if mixed by 
hand, the mortar is spread upon a solid bed, the 
stone or gravel placed upon it, and the whole 
turned over until each stone is coated with 
mortar. It is then transported to its place in 
the work, levelled in layers of 6 to 8 inches, 
and rammed until the fluid mortar appears upon 
the surface. The finer kinds of concrete, made 
with very small materials carefully mixed and 
moulded, may be classed as artificial stone. 

—W. R. Hutton. 

CONDITIVUM; CONDITORIUM. A 
Roman subterranean sepulchre for entire bodies 
in sarcophagi. 

CONDUCTOR. In architecture, any ma- 
terial or device for the conveyance of a fluid or 
for the transmission of some form of energy, as 
heat, electricity. Specifically : — 

A. A lightning conductor; any rod, wire, or 
the like serving the purpose of a lightning rod. 

B. A pipe, generally vertical, for conveying 

663 


CONRAD 
rain water falling upon roofs to the ground, or 
into a drain. Usually called a leader. 

— W. P. G. 

CONDUIT. A. A channel or pipe for con- 
veying water or other fluids. 

B. A passage, underground or otherwise 
concealed, for secret communication. 

C. A tube for protecting electric wires. 
(See Electrical Appliances. ) 

CONFESSIONAL. The placein the church 
where a priest sits to hear the private con- 
fessions of the faithful. In England anciently 


called the ‘‘ shriving-seat,” and before which the | 


penitent knelt confessing in open church to the 
seated confessor, a custom still in use among 
the Greeks. In Western Christendom, in the 
sixteenth century, boxed confessionals were in- 
troduced and placed in a conspicuous part of 
the church, but this did not become general 
until the following century. There are now 
two forms in use: one a combination of a kneel- 
ing stool and a seat, separated from each other 
by an open screen; the other and more usual 
form is a box of three compartments —the 
central one is the seat of the priest, the others 
are the kneeling places for the penitents, and 
are divided from the central division by parti- 
tions in which there is a small window with a 
grating and shutter; the central compartment is 
provided with a door, as are often the side ones. 
The confessional is commonly placed against the 
wall of the church, or in a recess made to receive 
it, but always in plain sight of the congregation. 
S. Carol, Borrom. Instr. fabr., eccles. lib. I, 
c. XXIII; Mallet, D’ Archéologie Religieuse, Vol. 
Il. (Paris, 1887). 
— CaRYL COLEMAN. 
CONGE; CONGEE. A quarter round con- 
cave moulding, tangent to a vertical’surface and 
succeeded by a fillet parallel to that surface. 
(See Apophyge for the congé applied to a shaft.) 
CONGLOMERATE. Any rock made up 
of rounded pebbles, like a consolidated gravel, 
differing from sandstone only in the size of its 
particles. Siliceous conglomerates are some- 
times used for building, and calcareous conglom- 
erates for marbles. —G. P. M. 
CONGRESSIONAL LIBRARY. (More 


properly, Library of Congress.) In Washington, 


D.C. A large building completed in 1897 for 
the library which had formerly been arranged in 
the Capitol. The architects were John L. 
Smithmeyer and Paul J. Pelz, and after 1892 
Edward Pearce Casey was put in charge of the 
decorations, including the sculpture and mural 
paintings. These are peculiarly important ; the 
building is much more richly adorned in these 
respects than any other existing in the United 
States. 

CONRAD, prior of Canterbury. 

S. Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, is said 
to have spent nearly all his revenues in rebuild- 

664 


ee ee ee ee ee ee ee 


a 


x i a ee i 


» ita A ei a ere eS 
2 ne eee . 
: . 


CONSERVATORY 


ing and decorating the choir of Canterbury 
Cathedral. The superintendents of the work 
were the priors Ernulf and afterward Conrad. 
The “glorious choir of Conrad” is described by 
Gervase (see Gervase), quoted by Willis (op. 
cit.). This choir was burned in 1174. 

Britton, Cathedral Antiquities ; Willis, Canter- 
bury Cathedral. 

CONSERVATORY. Jd. A public building 
devoted to the cultivation of, and instruction in, 
any branch of art or science, especially the fine 
arts ; as a conservatory of music. 

B. A building devoted to the preservation 
and cultivation of delicate plants; a greenhouse. 
Common usage seems to justify the application 
of this word specifically to a glass house for 
plants attached to a mansion. (See Green- 
house. ) 

CONSOLE. A projecting, scroll-shaped mem- 
ber, usually understood as being a variety of 


CONSOLE: CATHEDRAL OF Como, LOMBARDY, 
ITALY. 


corbel or bracket ; but having always parallel, 
nearly plane sides. It is commonly altogether 
decorative in its purpose, as ascroll-shaped figure 
used to support a window head, a table top, or 
the like. The definition is generally taken as a 
bracket which has a height at least twice as 
great as its projection ; and the term cantilever 
or modillion is supposed to be more appropriate 
for a bracket or corbel which projects more in 
proportion. But these definitions are all vague ; 
‘and the console is usually an ornamental bracket 
whose sides are parallel and with those sides 
ornamented with scrolls. (See French term 
corbeau, under Corbel.) The term is also 
extended, sometimes, to mean a similar scroll- 
shaped member having its greatest horizontal 
dimension at the bottom, as if a reversed bracket, 
such as is commonly used to form a spreading 
665 


CONSTRUCTION 


base of a chambranle of classic type, or to form 
a buttress. (See Ancon ; Modillion.) 

CONSTANT DIVRY. (See Contant 
d’Ivry.) 

CONSTRUCTION. A. The manner in 
which anything is composed or put together. 

B. The act and the art of putting parts 
together to produce a whole. 

C. (With the article) a completed piece of 
work of a somewhat elaborate kind ; especially 
a building in the ordinary sense. 

The art of construction is primarily a matter 
of empirical practice, a body of simple devices 
handed down by tradition and practised by each 
builder nearly as he has been taught in his 
apprentice days. A great deal of scientific 
investigation has been given, especially during 
the present century, to the principles of con- 
struction ; and the result is a science of arched 
construction, a science of post and tie construc- 
tion, a science of framing based on the combi- 
nation of rigid triangles, a scientific treatment 
of each separate branch of the builder’s art. 
These, though often used unconsciously by the 
practised builder, are still scientific in their 
nature, and they must always hereafter exercise 
control over all but the simplest processes of 
building. Thus, one may still build a wooden 
frame house, or span a river by a small bridge, 
without any knowledge of the science of con- 
struction; but in the future no builder will dare 
undertake a larger and more important task 
without a profound study of the scientific prin- 
ciples which control his work, or, in default of 
that, the assistance of a man of science, that is 


.to say, of an engineer. 


The most elaborately organized construction 
of past times is that of the Gothic churches of 
the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, espe- 
cially in central France and in the countries 
which take their inspiration directly from 
France; it is extremely difficult to ascertain 
how much truly scientific knowledge or study 
went to these structures, because, while mathe- 
matics was but little advanced in Europe, there 
was still a profound knowledge of the way in 
which different materials should be used, and 
this knowledge can hardly fail to have been 
pursued in a way which can be called scientific. 
The exact equilibrium of forces themselves in 
the elastic construction of Gothic vaults with 
their system of action and reaction, the taking 
up of one thrust by another, and the final 
throwing of all the thrusts of the structure upon 
flying buttresses, and the heavy buttress piers 
outside of the building, would seem to have 
required something more than mere rule of 
thumb for its universally successful application. 
Science, however, in the modern sense, cannot 
be said to have existed among a race of builders 
who had not yet begun to use the Arabic 
numerals, to whom geometry was unknown 

666 


CONTANT 


except as to the properties of one or two sim- 
ple figures, and who cannot have undertaken the 
most simple solution by means of trigonometry ; 
to whom also the practice of experiment ac- 
curately observed and its result accurately 
recorded can hardly have been known. 

Construction carries with it, and includes, 
the preparation and transportation of materials ; 
and this art as practised by the Egyptians, 
the Greeks, and the Greco-Roman builders of 
Syria, has always excited the wonder of modern 
students. (See Transportation.) 

(For construction in the proper sense, see 
Tron and Steel Construction; Masonry; Vault ; 
Wood, Construction in; also Arch; Beam ; 
Excavation ; Foundation ; Girder.) — R. 8. 

CONTANT, (CONSTANT) D’IVRY, 
PIERRE ; architect; b. 1698; d. 1777. 

Contant was born at Ivry-sur-Seine, near 
Paris. He was a pupil of the architect Nicolas 
Dulin and became a member of the Académie 
de l Architecture in 1728. He was appointed 
architecte du rot, contrdleur de l Hétel des 
Invalides and premier architecte of the Duke 
of Orléans. April 3, 1764, he commenced the 
parish church of the Madeleine, Paris. His 
design bore no resemblance to the present 
structure. (For transformations of the Made- 
leine, see Couture, G. M., and Vignon, B.) 
Contant made extensive additions to the Palais 
Royal (Paris). 

Lance ; Dictionnaire ; Ch. Lucas in La Grande 
Encyclopédie. 

CONTINI, ANTONIO; architect. 

Contini was a nephew of Giovanni da Ponte 
(see Giovanni da Ponte). He built the Bridge 
of Sighs between the Doges’ palace and the 
prison in Venice. 

Miintz, Renaissance; Gurlitt, Geschichte des 
Barockstiles in Italien. 

CONTRACT. In the practice of architec- 
ture and building, an agreement between an 
owner or lessee who proposes to erect or alter 
a building, and a mechanic or an employer of 
mechanics for the completion of the building or 
of some part of it. Contracts are commonly 
made in England for the whole building, and 
the contractor employs his own masons, car- 
penters, roofers, and the like, having different 
gangs of workmen under different foremen. In 
the United States it has been rather more usual 
for the masonry to be put under contract by 
itself, the carpenter work by itself, etc. ; except 
that subcontracts are very common, as when the 
mason ‘‘sublets” the stone-cutting, and even 
the setting of the cut stone, or the excavation. 
Where an architect is employed it is usual for 
the contract to recognize his control over the 
work, and to provide that payment shall be 
made by the employer only on the certificate 
of the architect, who then acts as superin- 
tendent,. 

667 


* e 


CONTRACT 


The advantage of building by contract is that 


the employer knows in advance what his build- 
ing will cost. This is of such supreme impor- 
tance to most persons purposing to build— they 
being unaware of, or careless of, the difficulties. 
in the way of excellent work, either practical or 
artistic, under the contract system— that they 
insist upon the making of contracts or assume 
it as a matter of course. The disadvantages, 
however, are very great. They are caused by 
the difficulty and uncertainty connected with 
adding extra work which is not in the contract, 
and may briefly be summarized as follows : — 
(1) Practical requirements — especially the 
minor ones which are not, however, of slight. 
importance — are never all foreseen. Inasmuch 
as every building differs from every other, the 


experience of one building does not perfectly - 


meet the requirements of the next, and impor- 
tant details of plumbing, heating, ventilation, 
fittings, appurtenances, and the like are left out. 
of the original contract from sheer inability to 
call to mind the necessity of each detail at the 
right moment. If one visits a newly built. 
first-class house which is offered for sale, his. 
first impulse will be—noting the elaborate: 
care with which kitchen and laundry fittings 
have been supplied and placed, and the multi- 
plicity of minor conveniences in connection 
with plumbing, heating, and their appurtenances. 
—to say that this is not a house built from 
an architect’s design and therefore by contract. 
The day’s work system followed by the builder, 
who has put up this house at a venture for sale. 
to the first comer, has enabled him to put in 
these conveniences as the work went on. 

(2) Thoughtful and careful design can hardly 
be given to a building under contract because. 
the whole structure, in our time so elaborate 
in its primary composition and so multifarious 
in its details, has to be in the mind of the. 
designer in advance of the laying of the first 
stone, and because no man is competent to 
grasp such a vast problem. Every architect. 
who has built a large building by day’s work 
knows the great advantage which lies in the 
power to alter the minor details from time to: 
time as the work progresses : to make a work- 
ing drawing on the back of the board ; to visit 
his building to-day and on returning to the 
office make a drawing for a pillar, a niche, a 
dado, or the like, not in advance of the foun- 
dation, but after some familiar acquaintance. 
formed with the building in its main lines. 

(3) It is probable that there will be no 
great improvement in the artistic results of 
architects’ practice until the commission system. 
is done away with, and until architects are paid 


by salary, or by lump sum. This improvement. . 


can hardly be made, however, under the con- 

tract system. The two seem to _ belong 

together ; the architect, being recognized in the: 
668 


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CONTRACTOR. 


contract as an essential third party to that 


contract, is naturally paid by a percentage on 
the amount of money represented in the con- 
tract. 

These considerations seem so important to 
many of those who have strongly at heart a 
return of architectural practice to older and 
wiser methods, that it has grown to be a 
common opinion that the abolition of the con- 
tract system is the first step that should be 
taken. (See Builder; Estimating; Superin- 
tendent.) — R. 8. 

CONTRACTOR. One who enters into a 
contract ; especially, in building, the boss 
mechanic or master mechanic, who agrees to 
furnish materials and work for a piece of 
masonry, ironwork, or the like; and this accord- 
ing to a contract based upon the drawings and 
specifications of an architect or engineer. (See 
the discussion of the contractor’s place and duty 
under Superintendence. ) 

CONTRERAS, J OSE. 
Rafael.) 

CONTRERAS, DON MARIANO. (Sce 
Contreras, Rafael.) 

CONTRERAS, RAFAEL; architect; b. 
Sept. 23, 1824; d. March 29, 1890. 

His father, Don José Contreras, architect of 
the city of Granada (Spain), had charge of the 
Alhambra palace near Granada. Rafael suc- 
ceeded him, and Nov. 23, 1847, was commis- 
sioned to restore the palace. He has been 


(See Contreras, 


- succeeded by his son, Don Mariano Contreras. 


Rafael published Estudio descriptivo de los 
monumentos arabes de Granada, Sevilla y 
Cordoba, etc. (3d ed. 1885, 1 vol., 8vo); 
Recuerdos de la Dominacion de los Arabes 
en Espatia (1882), ete. 

Royal Institute of British Architects, Journal, 
Jan. 22, 1891, p. 141. 

CONTUCCI, ANDREA. (See Sansovino, 
Andrea. ) 

CONVENT. A. A religious community ; 
very often a nunnery as distinguished from a 
community of monks, but this restriction has 
no authority. 

B. A group of buildings occupied by or in- 
tended for such a community. (See Monastic 
Architecture. ) 

CONVENTUAL. Belonging to a convent, 
monastery, or nunnery, as a conventual church, 
conventual buildings ; of the style and character 
of a convent. The term monastic is preferable 
in referring to the architectural style of the 
period when monasticism was at its highest 
development, and, indeed, in speaking of the 
architectural style of conventual buildings. 

CONVENTUAL ARCHITECTURE. Same 
as Monastic Architecture. 

CONVERSATION ROOM. The general 
meeting and sitting room of a club house; 
generally the largest and most important room 

669 


LT 
a 


COPING 


and used for general social intercourse. Thus 
distinguished from other apartments of special 
purpose where conversation is usually restricted. 
(See Club House.) 

COOLEY, THOMAS ; architect ; b. 1740; 
d. 1784. 

Cooley won first premium for a design for the 
Royal Exchange, Dublin (Ireland), in 1769, and 
completed that building in 1779. He built 
several other public buildings in Dublin. 

Arch. Pub. Soc. Dictionary. 

cop. A. In the north of England the long 
mass of earth thrown up in excavating a ditch, 
sometimes left as a fence and sometimes planted 
at the top with a hedge; probably so called 
from its resemblance to a coping. 

B. In castellated battlements, any one of 
the solid portions between two embrasures ; a 
merlon (rare). 

COPE (v.int.). To overhang with a down- 
ward slope, as the soffit of a corona. Generally, 
cope over. 

COPE (v.t.). A. To cover or finish with 
a coping. 

B. To joim—as_ two intersecting, corre- 
spondingly moulded members — by shaping the 
end or butt of one piece to form a surface which 
shall be the reverse of, and fit closely against, the 
side of the other, so that the mouldings appear 
to mitre or return. Generally, with in or to- 
gether. Hence, to cut out or shape so as to 
cope. 

COPING. Material or a member used to 
form a capping or finish at the top of a wall, 
pier, or the like to protect it by throwing off 
the water on one or both sides. In some cases 
a level coping suffices, if of stones or tiles wider 
than the walls; usually it is formed with a 


AXA 


eo canal 

/ 7 
] 

iL Ee aimee 2 


CoPpING OF TERRA COTTA. 


pitch one way (see Feather Edge) or from the 
centre both ways (see Saddlebacked). The 
medieval architects gave great attention to their 
copings, especially on gable walls, which were 
commonly carried above the roof, and on balus- 
trades and parapets, finishing them usually with 
a roll or astragal on top, a slope each way, 
sometimes in steps, and a throating or grooving 
on the under edge where it projected beyond 
the wall. Wooden or metal copings are em- 
ployed over fences and in cheap construction. 
(For the many forms assumed by the coping in 
gables of the Elizabethan and related styles, see 
Gable; Fractable.) —R. S 
670 


COPING STONE 


Corpinc STONE OF A COMMON MEDI@HVAL TYPE. 


Parallel Coping. A coping which is not 
sloped on top to shed the water, but flat ; it 
should consequently only be used on inclined 
surfaces, such as gables, etc., or in places not 
exposed to the rain. (See Coping, above.) 

COPING STONE. 


TROL ES ES a 


COPTIC ARCHITECTURE 


generally of the basilican type, having wooden 
roofs and generally a division into nave and 
aisles with a transept near the east end or at 
least a transverse alley, passage, or nave which 
takes the place of a transept. Orientation, with 
the sanctuary at the east end and the principal 
entrance at the west, seems to have been the 
rule from the beginning. It was evidently the 
original scheme, in most cases, to provide a row 
of columns on three sides of the nave; that is 
to say, to build with an aisle crossing the west 
end of the church and connecting with the long 
aisles of the northern and southern sides. The 
columns were frequently taken from older build- 


A stone for forming a 


coping; a capstone. 


Also Copestone. 


COPTIC ARCHI- 
TECTURE. That of 
the Copts or natives of 


Egypt ; especially the 
native Christians of 
Egypt, considered as 
having very little for- 
eign blood and as 
being little influenced 
by the Mohammedan 
conquest or by artistic 
influences later than 
those of the Byzantine 
Empire. Many church 
buildings exist, scat- 
tered throughout 
Egypt ; in the towns, 
in the monasteries 


which remain undis- 
turbed, surrounded by 
high walls and tolerably safe from attack, and in 
lonely places on the edge of the desert, as in the 
celebrated Natrun valley lying in the desert west 

of Cairo. 


The earliest 
existing buildings are 


cHareLor § 
t ; - 
S'BUKTOR. 


i sa ra 
Z 


CHAPEL OF CHOIR 
\ A STGAGRIEL 


Fy 6 
fe) ATE 


wet =YANS gourT 
WITH SYYLIGHT 
OvER 


LECTERN 


MENS DIVISION PEE 


SCREEN 


M ANDARAH 
RECEPTION Rt 


TANK) 
WOMENS DIVISION 


-l- 


OPEN COURT PORCH 


4.7.2 GROUND PLAN 


CopTic CHURCH OF ABU-’s-SIFAIN, AND THE 
ADJOINING CHAPELS. 


671 


Coptic: Daik BABLON (IN THE FOREGROUND) AND DairR TADRUS (BEYOND), 
ENCLOSING EACH A CHURCH. 


ings. The wall above the columns was gener- 
ally carried on a horizontal lintel course, treated 
as an architrave; but sometimes a discharging 
arch was built above it. At a later time, when 
some change in the liturgical arrangements had 
taken place, the space between the columns at 
the west end, and continuously from north wall 
to south wall, was walled up so that a full 
narthex was formed. 

At an early time the barrel conte was intro- 
duced, and perhaps the earliest roofs of this 
form in Christian architecture are to be found 
in Egypt. The cupola, on the other hand, 
although Oriental in its origin, was unquestion- 
ably of later introduction into Egypt, and was 
indeed a direct loan from the Byzantine style. 
It argues great vitality in the Coptic architecture 
proper that, in the sixth century, it did not 
take over the Byzantine style in its complete- 
ness. This, however, it certainly did not ; 
the contrary the cruciform plan was always rare 
in Egypt; and in like manner a central and 
comparatively large cupola, dominating the 
whole church, is almost unknown. The decora- 

672 


; 


[ey Oe ee Ld 


a eye he eS ee 


Sy ee eae ee 


| hier Sa 


‘COQUEAU 


tion of the churches with marbles, mosaic, and 
sculptured capitals and slabs was probably rare 


a) SUE! | 


Cortic CONVENT Datr-As-SORIAM, AND NEIGH- 
BOURING CONVENT OF ANBA BIsHOI (IN THE 
BACKGROUND). 


in Egypt ; but painting in brilliant colours and 
with much gilding was the rule; and many 
traces of it remain. 

Towers are uncommon, probably because the 


use of bells is discouraged or even forbidden by 


the Mohammedan rulers of the land. On the 
other hand, it is stated by A. J. Butler that 
bell towers and even bells exist in the Natrun 


valley ; but these he states to be only two stories 


high, as a general thing, and it does not appear 
that they have architectural character. All parts 
of the buildings are covered, in most cases, with 
flat roofs of masonry, often having solid parapets. 

But little study has been given to these 
buildings, which are steadily disappearing. The 
studies of Alfred J. Butler, published in 1884 
under the title, The Ancient Coptic Churches 
of Egypt, serve as an introduction to the subject. 

See also Denon, Voyages dans la Basse et 
la Haute Egypte; and the great work of the 
French government, Description de l Egypte. 

—R.8. 

COQUEAU (COQUEREAU), JACQUES ; 
architect. 

Coqueau. probably came from Amboise 
(France). About 1538 he succeeded Pierre 
Nepveu (see Nepveu, P.) as maitre des cewvres 
of the chateaux of Chambord and Blois. He 
assumes this title in a letter written in 1541, 
which has been preserved. In 1556-1557 he 
was associated with Philibert de ’Orme (see 
De Orme, P.) in the inspection of the works 
at the bridge and gallery of the chateaux of 
Chenonceau. He probably continued the con- 
struction of the right es of the chateau of 
Blois begun under Francois I. 

Berty, La Renaissance Monumentale en France ; 
Storelli, Les Chateaux du Blaisois ; Chevalier, 

673 


CORBEL 


Archives royales de Chenonceau ; De la Saussaye, 
Chateau de Chambord ; Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 

COQUILLAGE. A representation or sug- 
gestion of the forms of seashells and the like, 
as in decorative carving. 

COQUINA. A shell limestone, but slightly 
consolidated. | Example, the shell limestone 
used in the construction of the old fortifications 
at Saint Augustine, Florida. —G. P. M. 

CORA (Kora). Literally a maiden; ap- 
plied by Greek authors to a draped female figure 
used in architecture. (Compare Canephora; 
Caryatid.) 

CORAL ROCK. A _ limestone composed 
mainly of coral fragments. —G. P. M. 

CORBEILLE. In French, a basket. Em- 
ployed in English in the eighteenth century to 
designate any basketlike architectural member, 
especially capitals resembling baskets either in 
form or decoration; now obsolete. (Written 
also corbeil and sometimes confused with 
corbel.) 

CORBEL. A bracket of that form which is 
best fitted to ordinary conditions of cut stone or 
of other masonry ; in French, 
the corresponding term cor- 
beau is limited to a bracket 
having, particularly, two 
opposite vertical sides, as 
distinguished from the cul 
de lampe, which has a gen- 
erally pyramidal or conical 
shape. In this limited sense 
a modillion is a corbel ; but 
the term ‘‘corbel” is used 
more commonly for mediz- CorsBeEt In Broap- 
val and outlying styles of  W'"ER SEMESTER 
architecture. rs 

In English books the term has a special ap- 
plication to those wall brackets of many forms 


CoORBEL AT KIRKSTALL ABBEY, 1150. 


which in Gothic architecture serve as starting 
places for vaulting-ribs. Sometimes these are 
674 


4 yy aren “ieee 


CORBEL 


simple culs de lampe; but sometimes they are 


dwarf vaulting shafts, with caps and bases. 
—R. 5. 


CoRBEL AT POLEBROOK, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE, 
c. 1200. 


CORBEL (y.). To build outward, by pro- 
jecting successive courses of masonry beyond 
those below. Generally, to corbel out. 

CORBEL ARCH. A span of stonework 
constructed by regularly advancing successive 
courses, till the top ones nearly meet, when a 
long capstone is laid across to complete the 
work. This was the nearest approach to the 
true arch commonly used by most early civili- 
zations, the Etruscans being almost the only 
exception. It was used by the Maya and 
kindred tribes. In one example, the corbel 
stones at the back are cut in L shape. The 


CoRBEL: LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. 


only other arch used in America was that seen 
in. the snow dome of the Eskimo. (See 
675 


CORBEL TABLE | 
Iglugeak ; Mexico, Architecture of, Part I.; 
Treasury of Atreus.) (Cut, col. 677.) —F. 8. D. 

CORBEL COURSE. “ati: 

In a masonry structure 
a course in which cor- 
bels are set; either at 
intervals for a corbel 
table, or continuously to 
form a heavy projecting 
moulding. 

CORBELLING. Any ‘| 
system or aggregate of jj 
corbels, or the act or | 
operation of building 3, 
corbels in masonry. | 
(Compare Counterpoise. ) 
(Cuts, cols. 677, 678.) 

CORBEL MOULD. 
A pattern for corbel- 
ling, as in brickwork or 
plaster ; usually, in prac- 
tice, shaped out of a 
piece of board or thin 
metal, and giving the mouldings, etc., in reverse 
or concave section. 

CORBEL PIECE. Any piece serving the 
general purpose of a corbel; 7.e., an overhang- 
ing support. The term is not of precise appli- 
cation, and appears to be restricted mainly to a 
light member of wood, such as a lookout. 

CORBEL STEP. Same as Crow Step; 
apparently a mistaken form of the variant Cor- 
bie Step. | 

CORBEL TABLE. A projecting course of 
masonry carried on a row of corbels, whether 


CoRBEL IN HALL OF 
CHRIST CHURCH, Ox- 
FORD, C. 1529. 


CORBELS CARRYING A BATTLEMENTED PARAPET. 


with or without connecting arches. Strictly 
speaking, the modillions and corona of a Corin- 
676 


BEATE XAIII 


| iy 


* 
SRS. Gai er ater 


SRS 


ee ee eo 


Ree ee: 


CORBELLING 


That carrying a part of the front of a house on 
the Rio della Fava, Venice. A narrow calle leads 
to a flight of steps at the water’s edge, and the 
upper floor of the house is carried over this. The 
building is used as a furniture shop; it has never 
been repaired, nor, as it seems, altered in any way, 


except by the addition of an upper story. It is 
one of the most attractive houses left us from the 
Renaissance, dating probably from about 1480. 
It is noticeable that the pier between the doorway 
and each arched opening which flanks it is made 
up of two pilasters set at different heights, 


-. 
Y 


ples. 


— 


CORBELLING IN CLOISTER OF §: PABLO IN 
BARCELONA. 


thian cornice are a corbel table, but the term is 
usually understood to refer to medieval exam- 


CoRBEL ARCH IN THE NECROPOLIS OF MOUGHEIR, 
LOWER CHALDEA. 


The Italians treated this feature with 
especial elegance; the cornice of the Loggia 
det Lanzi at Florence (cir. 
1335) is one of the best- 
known examples. (See Cor- 
bel Course.) 

CORBEL VAULT. A 
vault made by corbelled 
courses, as of stone (see 
Corbel Arch). It was used 
by the Mycenean builders, 
as in the so-called “‘ Treasury 
677 


Me eee re? eo (see Re ee 


CORBIE 


of Atreus,” and, freely, by the Mayas of Yuca- 
tan, who, in their buildings, had corbelled ceilings 
built on a support of packed earth, which was 
afterward removed. — F. 8. D. 

CORBEL WORK. In Moorish and other 
Mohammedan styles, same as Stalactite Work. 


CORBELLING OF A BAY WINDOW IN DiJoNn, FRANCE. 


CORBIE, PIERRE DE; architect (maitre 
Moeuvre). 

He is mentioned in the Sketch-book of Wilars 
de Honecort (see Wilars de Honecort) as Petrus 
de Corbeis. He was associated with Wilars in 
making a design for the choir of the cathedral 
of Rheims (Marne, France) in 1215 and in the 
construction of the cathedral of Cambrai (1230— 
1243). 

Lassus, Album de 
Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 


Villard de Honnecourt ; 


CoRBEL TABLE AT RoMSEY CHURCH, HANTS, c. 1200. 
678 


CORBIE STEP 


CORBIE STEP. Same as Crow Step; the 
Scotch form, gables of this sort being common 
in Scottish architecture previous to the seven- 
teenth century. 

CORDON. A string course or belt course. 
It is also applied to the slightly projecting 
stone or riser at the lower edge of each step of 
a ramp @ cordoni or scala cordonata. 

CORDONATA ; CORDONI. (See Scala.) 

CORE. A. In general, the central or 
axial interior portion of an object. or structure, 
usually the least valuable part of its substance 
when the latter is not homogeneous through- 


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CORINTHIAN ORDER 


C. In British usage, refractory lumps in 


chalk, or in lime made from chalk. 

D. A continuous cylindrical mass which is 
cut out of the strata of earth and rock in bor- 
ing, and which is retained by the hollow shaft 
Such cores are preserved as 


depths. — A. D. F. H. 
COREA, ARCHITECTURE OF. 
Korea. ) | 
CORING. A. The operation of clearing 
out the rubbish from the flues of a building 
upon its completion (English usage). 


(See 


Yasir 
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Pe i 7h, 


Ur} abe 


ry 
Re Smt ert ltt, ee 


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CORINTHIAN CAPITAL, APPARENTLY INTENDED FOR THE THOLOS AT EPIDAURUS; C. 300 B.C. 


out. Thus, in particular it signifies: (1) the 
rough masonry of a pillar or column to be 
finished by a sheathing or plastering of finer 
material ; (2) the rough brickwork or masonry 
of a plaster cornice to be finished in stucco ; 
(3) the rubble or concrete filling between the 
brick or ashlar faces of a masonry wall built 
after the Roman fashion. 

B. The mould which forms the hollow in- 
terior of a metal or other casting, as of a cast- 
iron column, or bronze statue. (See Cast Iron ; 
Foundry.) 

679 


B. The operation of removing the core from 
a casting or other object. . 

CORINTHIAN ORDER. One of the five 
orders recognized by the Italian architects of 
the sixteenth century and described by the 
writers of that time. It is one of the three 
orders used by the Greeks, but its origin was 
late in the independent development of Greek 
architecture, and there are only a very few 
monuments of pre-Roman time in which it is 
known to have existed. Of these the most 
important is the circular building at Epidaurus 

680 


ee eee ee ee ee ee 


4 


> 
@ 
: 
a 
} 


Cy, ae ee Pg er 


CORMONT 


(see Tholos). The little building in Athens 
known as the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates 
is another instance. This order was adopted 
by the Romans of the Empire as their favourite 
one for elaborate work, and in some of their 
monuments is treated with great beauty, even 
the buildings erected far away from the centre 


CORINTHIAN CAPITAL OF SIMPLEST TYPE. 


of the empire retaining great charm of elabora- 
tion, as in Palmyra and Baalbek, in the palace 
at Spalato, the Maison Carrée at Nimes, and, 
especially, at Athens in the temple of Olympian 
Zeus, which was finished, and probably entirely 
built, under Hadrian. — R. S. 

CORMONT, REYNAUD, or REGNAULT, 
DE ; architect. 

Reynaud was a son of Thomas de Cormont 


_(see Cormont, T. de). In 1228 he succeeded 


his father as maitre @ceuvre of the cathedral 
of Amiens (France). Reynaud built the great 
vaults according to the plans of Robert de 
Luzarches (see Luzarches, R. de), probably also 
the choir, the Chapelle de la Vierge, the cen- 


tral window of the apse (1269), the northern 


arm of the transept with its rose window, and 
commenced the southern arm, which was not 
finished until 1296. His central tower was 
burned in 1527 and rebuilt in 1529. 

Goze, Cathédrale d’ Amiens; Gilbert, Cathé- 
drale de Notre-Dame d’ Amiens; Gonse, L’ Art 
Gothique ; Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 

CORMONT, THOMAS DBs; architect ; 
d. 1228. 

Thomas de Cormont assisted Robert de Lu- 
zarches (see Luzarches, R. de) at the cathedral of 
Amiens (Somme, France), and succeeded him as 
architect (maitre d’ouvre) in 1223. He 
continued the work according to the plans of 
Robert de Luzarches and carried the nave up to 
the springing of the great vaults. He was 
assisted and succeeded by his son Reynaud de 
Cormont (see Cormont, R. de). 

Gilbert, Cathédrale de Notre-Dame d’ Amiens ; 
Goze, Cathédrale d’ Amiens; Bauchal, Diction- 
naire. 

CORN CRIB. In the United States, a 
building for the storage of corn, and the like. 

681 


CORNICE 


In its characteristic form, its sides are constructed 
of slats, set with open spaces between for the 
circulation of air to dry the corn; and it is 
raised above the ground on posts with projecting 
caps of sheet metal to guard against the entrance 
of vermin. Commonly, the sides slope outward 
toward the top, as some protection against the 
weather. 

CORNERSTONE. A carefully prepared 
and dressed stone which is put in place with 
certain ceremonies on a fixed day soon after the 
beginning of an important building. It is usual 
to select a prominent part of the building, such 
as one of its corners, and also to carry up the 
foundation walls to a little distance above the 
ground level of the site, in order that the stone, 
once laid by the officiant, may remain in place 
permanently. It is also common to prepare a 
small cavity in the stone to receive certain 
documents, as a description of the undertaking, 
a list of its promoters, a few newspapers of the 
day, some current coins, or other things, which 
are thus handed down to an uncertain posterity. 
Anciently, a stone of the actual foundation was 
treated in this way, and the term Foundation 
Stone (A. P. S.) was used to describe it. — R. 8. 

CORNICE. ‘The crowning member of a 
wall; or part of a wall; as a coping or water 
table treated architecturally. It has ‘several 
special meanings. 

A, In the classical entablature, the upper- 
most of its three principal members. It may 
crown a colonnade, a dado or basement wall, a 
porch, or even a purely ornamental feature, like 
the casing of a window. In buildings of clas- 
sical design having more than one story, a cornice 
crowns the whole wall, and is proportioned 
rather to the height of that wall than to the 
height of the uppermost order if the building is 
of columnar architecture. In this sense the 
wall cornice has been said to have been borrowed 
from the order. 

B. In architecture other than Greco-Roman 
and its imitations, the uppermost feature of a 
wall of masonry. Thus, the cornice of many 
Romanesque churches consists of a slab of stone 
projecting a few inches from the face of a wall, 
and supported, or apparently supported, where 
it overhangs, by corbels. Such a cornice may 
or may not carry a gutter. In some cases a 
row of small arches (a blind arcade) is formed 
under the top of the wall, and seems to carry 
the projecting stone. In the fully developed 
Gothic style the cornice generally consists of 
three members: first and lowest, a sculptured 
band ; second, a drip moulding of considerable 
projection, the hollow beneath which is apt to 
be dwelt upon as forming an effective line of 
shadow ; third, the steeply inclined weathering 
above, which is continued either to the gutter 
or is carried up so high as to form the face of 
the gutter cut in the stone behind it, or which 

682 


= SRE es NOOR, Wd oS Oe ee ay yee een Darel: Oe ee 


| CORNICE , CORNICE : 
carries a parapet of some sort. In wooden | carries a series of battlement-like upright orna- 


buildings there is confusion between Band C. | ments of marble 7 feet high. In some high 
C. So much of the roof as projects beyond | modern buildings with flat roofs, the cornice has 


— 
5 


— 


CoRNICE OF A HOUSE OF THE 6TH CENTURY AT REFADI, SYRIA; FORMED BY THE PROJECTION OF THE 
Roor SLABS BEYOND THE ENTABLATURE. 


the face of the wall and affords shelter to the | been treated in a similar manner, and a parapet 
uppermost windows, besides giving shadow. It | replaces its projection so far as architectural 
is the eaves treated in a decorative way. effect is concerned. (See Parapet.) 

B is often called Wall 
Cornice (see also Cornicione). 
C is called also Roof Cor- 
nice. It is to be observed 
that when the uppermost 
courses of the main wall 
have no projection, or very 
little, it is common to say that 
the building has no cornice. 
Thus, the Ducal Palace of ae 
Venice has on its two prin- Cornice rRom WaARMINGTON CHURCH, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE, C. 1250. 
cipal fronts a course of mar- 
ble decorated with a cove, a fillet, and a bead, By extension, the term applies to a similar 
but no more than four courses of brick in total | decorative member of whatever material, simi- 
height and having no more than 7 inches pro- | larly placed, as at the top of a piece of furni- 
ture, of an interior wall or 
partition, or the like. Thus, 
cornices in the interiors of 
houses are usually formed 
of a series of plaster mould- 
ings. 

D. A piece of light 
woodwork, embossed metal, 


CORNICE FROM BISHOP BEEKINGTON’S CHANTRY, WELLS CATHEDRAL : ‘ ; 
‘ c. 1465. > or the like, which is set 


horizontally at the top of a 
window casing within, either to conceal the rod 
and rings which carry the curtains, or to form a 
683 684 


jection, although at least 85 feet above the 
pavement of the square ; but this slight coping 


be | i _F J : : 
CORNICH HOOK 
 lambrequin as part of the upholstery, or to give 

emphasis to the height of the window. In this 
sense, the term is allied with the Italian use of 

. the same word for 
a frame, as of a 
picture, a bas-re- 
lief, or the like, 
from which usage 
arises the frequent 
misunderstanding 
in descriptions of 
Italian interiors, 
the mountings and 
settings of pictures, 
or the like. 
—R. 5. 

Block Cornice. 
In neoclassic ar- 
chitecture, a wall 
cornice produced 
by a simplification 
of the classic en- 
tablature. Modillions of some sort, usually very 
plain, carry a cornice proper of slight projection, 
and rest upon a simple bed mould. The term 
is used loosely for any very plain wall cornice. 

CORNICE HOOK. A hook for hanging pic- 
tures from the cornice or picture moulding of a 


CoRNICE, S. FRANCESCO, 
BRESCIA, ITALY. 


ae a ae 
+ a les ad 


room; a picture hook. It is usually of brass, 
: and of a double curvature, the upper curve fitting 
over the top of the moulding on which it is to be 
‘ hung. 
4 685 


CORO 

CORNICIONE. In Italian buildings of the 
Renaissance, and later styles, a wall cornice (see 
Cornice), so proportioned as to accommodate it- 
self to the whole height of the wall and the whole 
mass of the building. The supposition is that 
each story has its own cornice, or at least that 
a number of string courses, each treated like a 
classical entablature and each having its own 
cornice, will have been built into the wall below ; 
while the final or uppermost projecting member 
is proportioned, not to one story, but as to an 
imaginary order (of columns or pilasters) which 
would have had the whole height of the wall. 
Among the most effective corniciont are those 
of the Palazzo Strozzi and the Palazzo Riccardi 
in Florence. In some cases, as in the admirable 
library of 8S. Mark’s in Venice, the uppermost 
story has an entablature greatly enlarged from 
its due traditional proportion so as to conform 
to the whole height of the building, and thus the 
cornice of that second order becomes a corni- 
cione. In later work, as of the Classicismo in 
Italy and of the seventeenth century in Northern 
Europe, the cornicione disappears; for either the 
colossal order reaches from basement to roof 
and has its own entablature, or else each story is 
treated by itself as an order and the uppermost 
entablature is hardly enlarged beyond its tradi- 
tional proportions. (Cut, col. 687.) 
CORO. In Spanish, the choir; hence, a choir 


enclosure of the kind common in Spain, much 


separated from the building in its design 
and arrangement, and occupying 
a considerable space in the main 
body of the church. 


CORNICE FORMED BY THE ORNAMENTAL TREATMENT OF THE ROOF FRAMING. 


In some cases, as at Barcelona and Tarragona, 

the reserved part of the church is divided into 

two parts, the coro, or choir, and the capilla 

mayor, or sanctuary, with a considerable space 
686 


CORGBUS 


Is 
iS 
3) 


| iw. yy 
KORO IES: between them; in 


a = others, as in the 
Cathedral of Tara- 
zona, the coro is 
set far westward in 
the nave of the church, 
much nearer to the 
main approaches than 
to the transept. (See 
also Trascoro.) 

CORGIBUS (KO- 
RCBUS) ; architect. 

Corcebus, Metagenes, 
hea and Xenocles  con- 
Pe ee | structed, under the di- 

rection of Ictinus (see 

Ictinus), the temple of 
Demeter and Per- 
sephone at Eleusis 
(Greece), called Tele- 
sterion. 


Brunn, Geschichte der 
Griechischen Kiinstler ; 
Collignon, Histoire de 

la Sculpture Grecque. 


CORONA.  Origi- 
nally, in Roman archi- 
tecture, a crowning 
feature or cornice; 
hence, in modern Eng- 
lish, that shelf-like part 
of a cornice which pro- 
jects most» vigorously 
and casts the chief 
shadow, being sup- 
ported by a bed mould, 

with or without the 
rece help of dentils and mo- 
dillions, mutules, and 
CORNICIONE FROM THE cantilevers, and 
Se ral STROZZI, crowned by the cyma- 
LORENCE, ITALY. ; 
tium or crown mould- 
ing. Itis the most important member of the 
cornice, all others being subordinate to it; its 
absence from most Gothic wall crownings is 
the most striking difference between the Gothic 
and classic systems of wall crowning. It is the 
elaborated form of the simple flat coping. Its 
under surface is often hollowed or channelled 
with a canal or throating. (See Cornice.) 
— A.D. F. H. 

CORONA LUCIS. A circle or hoop of lights 
for a church, whether suspended, or supported 
on a stand. A number of noted medizval ex- 
amples are still preserved in Europe; among 

| 687 


- CORROSION 


them that of Aix-la-Chapelle is perhaps the most 
ancient. Modern examples are fitted with burn- 
ers for oil or gas, or with electric lamps. 
CORONET. In English works, a pedimental 
or other decoration wrought in relief on a wall 
above a window or door. In examples of Eng- 
lish and German Renaissance, they are often 


scroll patterns in flat relief, with an approxi- © 


mately triangular outline ; in the French style 
of Francis I. they resemble steep pediments, often 
flanked by candelabra. 

CORPORATION STOP. The connecting 
ferrule and shut-off between a street water, or 
gas, main and the house service pipe. It is also 
called the tap, and its insertion “tapping the: 
main.” — W. P. G. 

CORPS DE LOGIS. A. The main part of 
a large dwelling, and, by extension, of any build- 
ing, as distinguished from its wings or other 
subordinate parts. 

B. A detached, or nearly detached residential 
pavilion. In this sense, not commonly used in 
English. 

CORPSE GATE. (See Lich Gate.) 

CORPS LEGISLATIF. (See Palais Bour- 
bon.) 

CORREGGIO, ANTONIO ALLEGRI; mu- 
ral painter of the highest rank; b. about 1494; 
d. March 5, 1534. 

His work at Parma will be accepted by many 
good judges as the most admirable decorative. 
painting in Europe. 

Corrado Ricci, Antonio Allegri da Correggio ; 
Madame Mignaty, Le Corrége; L. Fagan, The Works 
of Correggio at Parma; and in the General Bibli- 
ography, Carlo d’ Arco, Delle Arti e degli Artefici 
di Mantova; Vasari; Nagler; Bryan ; Scribner’s 
Cyclopedia. 


CORRIDOR. A passageway in a building, 
usually one of some size and importance, or be- 
longing to a building of architectural pretensions. 

CORRIDOR OF THE PITTI PALACE 
(the term being used for a separate gallery in 
imitation of the Italian phrase). An enclosed 
and covered passageway leading from the Pitti 
to the Palazzo Vecchio, a distance of about 700: 
metres; carried above buildings and across the 
Ponte Vecchio as a second story. (Compare next, 
title.) It now forms part of the art galleries of 
the Uffizi. 

CORRIDOR OF THE VATICAN (or of 
Castel S. Angelo or of Pope Alexander VI.). 
An enclosed and covered passage, carried from 
the palace to the fortress above the roofs of 
houses, etc. It is not open to the public. 

CORROSION. The process of gradual de- 
composition or wearing away by chemical action, 
as by the action of water on iron, producing rust. 
Differing from disintegration, which is the result 
of mechanical action. In practice, the term is 
generally used only in the case of metals, decay 
being the usual term in the case of stone or wood. 

688 


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CORRUGATE 


CORRUGATE. To form into alternate ridges 
and furrows (corrugations), as in preparing cer- 
tain forms of sheet metal, wire lathing, etc., for 
use in building. 

CORRUGATED METAL. Metal which in 
thin plates has been drawn or rolled into parallel 
ridges and furrows. The object of the corru- 
gation is to give greater strength to the plates 
of metal to resist bending in the direction of 
the furrows, or perpendicular to the general 
plane of the sheet, also to permit expansion 
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CORVEE 


CORS, GUILLERMO DE; architect and 
sculptor. 

According to a document in the archives of 
the building, Cors succeeded Jaime de Faberan 
in the direction of the construction of the ca- 
thedral of Gerona (Spain) in the year 1330. 

Vifiaza, Adiciones al Diccionario historico. 

CORSICA, ARCHITECTURE OF. (See 
Mediterranean Islands, Architecture of.) 

CORTILE. In Italian, a large or principal 
court; hence, in English usage the court of a 


CorRTILE OF THE HOUSE CALLED FORNARINA’S, ROME; THE VESTIBULE, VAULTED, IN THE FOREGROUND. 


and contraction laterally. Corrugated iron is 
used largely to cover roofs of buildings of a cer- 
tain class, machine shops, car houses, barns, 
etc. The sides and ends of such buildings of 
the cheaper class are sometimes covered with 
it. The sheets of corrugated metal are sup- 
ported on purlins to which they are attached 
by long hooks, or on sheathing where they are 
secured with long soft nails driven through and 
bent on the under side. All holes for nails, 
rivets, or clamps are made in the top part of a 
corrugation. — W. R. H. 

689 


palace or palazzo, a cloister garth, or any court 
surrounded by buildings of architectural pre- 
tensions. The term is not universal ; thus, some 
large and magnificent courts are never called by 
this name by Italian writers or by students of 
architecture. 

CORTONA, DOMENICO DA. 
menico da Cortona.) 

CORTONA,PIETRO DA. (See Berretini, P.) 

CORVEE. Forced or unpaid labour exacted 
in the Middle Ages by the lord of the soil or his 
overlord, and later, ordered by statute for road- 

690 


(See Do- 


COSMA 


making or the like. Hence, by extension, forced 
labour of any sort, as in antiquity. 
_COSMA (COSMATUS). (See Cosmati.) 

COSMATESQUE (COSMATESCA). (The 
word is derived from the Cosmati (see Cosmati).) 
Having the character of a kind of architectural 
decoration which had its origin in the Byzan- 
tine work of southern Italy and Sicily, and is 
characterized by extreme lightness and delicacy 
and a lavish use of marble mosaics, the materials 
for which were taken from the ruins of Rome, 
“Arte marmoris periti.” The style was not 
confined to the Cosmati, one of the most perfect 
examples being the cloister of S. Giovanni in 
Laterno (Rome) by Vassallectus. (See Mosaic.) 

COSMATI ; architects, mosaicists, and sculp- 
tors, School of Laurentius. 

A family of marmorarii (marble workers) 
in Rome in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries 
which takes its name from the leading member, 
Cosma or Cosmatus. 

I. Lorenzo, the earliest known member of 
the family, made two ambons in the church of 
Ara-Ceeli (Rome), one of which bears the in- 
scription, LAVRENTIVS CvM [acoBo FILIO svo, 
etc. 

II. Giacomo (Jacobus) assisted his father at 
Ara-Coeli and made nineteen columns with 
mosaics in the church of 8. Alessio on the 
Aventine, Rome. Two of them remain and one 
bears the inscription [acospvs LAVRENTII FECIT. 
His signature is inscribed on the door of the 
basilica of 8. Saba on the Pseudo Aventine 
(1205). It is also found among the many lap- 
idary inscriptions of the cloister of 8. Scolas- 
tica near Subiaco (Italy). In 1210, assisted 
by his son Cosmatus, he built the facade of the 
duomo of Civita Castellana signed MaGisTER 
TACOBVS — CVM COSMA FILIO, etc. 

III. Cosma or Cosmatus, the most impor- 
tant member of the family, laid the great mosaic 
pavement of the basilica of S. Magnus at Anagni 
(Italy), between 1224 and 1231, signed Maats- 
TER COSMAS HOC opvs FECIT. In 1231, with 
the assistance of his sons, Luca and Giacomo, he 
made the altar and pavement of the crypt of 
the same church. The Cloister of 8. Scolas- 
tica near Subiaco, which seems to have been 
begun by his father, was completed by Cosma- 
tus and his two sons, CosMAS ET FILII Lvc. ET 
Jac. His most important work is the chapel 
called Sancta Sanctorum at the Lateran, signed 
MaGisTER CoSMATVS FECIT HOC OPVS. 

IV. Luca and 

V. Giacomo (Jacobus) simply assisted their 
father in his work. 

VI. Deodatus (Adeodatus), son of Cosmatus, 
made a ciborium in the church of 8. Maria 
in Cosmedin, Rome (1296), and the finer cibo- 
rium in the basilica of 8. Giovanni in Lat- 
erano (Rome), both of which are signed. 

VII. Giovanni, the most important of the 

691 


ot Re a ae aie reek 
) Pout o ie NEP oo ah in Sara 


A ae ke 2 il fe 
ies qe j “ 


COST OF BUILDINGS 


sons of Cosmatus, made the tomb of Stephanus 
Surdi at the church of 8S. Balbina, Rome, signed 
Ion’s FILIVS MAG’RI COSMATI FECIT HOC OPVS. 
This inscription is repeated on the tomb of 
Bishop Guglielmo Durante in the church of 8. 
Maria Sopra Minerva (Rome). The tomb of 
Rodrigo Gonsalvi at the church of S. Maria 
Maggiore (Rome) is also signed by him. The 
last verse of the metrical inscription on the 
cloister of 8. Paolo fuori le Mura (Rome) seems 
to indicate that this monument was built by 
him. (See Cosmatesque. ) 

Barbier de Montault, Généalogie @ Artistes Ita- 


liens ; Boito, Architettura Cosmatesca ; Gregoro- 
vius, Geschichte der Stadt Rom; G. B. de Rossi, 


Delle altre famiglie di marmorarii romani; Froth- — 


ingham, Notes on Roman Artists of the Middle 
Ages ; Perkins, Italian Sculptors. 

COSMATI WORK. (See Cosmatesque ; 
Cosmati ; Mosaic.) ne 

COSMATUS (COSMA). (See Cosmati.) 

COSSUTIUS ; architect. 

The construction of the temple of Olympian 
Zeus at Athens, begun by Antistates (see Antis- 
tates) and his associates under Peisistratos and 
discontinued at the time of the banishment of 
Hippias, the son of Peisistratos (510 B.c.), was 
taken up by Antiochos IV. (Epiphanes), king 
of Syria (reigned 176-164 B.c.). The archi- 
tect employed by him, Cossutius (“civis Ro- 
manus,” Vitr.), continued the building in the 
Corinthian style. The name Cossutius is in- 
scribed upon a base in Athens, which probably 
carried a statue of the architect. The temple 
of Zeus was finished during the reign of Ha- 
drian. 

Brunn, Geschichte der Griechischen Kiinstler ; 
Vitruvius, ed. Marini. 

COSTE, PASCAL-XAVIER ; architect ; b. 
Noy. 28, 1787 (at Marseilles) ; d. 1878. 

Coste was a pupil of Penchaud, architect in 
chief of the Bouches-du-Rhéne. He entered the 
Ecole des Beaux Arts (Paris) in 1815. In 
1818 he was appointed architect to Mehemet 
Ali, pasha of Egypt. In 1828 he returned to 
practise in Marseilles and was made supervising 
architect of that city. The results of his study 
in Egypt were published in his Architecture 
Arabe, Monuments du Kaire (one vol. folio, 
Paris, 1839). During the years 1840-1841 
Coste was attached, with Eugene Flandin, 
painter, to the French embassy at the court 
of Persia. They published in 1844 the great 
work Voyage en Perse, Perse Ancienne (1 vol. 
text, 4 vols. pls. folio). Independently of Flan- 
din, Coste made observations and measurements 
of the Mohammedan monuments of Persia, which 
he published in 1865, Monuments Modernes de 
la Perse (1 vol. folio text and pls.). 

Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 

COST OF BUILDINGS. The cost of 
buildings (apart from land values) is usually 

692 


oy nee ae ee 
eas ads : ‘ 


a 


determined in advance by methods described in 
the articles, Estimating, and Bill of Quantities. 

There are two other ways of arriving at the 
actual cost: by ‘‘day’s work,” when continued 
record is kept by the builder and clerk of works 
of all expenditures ; and by “measuring up,” in 
which system the work in the building is 
measured after completion and priced according 
to a schedule. The former method still pre- 
vails to some extent, and for it are claimed the 
advantage of encouragement of good workman- 
ship, which the contract system fails to give. 
But the: trades union policy of forced equality 
of service goes far to abolish this old feature 
of a man’s pride in his work, and day’s work 
now has little superiority to compensate for its 
greater cost. The measured work system is an 
English one, seldom or never used in the United 
States. The process is similar to that of tak- 
ing off quantities (see Bill of Quantities) ; with, 
of course, modifications compelled by inaccessi- 
bility of internal parts of the building. 

—R. W. Grpson. 

COT. A very small and humble dwelling 
house ; in modern times almost wholly poetical 
in its use. 

Bell Cot. (See under B.) 

COTMAN, JOHN SELL ; landscape painter 
and architectural draftsman ; b. June 11, 1782, 
(at Norwich, Norfolk, England) ; d. J uly 28, 
1842. 

He went to London in 1800 and exhibited 
at the Academy until 1807, when he returned 
to Norwich and became secretary of the Local 
society of artists. In 1812 he commenced the 
publication of his Architectural Antiquities of 
Norfolk, which was completed, five series in 
two volumes, in 1838. Cotman visited Nor- 
mandy in 1817, 1818, and 1819; and in 1820 
published the illustrations to Dawson Turner’s 
Account of a Tour in Normandy (2 vols. 
4to, London, 1820). He published also Hn- 
gravings from Sepulchral Brasses in Nor- 
folk and Suffolk (2 vols. 4to, 1838). 

Binyon, J. S. Cotman in Portfolio, 1897 ; Red- 
grave, Dictionary of Artists. 

COTTAGE. A. A small country house ; 
the residence of a farm labourer or of an agricul- 
turalist of small means. The English cottage 
previous to the introduction of modern “ model 
cottages” must be understood as having a sit- 
ting room with perhaps a lean-to kitchen, and 
a floor of hardened earth, or at most paved 
with stones, and one room or two very small 
ones in the garret among the roof timbers. 
Such a house would be built of rough stone 
from the immediate neighbourhood, and roofed 
with thatch. Even when some taste was shown 
in the garden and the house itself kept in order, 
it was without what we should call in modern 
times necessary provision for comfort and de- 
cency. Oottages in this sense have hardly 

693 


COTTE 


existed within the limits of the United States, 
for the log cabin was admittedly a makeshift, 
as were its still slighter predecessors, and the 
balloon frame house or the commonest shack 
has glass windows which fit tight, at least at 
first, wooden floors throughout, and a ceiling to 
each room ; also complete plastering, and is 
supposed to be warm and dry in all its parts. 

SL. In the nineteenth century, a country 
house supposed to be simple as compared with 
the residences of the wealthy people in the 
neighbourhood. (See Cottage Ornée.) In the 
United States the term is used especially for 
the temporary home of a family which lives 
ordinarily in the city, and in this connection 
is applied also to the small houses which are 
held in connection with a hotel for summer 
resort, being occupied by persons who hire 
them of the hotel management, and who usually 
go to the main buildings for meals. From this 
usage has been deduced, — 

C. In some places of summer resort, or of 
fashionable temporary residence at any season 
of the year, a private dwelling house of any, 
even of the greatest, size and cost. There are 
cottages at Newport which with their fittings 
and furniture represent each many hundred 
thousand dollars. 

COTTAGE ORNEE. In England, early in 
the nineteenth century, a small villa or rural 
residence designed in a free and semirustic 
style, far superior in finish to the common 
farmer’s cottage, but less pretentious in archi- 
tectural style than the formal villa of the time. 

COTTE, FREMIN DE. (See Cotte, Rob- 
ert de.) 

COTTE, JULES ROBERT DE; architect ; 
b. 1683; d. Sept. 8, 1767. 

A son of Robert de Cotte. He was ad- 
mitted to the Académie @ Architecture in 1711. 
After 1736 he completed the construction of the 
portal of the church of S. Roche (Paris) from 
his father’s plans. Jules Robert was employed 
in the decoration of the royal palace at Madrid 
from his father’s designs. 

(For bibliography see Cotte, R. de.) 

COTTE, ROBERT DE;; architect and deco- 
rator; b. 1656 (at Paris); d. July 14, 1735. 

Robert was the son or grandson of Frémin 
de Cotte, architect of King Louis XIII., who 
served as engineer at the siege of La Rochelle 
(1627-1628). He was a pupil of Jules Har- 
douin-Mansart (see Hardouin-Mansart, Jules), 
whose wife’s sister he married. Mansart con- 
fided to him the direction of the works at the 
Invalides and other important buildings. He 
was madea member of the Académie Royale 
W Architecture in 1687 and architecte du roi 
in 1689. Between 1700 and 1702 he directed, 
under the supervision of Mansart, the works at 
the Hdétel de Ville at Lyons, France. About 
1707 he rebuilt the central tower of the cathe- 

694 : 


COTTER 


dral of Orléans. At the death of Mansart in 
1708 he succeeded him as premier architecte 
du roi. The portal of the church of S. Roche 
(Paris) was designed by Robert in 1734, and 
finished by his son Jules Robert de Cotte (see 
Cotte, J. R. de). Robert de Cotte built the 
peristyle of the Grand Trianon at Versailles. 
He made designs for the royal palace and Buen- 
Retiro at Madrid. 

Destailleur, Notice sur quelques artistes fran- 
cats ; Dussieux, Les artistes francais a Vétranger ; 
Maurice du Seigneur, article in Encyclopédie 
Pianat ; Lance, Dictionnaire. 


COTTER. (As used in wedging and the 
like, see Key.) Also Cottar, Cottrel. 

COUCY, ROBERT DE. (See Robert de 
Coucy.) 

COULOMBE, MICHEL. (See Colombe, 
Michel.) 

COUNCIL HOUSE. Among the American 
Indians a wigwam, tent, or other structure in 
which meetings are held to discuss public busi- 
ness of the tribe, or subtribe. The Pueblos 
used the kiva for such meetings. (See also 
Tiyotipi.) — F. S. D. 

COUNTER. A. Ina mercantile establish- 
ment or bank, the long shelf or table which 
separates the employees and the customers, and 
in the former a centre table for the display of 
goods. In banks, offices, and counting houses, 
it is formed like a continuous desk with a 
closed back toward the customer or client, and 
is surmounted by a screen or grille of metal, 
with openings for the transaction of business. 
In shops, the counters are flat tables, from 2 feet 
6 inches to 3 feet high, and 2 feet to 4 feet wide, 
with polished tops of hard wood ; those nearest 
the wall have usually panelled backs toward 
the public ; those between “aisles” or passages 
are often merely rows of strong tables set end 
to end. Butchers’ counters are of marble or of 
heavy timbers, matched and bolted, for chop- 
ping and dressing meat upon them; and for 
saloons, drug stores, and other purposes, other 
special forms of counters are provided. 

B. Formerly, in England, an engineer’s 
clerk of works or compter (computer) ; obsolete. 

—A. D. F. H. 

COUNTER CHILING. A secondary ceil- 
ing interposed between the floor and ceiling of 
a room, to exclude sounds originating in the 
room above. <A layer of sound-obstructing ma- 
terial or deafening, either mineral wool, sawdust, 
or the like, is sometimes spread over the upper 
surface of the counter ceiling to assist in oppos- 
ing the transmission of sound. 

COUNTERFORT. In masonry structures a 
buttress or projecting portion, extending up- 
ward from the foundations, to impart additional 
resistance to thrusts. By some writers the 
term is restricted to piers or spur walls project- 
ing from the inner face of a basement, abut- 

695 


i 


ae) le _ mR OU eae ed” ee a CRN a oh nT i 
Che i a oy 


COUNTRY HOUSE 


ment, or retaining wall, and so distinguished 
from the buttress, which is external. (See But- 
tress ; Retaining Wall.) 

COUNTERLIGHT; COUNTERLIGHT- 
ING. A light or window directly opposite 
another. A room having corresponding windows 
on opposite sides is said to be counterlighted, 
and the same term is used of a picture having a 
window directly opposite it — a very unfavour- 
able position for artistic effect. Counterlighting 
should be avoided for schoolrooms and reading 
rooms, except when these are of exceptional 
width. (See Cross light.) . 

COUNTERPOISE. A weight which tends 
to balance the action of another weight; in 
architecture, especially, a weight considerably 
greater than another and which prevents any 
injurious action by the latter. A corbel, for 
instance, acts by means of the heavy counter- 
poise which holds in place its longer and heavier 
member, generally built into the wall; and pre- 
vents the dislocation of the building by the 
weight acting upon the projecting part of the 
corbel. In the ancient building of India, 
almost all of the most remarkable pieces of 
construction have been carried out by means 
of a system of counterpoise, as the arch is 
almost ignored, except in decorative architec- 
ture, and a system of corbels and braces resting 
upon them is at the bottom of all extensive 
and elaborate work. (Compare Cantilever.) 

—R.S8. 

COUNTERSINK (n.). A. A hole or de- 
pression made by or for countersinking. In 
this sense, also countersinking. 

B. An instrument for countersinking. 

COUNTERSINK (v.). A. To form a de- 
pression or hole for the reception of a piece or 
member which is not to project beyond the 
general surface. The cutting may be made to 
fit accurately the object, as in setting a hinge 
flush with the surrounding woodwork, or it 
may be a recess larger than the member, as a 
hole made to receive the head of a bolt. 

B. To let into a surface by means of a recess 
as above described. 

COUNTER WALL. An independent side 
wall erected against that of an adjacent exist- 
ing building, when the latter stands entirely 
upon its own side of the party line. Counter 
walls are necessary when there is no party wall 
(i.e., a wall centred upon the party line), ex- 
cept when the right is acquired by purchase or 
otherwise of using the existing adjacent side 
wall for the new building, and the wall is heavy 
enough for the purpose. 

COUNTESS. (See Slate.) 

COUNTRY HOUSE. A residence so far 
away from a city or large village that it stands 
free among its outbuildings and dependencies, 
and is beyond the sidewalks and out of easy 
reach of the shops, etc., and has to be in a cer- 

696 


COUNTRY SEAT 


tain sense self-contained. This requirement is 
diminishing, however, with the increase of 
facility in communication, the general use of 
the telephone, and, at least in England, of the 
house to house delivery of mail matter. 

Country houses may be considered under the 
following heads: Castle; Chateau; Cottage ; 
Country Seat (under Seat); Manor House; 
Schloss; Seat; Villa; and also under the 
terms Abbey; Hall; which enter into the 
names of many English country houses of im- 
portance. — R. 8. 

COUNTRY SEAT. (See under Seat.) 

COUNTY COURTHOUSE. In the United 
States, the courthouse for one of the counties, 
or—in Louisiana, and other parts of the 
South — parishes, into which the states are 
divided. As these courthouses were commonly 
built at a convenient point near the middle of 
a county and near a point where highroads 
met, a village would tend to grow up about 
each one. Maps of the United States still show 
many small villages under the name, such as 
Amherst Courthouse, or Amherst C. H. in 
Virginia ; Laurens C. H., South Carolina, ete. 
In large cities, sometimes,the term denotes the 
building in which the state or county courts are 
held as distinguished from the city courts. 

—R.S. 

COUNTY HALL. In Great Britain, a 
public edifice for various county functions, com- 
prising a large hall for public meetings and 
festivities, accommodation for the county courts 
and petty sessions, a grand jury room, county 
clerk’s office, etc. 

In the United States generally called County 
Building or County Courthouse. The county 
administrations are often accommodated as co- 
tenants in state and municipal buildings, and 
have no special building for their use in the 
county seat or shire town. County halls exist, 
however, in the larger and richer county towns, 
with courtrooms, offices, jails, etc. ; they are, 
however, more commonly called county build- 
ings or county courthouses. — A. D. F. H. 

COUPLE (n.). A. A pair of forces equal, 
parallel, and acting in opposite directions, but 
not in the same straight line. They tend to 
make the body acted upon rotate about an axis 
upon which they exert no pressure. 

B. A pair of rafters with their tie beam, collar 
beam, or other pieces which go to make up the 
simplest form of truss. (Compare Crutch.) 

Main Couple. A pair of principals; one of 
several couples which support other subordinate 
rafters. 

COUPLE (v.). To arrange, set, or unite in 
pairs. The term is used in combination with 
a great variety of structural terms, and is gen- 
erally self-explanatory. Coupled columns are 
those which are united in pairs, the two 
columns of the pair being very close together, 

697 


COURSE 


as in the arrangement called Arzosystyle. The 
arrangement is not known to have existed in 
antiquity, although the plates of Wood’s Ruins 
of Baalbec and Palmyra show at least two 
instances of it. The conjectural restorations 
contained in those plates have not been abso- 
lutely verified. It is often thought that the 
first instance of it is the great colonnade of the 
Louvre which was built in the seventeenth cen- 
tury. Coupled pilasters occur in the Palazzo 
Stoppani Caffarelli (Vidoni) and the Palazzo 
Chigi, in Rome, both of the sixteenth century. 

COUPLE CLOSE. Same as Couple, B. 
Hardly used in modern times except in heraldry; 

COURAJOD, LOUIS CHARLES LEON; 
archeologist : b. 1851 (at Paris); d. 1896. 

Courajod was educated at the Hcole Na- 
tionale des Chartes, Paris, and was appointed 
conservateur of medizval, Renaissance, and 
modern sculpture at the Musée du Louvre: 
He was a member of the Commission des 
Monuments historiques. He published His- 
toire de l’ Enseignement des Arts du dessin 
au XVIII siecle, Les estampes attribuées a 
Bramante_ (in collaboration with Von Gey- 
muller) ; Htudes sur les collections du Moyen- 
dge, dela Renaissance et des temps modernes 
au Musée du Louvre ; Alexandre Lenoir, son 
journal et le Musée des Monuments francais, 
etc. ; Documents sur Vhistoire des arts et des 
artistes & Crémone aux XV’ et X VI* siécles ; 
Quelques monuments de la Sculpture fran- 
caise des XV* et X VI° siécles, etc. 

Construction Moderne, July 11, 1896. 

COUR D’HONNEUR. The principal 
court, often the fore court, by means of which 
direct access is had to the principal apartments 
of a palace or to the most important public 
offices of a building. The name originates in 
the reservation of this court to visitors of dis- 
tinction, whose carriages alone would be allowed 
to pass the outer gateways. It is of necessity 
most often the outer or exterior court, and is 
often enclosed between the principal front of 
the building and its projecting wings, the fourth 
side being enclosed by inferior and lower build- 
ings, or by a wall or iron grating. 

COURSE (n.). One (generally one of many) 
horizontal — or less frequently inclined — row 
of relatively small pieces, uniformly disposed 
and more or less connected, bonded, or united 
in one structure or member, as of bricks when 
laid in a wall, slates on a roof, and the like. 

Blocking Course. A parapet; usually a very 
plain wall like a range of stone blocks, used to 
replace a pierced parapet, a balustrade, or the 
like. In-some cases the blocking course is not 
a true parapet, because too low to serve in that 
capacity, or because the roof has been raised 
to the top of it. In this case it is a mere 
flat band above the wall cornice. (Compare 
Bahut.) 

698 


~COURSE 


COURSE (v.). A. To lay in courses, as 
masonry; to lay evenly and more or less 
regularly, approximating uniform and regular 
courses. 

B. To build in courses of masonry, as a wall 
or pier. 

COURT. An open area intimately con- 
nected with a building or buildings, as: — 

A, A yard surrounded or nearly surrounded 
by buildings and often intended to afford light 
to their interior windows. The court of a 
medieval strong castle, that of an Italian 
palazzo, and that of a modern college or state- 
house, are equally intended to give light to the 
buildings fronting upon it, and, in many cases, 
the chief light must be drawn from within ; 
whereas in a modern hotel on the Continent of 
Europe the court has so long been considered 
an essential thing, and the habitués of such a 
hotel are so accustomed to treat the open space 
as a kind of sitting room in pleasant weather, 
where they take coffee and the like, that the 


CoURT AT THE FRONT oF A House IN BRUGES; BUILT Cc. 1530. 


open space is retained, although now commonly 
sheltered from the weather. Houses in the 
Levant, in Northern Africa, and in Turkey, have 
commonly no windows on the exterior (at least 
in the lower story), but the court is surrounded 
by arcades, and the rooms, which are not usually 
large, receive their light from the doors and 
699 


Ps 4 
Ue nani 


e 


COURT OF GUARD sie 


| ; ee 
from small windows. Moreover, because of the 


need of privacy, while at the same time there is _ 


the fixed habit of sitting, eating, and sleeping — 


in the open air, it is very usual in warm coun- 


tries to build around an enclosed court; thus, 


the old houses of New Orleans are so arranged, 
and the buildings of Spanish America have in 
their courts (see Patio) the same convenience 


which the inhabitants of northern countries 
where the summer is shorter, find in the veranda, __ 


It is, however, hard to explain the avoidance of 
the court by people of Teutonic race, who even 


in the hottest parts of India use the veranda - 
instead. Probably the common use of the court 


is a reminiscence of times when violence was 
more usual and when the shelter of the outer 
walls was found necessary. 

B. <A larger and freer space enclosed by 
walls, but not encompassed by the principal 
buildings ; as in a medizeval castle, where there 
were inner and outer courts, some of which 
were not more enclosed than by the strong walls 
which served as their defence. 

C. By extension, a high room 
surrounded by smaller and lower 
ones, or by rooms or galleries in 
several stories. Thus, in a build- 
ing for temporary exhibition, a court 
is often a large area open to the 
topmost roof, and devoted alto- 
gether with its surrounding galleries 
to a special line of exhibits. 

D. Anciently, a castle or manor 


From this use of the term is derived 
its frequent occurrence in the names 
of English dwellings, as in the well- 
known instance of Hampton Court. 
(Cut, cols. 701, 702.)— R. 8. 

COURTHOUSE. A building 
in which are contained rooms for 
courts of law. The term seems 
always to have been rare in Great 
Britain, but is common in the 
United States. In some of the 
states, the county courts being lo- 
cated in a building set near the 
centre of the county and not neces- 
sarily in any previously existing 
city or village, the little village 
which has grown up around it is 
called simply “Courthouse.” (See 
County Courthouse.) Besides the 
court-rooms, other rooms are in- 
cluded, such as Judges’ Chambers 
(see under Chambers), offices of clerks of court, 
which are sometimes very spacious and arranged 
for the doing of an immense amount of business. 
In a few instances these buildings are very costly 
with much architectural pretension. — R. 8S. 

COURT OF GUARD. In the military 
architecture of the Middle Ages, a guardroom, 
700 


house, or large country dwelling. | 


in the royal accounts is an entry con- 


(Paris), glass in the church of S. 


‘head at the Musée des Arts décoratifs 


COURT OF THE LIONS 


the term being apparently extended from the 
outer court of a castle where the guard for the 
day were mustered. 

COURT OF THE LIONS. In the Alham- 
bra, Spain ; one of the two principal courts of 
the building, 116 feet long and surrounded by 
a roofed arcade. In the middle is the Fountain 
of the Lions, which gives it its name. 

COURTYARD. Same as court in sense A; 
or, as distinguished from that term, especially 
a confined and strictly enclosed court; as in a 
castle, a prison, or a modern building, 
where it forms a shaft or well intended 
to give light to interior windows. 
(Cuts, cols. 703, 704 ; 705, 706.) 

COUSIN, JEAN (JEHAN) ; paint- 
er, glass painter, and sculptor ; b. 1500 
or 1501 (at Soucy near Sens, Yonne, 
France) ; d. 1589. 

Cousin was surveyor, painter, en- 
graver, illustrator, sculptor, architect, 
and writer. The only notice of him 


cerning employment as sculptor (ima- 
gier) at Fontainebleau about 1540- 
1550. His splendid statue of Admiral 
Chabot is in the Louvre. Cousin was 
above all a glass painter. The win- 
dow of the Tiburtine Sibyl in the 
cathedral of Sens (injured by a can- 
non-ball at the siege of Sens in 1814) 
is his work, and the rose window of 
the Paradise in the same church is 
doubtless also by him. The great 
window of the Martyrdom of 8. Law- 
rence at the church of 8. Gervais 


Etienne-du-Mont (Paris), and a fine 


(Paris) are ascribed to Cousin. Cousin 
made five windows en grisaille at the 
chateau of Anet which have been de- 
stroyed. He published his Livre de 
Perspective in 1560 (Paris, folio), and 
his Livre de Portraicture in 1511 (Paris, 4to). 

Firmin-Didot, Ztude sur Jean Cousin ; Firmin- 
Didot, Guvres choisies de Jean Cousin ; Palustre, 
La Renaissance en France; Robert-Dumesnil, 
Le Peintre-graveur francais; Ottin, Le Vitrait ; 
Milin, Antiquités nationales. 

COUSSINET. (French; occasionally trans- 
ferred into English in one or another of its 
various meanings.) 

A, The lowest stone or voussoir of an arch, 
resting on the impost and having its upper 
surface inclined toward the centre of the arch 
(see Skewback ; Impost). 

B. The whole band or cushion of the Ionic 
capital, including the two volutes and the flat 
or depressed band connecting them. 

COUSTOU, GUILLAUME; sculptor; b. 
April 25, 1677 (at Lyons) ; d. Feb. 22, 1746. 

701 


COUTURE 


Guillaume was a brother of Nicolas Coustou 
(see Coustou, N.) and nephew and pupil of An- 
toine Coysevox (see Coysevox, A.). He won the 
Premier Grand Prix de Rome in 1697 and 
was made académicien in 1704. He did much 
work for the decoration of the chateau and park 
of Versailles. 

Gonse, Sculpture francaise ; Dezallier d’ Argen- 
ville, Vie des fameux sculpteurs. 

COUSTOU, NICOLAS; sculptor; b. Jan. 
9, 1658 (at Lyons); d. May 1, 1733. 


Court OF HOUSE SITUATED AT THE Foot OF THE TARPEIAN 


Rock; Rome, ITaty. 


Nicolas was the son of Francois Coustou, a 
wood carver of Lyons. At the age of eighteen 
he entered the atelier of his uncle Antoine 
Coysevox (see Coysevox, A.) in Paris. He won 
the Grand Prix de Rome in 1682. In 1692 
Nicolas began the groups of prophets at the 
church of the Invalides (Paris). Between 
1701 and 1710 he assisted in the decoration 
of the chateau of Marly. Several of his works 
there were afterward brought to the Tuileries. 
The statue of Louis XV., now in the Louvre, 
was made in 1731. 

Cousin de Contamine, loge de Coustow; Ma- 
riette, Abecedario. 

COUTURE, GUILLAUME (Martin) ; archi- 
tect; b. 1732 (at Rouen) ; d. Dec. 27, 1799. 

In 1776 Couture was employed in the recon- 
struction of the Palais de Justice (Paris) and 

702 


3) CY BENS IMPOSSIBLE, 


ON 


SE OF JACQUES CCEUR, BOURGES. 


COURTYARD OF HOU 


704 


703 


1 , 


Ss 4, j, Seo Sawinen a ANSE eee ee eR, 
Ne WLLL LEME 


__ 8 EN HHH AAR 


A. =< CD 


COURTYARD IN A MOORISH HOUSE IN TANGIERS. 


705 706 


COVE | 


built the facade on the cour d’honneur. 
was associated with Contant’ d’Ivry (see Contant 
d’Ivry) in beginning the construction of the 
church of the Madeleine, Paris, in 1764, and 
at the death of Contant in 1777 took charge of 
the works. He changed the original design by 
adding two bays to “the nave. (For transfor- 
mations of the Madeleine see Vignon, B.) 

Lance, Dictionnaire. 

COVE (n.). A surface of concave, more or 
less cylindrical, form, whether of a small mould- 
ing or of a large structure, as a vault or cornice. 

COVE (v.t.). To construct with a cove or 
coves ; to give the form of a cove to. 

COVE BRACKETING. The series of 
brackets or frames prepared and set to receive 
the laths for a cove, as in a coved ceiling. 

COVED ARCH. (See Cloistered Vault, 
under Vault.) 

COVED CHILING. The upper side of a 
room which is so designed that coves, large in 
proportion to the extent of the ceiling, join the 
vertical wall with the flat part of the ceiling. 
In interiors of the eighteenth century (see Ro- 
coco) the cove is often very large and without 
strong horizontal markings, either on the wall 
side or on the ceiling, and is richly adorned 
with paintings and carved panels which are, 
therefore, displayed in a position relative to the 
eye of a person sitting or standing below, which 
makes them easy to see and enjoy.— R. S. 

COVED VAULT. (See Cloistered Vault, 
under Vault.) 

COVER. That part of a roofing tile, slate, 
or the like, which is covered by the overlap of 
the course above. 

COVERED ALLEY. A primitive stone 
structure of a kind abounding in Great Britain 
and Brittany, as well as in other parts of the 
world. It is composed of two rows of flat 
stones set vertically and sustaining a roof of 
rough lintels, the whole 20 or 30 yards long. 
In most cases it is the entrance passage to a 
ates (Compare Cromlech ; Dolmen ; Men- 
hir 

COVING. A. That part of a structure 
which forms a coved projection beyond the parts 
below, aS a concave, curved surface under the 
overhang of a projecting upper story ; a cove or 
series of coves. 

B. The curved or splayed jambs of a fire- 
place which narrows toward the back. 

COWL. A cap, hood, or like contrivance 
for covering and protecting the open top of a 
pipe, shaft, or other duct while permitting the 
free passage of air. It may be merely a bent- 
over portion of the pipe or a more elaborate 
device, as a contrivance for improving the 
draught of a chimney ; usually a metal tube or 
pipe nearly as large as the flue and arranged at 
top with a curve so as to bring the smoke out 
in a nearly horizontal direction. It is custom- 

107 


He 


re, - CRADI EO pas: 

ary to make se curved tube sonra free tc 
rotate, and fitted with a wind vane, so that t bes 
will turn easily and always present ‘the convex 
or closed part of the curve to the force of the ‘a 
wind. The term is also applied to a similar — 
contrivance at the top of a ventilating shaft. 

COYSEVOX (pronounced Coesevau), A 
TOINE; sculptor; b. Sept. 29, 1640 (a 
Lyons) ; “d. Oct. 10/51 720; 

Coysevox, the favourite sculptor of Louis — 
XIV., was the son of a cabinetmaker of Lyons — 
(Rhone, France). In the baptismal records — 
the name is written Quozeveau. He spelled it a 
Queseveau. At the age of seventeen he entere a | 
the atelier of Larambert in Paris, He was 
appointed sculpteur du roy, and in 1667 bonatld 
to work on the decoration of the Louvre under 
the direction of Charles Lebrun (see Lebrun, — 
C.). From 1678 to 1686 he directed the ‘ 
sculptural decoration of the palace at Ver- 
sailles, especially the Hscalier (stairway) des 
Ambassadeurs, the Galerie des Glaces, and 
the Salon de la Guerre. He made numerous 
statues for the exterior of the palace, and, in — 
the park of Versailles, the Montaine de la 
Gloire, and many statues, vases, and the like. — 
October 29, 1678, he was made professor at the =a 
Académie, Paris. His works at the chateau of 
Marly are now much dispersed. Coysevox 
designed the monument of Cardinal Mazarin 
now in the Louvre, the monuments to Colbert — 
in the church of 8. Eustache, Paris, the monu- 
ment of Charles Lebrun in the church of 8. 
Nicolas du Chardonnet, Paris. A list of about = 
300 of his works is given by Jouin; op. cit. =e 

Jouin, Antoine Coysevox; Gonse, Sculpture 
francaise ; Dezallier d’ Argenville, Vie des fameux 
sculpteurs ¢ Fermelhuis, Eloge funébre de Coy- 
Sevox ; Genevay, Style Louis XIV. ; Maqnet, Paris. 
sous Louis XIV. 

COZZARELLI, GIACOMO ; architect and 
sculptor; b. 1453; d. 1515. 

Cozzarelli was a pupil of Francesco di 
Giorgio Martini (see Martini, F. di G.) who was 
interested in the revival of wrought-iron work 
in the fifteenth century (see Caparra). Espe- 
cially notable are the torchholders of the Palazzo 
Pandolfo Petrucci in Siena (Italy). He enlarged 
the church of the Osservanza (Siena), and did 
some good work in coloured terra cotta. 

Mintz, Renaissance. 


CRAB. In building, a winch or similar 
machine for hoisting weights, used in connec- 
tion with a crane, derrick, and the like. . S 

CRADLE. Any light framework of small — 
and slender parts, —as furring strips or the — 
like, — forming a support or backing for other 
work, especially when extending in a generally 
horizontal direction, as the centring of an 
arched drain, the furring used to support a 
cornice or a plaster imitation of a vault, or 
the like. 

708 ’ 


a ee ae ee 


a 


CRAIG 


CRAIG, JAMES ; architect; d. June 23, 
1795. 

Craig was a nephew of James Thomson, the 
poet, and a pupil of Sir Robert Taylor (see 
Taylor, R.). In 1767 he won a 
competition for a plan for the con- 
struction of new streets and squares 
in the city of Edinburgh (Scotland). 
The ‘‘New Town” of Edinburgh 
was built according to this plan. 

Redgrave, Dictionary of Artists of 
the English School. 

CRAMP. A. In masonry, a 
small metal member to secure to- 
gether two adjoining parts or pieces. 
It is usually a short flat bar, having 
its two ends turned down at right 
angles and embedded in holes in the 
stones. 

B. Same as Clamp. 
CRANDALL. In stone 
dressing, an axelike instrument 4 
used in finishing the softer 
stones. Its head consists of a 
number of movable steel points, 
secured side by side in a slot 
through the end of the handle, thus forming a 

toothed edge parallel to the handle. 

CRANE. A machine for raising, lowering, 
and generally moving weights. In its original 
and simplest form, 
it consists of an 
upright leg, — 
fixed, or more 
often pivoted, — 
from which _ pro- 
jects a fixed arm 
bearing a wheel or 
pulley. In modern 
times this form 
has been developed 
into a trussed or 
built-up structure 
curving outward 
as it rises from its base, and thus forming 
a cantilever. By extension, the term is also 
applied to various other forms of hoisting 
machines, even to such as have two legs or 
supports, the beam or arm being always fixed 
to the support, which feature alone distin- 
guishes cranes from some forms of derricks. 
Aside from building operations, the most com- 
mon use of cranes in connection with architec- 
ture has been in their application to fireplaces 
for the suspension of household utensils over 
the flames. For this purpose they were usually 
of wrought iron, frequently elaborate and beauti- 
ful in design, and either secured to the chimney 
back or forming part of a large and heavy and- 
iron. —D. N. B.S 

Travelling Crane. One arranged to move 
as a whole along a track. 

709 


CRANDALL. 


CREMATOR 


CRAPINA, MARTINO DA. 
tino da Crapina.) 

CREASING. A course, or several courses, 
of tiles or bricks laid upon the top of a wall or 


(See Mar- 


CREDENCE FROM CHURCH OF S. CROSS, NEAR WINCHESTER, C. 1460. 


chimney with a projection of an inch or two 
for each course over the one below, to throw off 
water. The coping, if there is one, comes 
above the creasing. A layer of slates or of 
metal over a projecting string course or window 
cap, serving as a flashing to prevent the infil- 
tration of moisture, is also called a creasing. 
The term is little used in the United States. 

CREDENCE; CREDENCE TABLE. In 
ecclesiastical usage, a table placed on one side 
of a sanctuary as a convenience to the officiant 
and upon which the church vessels, service 
books, etc., are kept. This is sometimes mov- 
able, but sometimes is the shelf of a recessed 
cupboard, the top of which may receive archi- 
tectural treatment. 

CREMATOR; -TORIUM; -TORY. A 
furnace for the destruction by heat of any sub- 
stance; preparation being made for the complete . 
incineration of the substances burned, the carry- 
ing off of the gaseous products in a thorough and 
harmless way, and the protection of surrounding 
parts of the building, or of other buildings, from 
a dangerous heat. There is usually a crematory 
attached to a dissecting room, and it is con- 
sidered important that this should do its work 
thoroughly, while attracting but little attention. 
Recent hygienic science has introduced the use 
of small furnaces of this kind in connection with 
the kitchens or sculleries of ordinary dwelling 
houses, in order that rubbish which would other- 
wise be thrown into the dust bin or carried away 
in barrels, thus perhaps spreading contagion of 
some kind, may be disposed of ina clean, thorough, 
and safe way. The larger furnace used for the 
incineration of human corpses is generally estab- 

710 


CRENEL 


lished far from any large town, and has some 
surroundings intended to be pleasant to the 
eye, and to accommodate mourners who accom- 
pany the corpse to the place of cremation. The 
furnace itself is so arranged that the corpse will 
not be brought in contact with fuel other than 
burning gas; because it is required that the 
ashes of the corpse shall not be mingled in 
the slightest degree with other results of com- 
bustion. Slightly differing processes are em- 
ployed to reach this result, but in general it is 
true that the flame—in the sense in which 
burning gas following a powerful draught is 
flame—is that which reaches the corpse and 
which reduces it to uniform, dry, and cleanly 
ashes. — R. S. 

CRENEL. The embrasure or open space 
between two merlons or solid portions of a 
battlement or castellated parapet. It origi- 
nally signified any opening in a defensive work 
for an outlook or the discharge of missiles. 

CRENELATE. To form with battlements, 
as a parapet; to furnish with battlements, as a 
building. In former times in Europe the right 
to crenelate was a matter of royal licensure. 

The adjective crenelate is sometimes used 
instead of crenelated, the participial adjective 
from the above verb. (Written also crenel- 
late.) 

CRENELET. A. A small crenel, whether 
in an actual battlement or in a decorative design 
imitating one. 

B. A small loophole. 

CRENELLE. Same as Crenel. 

CREOLE ARCHITECTURE. That of the 
peoples of European descent in tropical and 
subtropical America— French, Spanish, Eng- 
lish, etc., in the West Indies; French and 
Spanish in New Orleans, and the like. The 
term Creole differs in its special application, but 
means always, born in the new country of pure 
European stock; and this applies to cattle, 
poultry, etc., as well as to mankind. (See 
Mexico, Part II.; South America; United 
States, Part II.; West Indies.) 

CREPIDOMA. In Greek archeology, a 
foundation ; especially, in modern usage, the 
whole foundation of a temple or other Greek 
building, including the flat floor or pavement of 
the naos, pteroma, etc., and of the masonry sub- 
structure. It is common to use the term for 
the floor alone, upon which still remain either 
fragments or traces of the walls, the columns, 
etc., from which the study of the ruined build- 
ing can be undertaken. 

CREST; CRESTING. An _ ornamental 
member, or a group or series of members, used 
to form a decorative finish at the top of any 
structure; as along the ridge of a roof, as an 
elaborate coping, the top of a pinnacle, or the 
like. -Crest may perhaps be considered as 
restricted to mean an isolated single ornament, 

Tid 


| while cresting may be more properly applied 
- a continuous feature. 


Studies at Athens, or by the Archzological 


CRIB 


CREST TABLE. A crested or saddlebath a ig 
coping, more or less ornamental, often finished 
at the top with an astragal, frequently used for | 
the top of a wall, especially of the merlons and | 
crenels of a battlement. . A 

CRETE, ARCHITECTURE OF. Thi 
great island has been little explored because. 
still remaining nominally under Turkish con- — 
trol, it has been the chosen spot for insurrections 
in the Greek interest ; and parties of foreigners - > ; 
are looked on with suspicion and feel themselves 
to be in danger. The constant insurrections, in — 
which the Mussulman and Christian forces have 
proven nearly equal, have resulted also in the — 
complete destruction of many villages, including — 
important buildings. Such buildings, and even 
some which have not been deliberately ruined, _ 
are used as quarries by modern builders and 
lime burners. The recent policy of the Ottoman 
government in preventing the exportation of 
sculptures and other antiquities, and keeping — 
them for the museum at Constantinople, though — 7 
perfectly reasonable and justifiable, has resulted — = 
in a do-nothing policy in countries which, like  _ 
Crete, are far removed from the centres of Otto- 
man power, and are disfranchised politically. 
Foreigners have only now begun to receive per- 
mission to dig, and the government will under- —s— 
take nothing. Even when foreigners desire 
permission merely to explore, and are willing to. 
turn over to the authorities all objects which — 
may be found, difficulties have been made. 
Explorations by the American School of Classical 


aa 


Institute of America, have resulted chiefly in 
the discovery of inscriptions and of fragments 
of sculpture ; and the architecture is as yet little 
known, although remains at Gortyna and Cnos- 
sus are known, and others are being brought to 
light. This is partly because no adequate 
measured drawings nor even photographs have — 
been published. 

Historically, it seems certain that Cretan 
civilization was much more ancient than that — 
of the mainland of Greece, and much less 
modified by the Dorian and other invasions ; 
that on this account its time of glory and power 
had passed before what is to us the historic age, 
and the age of Grecian art properly so called. — 
(For the details of the very early buildings, see 
Pelasgic Architecture.) — R. 8. 

CRIB. A. A structure of logs, 
strips, intended to be left open without en- 
closure. Specifically, in engineering, a frame 
of timber filled generally with stone to load it 
and keep it in place. It is formed of longi- 
tudinal courses of logs or square timbers, rarely 
less than three in number, spaced 8 to 10 feet 
apart, which are tied together with transverse 
ties of smaller timber, spaced 5 to 6 feet, and 

712 


bars, or 


pieces simply laid on them, and 


_and cross pieces to the proper 


CRIBW ORK 


notched, or halved, or dovetailed over each 
timber of the longitudinal course, and spiked or 
trenailed at each crossing. The whole crib 
therefore is divided into cells which are filled 
generally with stone, sometimes 
with concrete or earth. Such 
cribs are used chiefly for dock- 
ing and wharves, as retaining 
structures, piers for temporary 
bridges, foundations under water, 
etc. Being of timber they are 
not durable except under water. 

B. In house- moving (see 
Shoring) the system of timbers 
placed under each runner or 
long timber on which the rollers 
are placed. It is composed of 
longitudinals laid upon the 
ground, connected by cross 


supporting other longitudinals 


height. Their purpose is also 
to give bearing surface on the 
ground for the weight upon the 
runners. 

C. Any small and slight building walled and 
roofed wholly or in part with open framing, or 
with strips having open spaces between. (See 
Corn Crib.) — W. R. Hutton. 


Cris FoR HAy, AT HASLITHALL, SWITZERLAND. 


CRIBWORK. Sameas Grillage. 
Foundation.) 

CRICKET. A piece of sloped roofing laid 
in an otherwise horizontal valley so as to pro- 
duce one or more sloping valleys to throw off 
water which would otherwise be retained. 
Thus, if a sloping roof is interrupted by a 
chimney standing squarely across the slope, a 
horizontal valley would naturally result along 
the upper side. It is therefore usual to con- 
struct there a small piece of roofing sloping 
laterally in one or both directions, so as to pro- 
duce one or two diagonal valleys at its meeting 
with the main roof. 

CRIOSPHINX. An Egyptian sphinx of 
the kind which combines the head of a ram with 
a lion’s body. 

CRIPPLE (adjectival term). Same as Jack. 

CRIPPLE WINDOW. Same as Dormer 
Window. Local English. — (A. P. 8.) 

713 


(See also 


Christofanello. ) 


CROCKET 
CHRISTOFANELLO. (See Battista di 


CRITIUS (Kritios); sculptor. 
The bronze statues by Antenor of the tyran- 


ef 


CRIB OF TIMBER, FORMING A FOOTING. 


nicides Harmodios and Aristogiton which had. 
been raised upon the Acropolis at Athens were 
taken away by Xerxes in 480 B.c. About 470 
B.c. the sculptors Critius and Nesiotes were 
commissioned to replace them. Several repre- 
sentations of their work have come down to us. 
Mitchell, History of Greek Sculpture. 
CROATIA, ARCHITECTURE OF. This, 
so far as of general interest, is concentrated in 
the cities of Agram (Zagrab or Zagreb), the 
ancient capital; Varasd (or Varazdin); and 
Karlstadt (or Karlovac). Of these, the first- 
named consists of three well-marked divisions ; 
the ancient city retains its curious fortifications, 
and includes a medizval bishop’s palace some- 
what defensible, with battlemented towers, the 
cathedral with a Romanesque front of the 
eleventh century, and modern public buildings 
of some interest. The other towns named are: 
more like large villages than cities in the usual 
sense. The provinces are known to contain 
Roman remains of interest, but as yet they have 
not formed the subject of careful study. (See 
Austrian States ; Hungary.) — R. S$. 
CROCKET. In Gothic architecture, an 
ornament consisting of a projecting piece of 
sculpture worked on the edge of a gable, on one: 
of the sloping ridges of a spire, on an upright of 
ornamental character, such as the side pieces of 
choir stalls, or the like. The most usual char- 
acter of the carving is a piece of leafage with a 
strong stem or rib, the leafage being often much 
in relief, and fantastically cut. The term is 
derived from the French crochet, which signifies 
any piece of leafage or similar ornament forming 
one member of a design, such as one corner of a 
714 


CROK 
foliated capital; but this more general usage 
has not prevailed in English. — R. 8. 
CROK. Same as Crutch. . 

_ CROMLECH. A rude stone monument of 
prehistoric or uncertain date (compare Dolmen ; 
Menhir). As the three terms are Keltic words 
whose significance is not accurately reproduced 
in the modern term, differences exist in the 
application of all three words. Thus, cromlech 
in Welsh means a stone supported on three 
or more stones set upright beneath it, the 
uppermost one being somewhat flat and form- 
ing a table top or the roof.to a cell, as the 


CROCKETS ON A CAPITAL, CA- 
THEDRAL OF SEMUR (COTE- 
D’OR). 


CHOIR, 


monument may be regarded; but such a struc- 
ture is called dolmen in Brittany (N. E. D.). 
It is generally assumed that these monuments 
are sepulchral chambers, and that the intention 
has generally been to heap the earth around and 
above them so as to form a mound or barrow. 
—R. 8. 

CRONACA, IL (SIMONE DEL POLLA- 
JUOLO) ; Florentine architect; b. Oct. 30, 
1457; d. 1508. 

Simone was called Cronaca, the chronicler, 
from his endless stories about the Roman monu- 
ments. He was brought up as a woodworker, 
intarsiatore, spent much time in Rome, and 
acquired a thorough knowledge of the antiquities. 
The buildings which can with certainty be 
credited to him are in Florence and not very 
numerous. In 1489 he superintended work 
upon the roofs of the Duomo. In 1490 he was 
appointed maestro dei scarpellini at the 
Palazzo Strozzi, and in 1497 became architect 
of that building. Cronaca substituted plain 
stone for rustication in the last three courses, 
and designed the celebrated cornice of the Strozzi. 
At about this time he built the sacristy of Santo 
Spirito from the model by Giuliano da San Gallo 
(see San Gallo, G. da). The fine church of 8. 
Salvatore al Monte (consecrated 1504) is attrib- 
uted to Simone by Vasari. It was much 

715 


CROCKETS FROM CAPITALS IN 
CATHEDRAL OF 
SemuR (COTE-D’OR). 


and after July 15, 1495, bulls the great hal 
the Palazzo Vecchio, entirely remodelled. 
Vasari. Milanesi publishes a Prospetto Crono- — 
logico della vita e delle opere di Cronaca ite 
his Vasari. = o | 


car nane te comme Die Architektur dies Bens 1 
in Tosc; Vasari, Milanesi ed.; Miintz, Renais- — 


CROCKETS FROM CAPITALS IN CHOIR, | 
CATHEDRAL OF SEMUR (COTE- — 
D’OR). 


sance, Vol. II., 1891; 
Fabbriche di Firenze ; 
Firenze. 


CROP; CROPE. A bunch of foliage worked 
or sculptured at the top of a spire, finial, or __ 
similar decorative member, and having a 
resemblance to the top or crop of a plant. 
(Compare Finial ; Poppyhead.) 

CROSS. A. A gibbet of the peculiar form 
employed by many ancient nations ; the signifi- 
cation of the Latin crua having nothing to do 
with the exact form of the gibbet in question. . 
N. E. D. approves the use of the English word in 
this primary signification. That especial gibbet a 
upon which Christ was exposed is generally as- 
sumed to have been composed of a horizontal 
piece secured at right angles upon a high, up- 
right piece of timber; hence the following 
definitions : — 

B. Any object consisting primarily of two 
straight or nearly straight pieces forming right 
angles with one another ; whether a mere delin- — 
eation on a flat surface or a solid, free-standing 
piece, or something partaking of both natures, 
is indifferent. Architecturally speaking, the 
cross may appear carved in stone cut through 
or into a wall in the form of a window, loop- 
hole, or mere sunk panel, or in the form of an 
upright emblematic addition forming no essen- 

716 


Mazzanti-Badia, Migliort 
Fantozzi, Nuova guida di 


CROSS 


tial part of the architectural design, as upon 


the top of a spire, or standing upon a rood 
beam or rood screen at the entrance to a chan- 
cel or sanctuary. The cross may or may not 
bear the image of the crucified Saviour. When 
that image is not present, the cross may be 
taken as anemblem. (See Symbology.) 

C. A monument or small building of any 


kind, surmounted by a cross in sense B, and 


of which the said cross forms a very important 
part. The portable objects, such as the staves 
carried by certain ecclesiastics and surmounted 
by a cross, belong under this definition, but are 
not subjects of architectural inquiry. (For the 
buildings, see City Cross and Market Cross, 
below ; Cross of Queen Eleanor.) 

D. An object conventionally assumed to be 
@ representation or modification of a cross in 
sense 6. Thus, a slight modification pro- 
duces the Cross Crossed, a heraldic device in 
which each arm of the cross is formed again 
into a cross; the Cross of Jerusalem, in which 
each arm terminates in a crossbar so that each 
arm represents the capital T; the Maltese 


_ Cross, in which each of the four arms is like an 


arrowhead pointing inward; that is to say, it 
is a cross of eight points grouped in couples. 
None of these are of architectural importance, 
occurring as they do merely in heraldic and 
similar appliances. Many forms are employed 
in heraldry, and some few of these occur con- 
stantly in ordinary jewelry and the like. In 
painted architectural decoration, crosses in this 
sense and of many forms are freely employed 
mingled with other liturgical emblems. 

(For the Irish Crosses, see bibliography under 
Ireland. For the use of the cross in church 
architecture and connected branches of art, see 


the bibliography under Gothic; Romanesque ; 


Symbology.) — R. 8. 

Archiepiscopal Cross. One which, having 
the general character of the Latin cross, has 
two horizontal bars instead of one. 

City Cross. In the Middle Ages, a structure 
with a raised platform from which public ad- 
dresses could be made, laws and edicts pro- 
claimed, and the like; usually, a steeplelike 
ornamental building ending in a cross. In some 
instances, this structure was high and elaborate 
enough to supply a pulpit or stand for the 
speaker, raised above the pavement at the base. 

Consecration Cross. One used with others 
in the ceremony of consecrating a church. Such 
crosses were frequently made a part of the 
permanent interior decoration of a building. 

Greek Cross. One which has the two bars 
of equal length and crossing one another in the 
middle, so that the four arms are equal. It is 
customary to speak of churches whose nave, 
choir, and transept arms are equal, or approxi- 
mately equal, in length as built on the plan of 
a Greek cross. 

717 


CROSS 


Latin Cross. One which has an upright 
much longer than the crossbar, or, in other 
words, which has three arms equal or nearly 
equal in length, and the fourth much longer. 
The ordinary Romanesque and Gothic church in 
Western Europe, and all the churches which 
succeeded the classical revival, and in which the 
nave is longer than the choir and much longer 
than either arm of the transept, is commonly 
spoken of as being built on the plan of a Latin 
cross. 

Market Cross. Same as City Cross; the 
term arising from the common usage of locating 
such crosses in the principal market place of a 
town. 

Memorial Cross. Any cross erected in mem- 
ory of a person or event. (See Cross of Queen 
Eleanor; Cross of §. Louis.) Many City 
Crosses, Preaching Crosses, and the like were 
originally memorial crosses. 

Papal Cross. <A modification of the Latin 
Cross, having three horizontal arms. (Com- 
pare Archiepiscopal 
Cross, above.) 

Poultry Cross. The 
Market Cross at Salis- 
bury, Wiltshire, Eng- 
land. 


CROSSES AS FINIALS OVER GABLES. 


Prayer Cross. One erected in a village or 
at the crossing of important roads, or the like ; 
generally, with a small altar at which mass 
could be said on certain occasions, and with a 
figure of Christ or a group of the Virgin and 
Child. A very few of these still exist, at 
least in part; one is mentioned as standing at 
Royat (Puy de Dome). A few of these were in 
bronze, and drawings of some have been pre- 
served. 

Preaching Cross. A cross erected by the 
roadside, or in the market place of a town, 
generally upon a stone platform, approached by 
a few steps, called a Calvary, where monks or 
friars could address the people. It was gener- 
ally a simple structure, the cross forming the 
finial of a stone shaft. In market places, how- 
ever, the preaching cross was often a polygonal 
building richly decorated with an open vaulted 
story below, and a spire above with pinnacies 
and statues. Memorial crosses were, on occa- 
sion at least, preaching crosses. (See above, 
City Cross ; Market Cross.) 

718 


CROSS CHURCH 


Queen’s Cross. (See Cross of Queen Eleanor.) 

S. Andrew's Cross. A saltire, that is a 
cross with four equal arms, but set diagonally. 

Tau Cross. An object having the form of a 
capital T, associated with certain early mys- 
teries of faith which were perhaps derived from 
the Ankh. ; 

Wayside Cross. A cross erected by the 
side of a road in Roman Catholic countries as a 
station for prayer, or to commemorate a local 
event, as a murder or other tragedy. (See above, 
Preaching Cross.) 

CROSS CHURCH. A cruciform church ; 
that is, a church with transepts which project 
on either side, producing a cross-shaped ground- 
plan. 

CROSSET; CROSSETTE. A. A lateral 
projection of the architrave mouldings of classic 
doors and windows at the extremities of the 
lintel or head ; they appear to have originated 
in Asia Minor, as reminiscences of the projection 
of the ends of the lintel beyond the doorposts ; 
are found occasionally in Greek and Roman 
architecture, and frequently in Renaissance and 
modern buildings. The most elegant are those 
formed by returning one or two of the outer 
bands and all the mouldings of the architrave 
around a slight projection of the inmost band. 
Called also Ancones and Prothyrides. 

B. The projecting ears or lugs of joggled 
voussoirs and keystones. 


Written also croisette and  crosette. — 
AMD. Fi: 

CROSS GARNET. (See under Hinge.) 

CROSSGRAINED. Having the grain 


transverse or oblique to the length ; used par- 
ticularly of boards in which, owing to the crook- 
edness of the log from which they are cut, the 
grain lies diagonally or crooked in the plane or 
in the width of the board, such stuff being 
liable to chip under the plane, and difficult to 
work. 

CROSSING. In a cruciform church or 
similar structure, the open square made by the 
intersection of the transept with the nave and 
choir ; also that intersection in general, as at 
the ridges of the roofs in cases where there is no 
central tower. 

CROSS LIGHT. A. Light received from 
windows in walls at right angles to each other 
and so distinguished from Counter Light from 
windows in opposite walls ; and 

B. The same as Counter Light. Restriction 
to the first sense is more scientific. In this 
sense cross light is permissible from the side 
and rear in audience rooms and class rooms, but 
should on no account be allowed from side and 
front. (See Lighting.) 

CROSS OF QUEEN ELEANOR. One 
of those erected as memorials of Eleanor of 
Castille, queen of Edward I. (died in Lincoln- 
shire, 1290). The body was embalmed, and 

719 


‘CROWN 


the funeral procession set out for London. The 
procession rested at Lincoln, Grantham, Stam- 


ford, Geddington, Northampton, Stony-Strat- 
ford, Woburn, Dunstable, Saint Albans, Waltham, 
Kast-Cheap (London), and Charing (now Char- 
ing Cross, London). The list is given with 
slight variations by different authorities. At 
each of these points a stone cross was erected 
by the king. The architects or masons employed 
were Richard de Stowe, John de Battle, Dymenge 
de Legeri, Michael de Canterbury, Richard de 
Crundale, and Roger de Crundale. The crosses 
at Northampton, Waltham, and Geddington 
still remain. 


The cross at Charing having been destroyed — 


in 1647, was replaced about 1863 by a careful 
reproduction of the original so far as its design 
had been preserved. The new cross stands a 
few yards east of the original site. 


R. Gough, in Vetusta Monumenta, Vol. III. ; 


Hunter, On the Death of Queen Eleanor of Cas- 
tille, in Archeologia, Vol. XXIX., p. 167; Britton, 
An Essay towards a History and Description of 
Ancient Stone Crosses ; Architectural Antiquities, 


Vol. I. Bo sh 


CROSS OF S. LOUIS. One of those 
erected by the sons of 8. Louis, king of France, 
when bringing the body of their father from 
Paris to Saint Denis. 

CROWDE. A crypt or cellar: especially 
of a church; obsolete since the seventeenth 
century in all its forms, as crowd, croude, 
shroud, and also in the plural, as ‘the 
crowdes.” 

CROWFOOT. On a drawing, plot, or the 
like, a V-shaped mark, like an arrowhead, to 
indicate, by the location of its point, the line, 
surface, or point from or to which a certain 
dimension is to be taken, —as at each end of a 
reference line, — or to which a written or printed 
note or direction may refer. (Called also Crow’s- 
foot.) 

CROWN. 
cially of an arch or vault. Like Haunch (which 
see), the term is applied to a part of an arch 
which cannot be limited exactly. By extension, 
used attributively, as crown cornice, crown mould- 
ing, and the like. 

B. A decorative termination, as of a tower or 
turret, which is assumed to resemble a crown in 
the common sense, such as finished the well- 
known tower of 8. Dunstan’s church in the 
city of London. In this, the steeple is replaced 
by four flying buttresses each starting from a 
pinnacle and meeting in the middle ; where they 
carry a small, very slender spire which rests 
entirely upon these open arches. The church 
of 8. Giles in Edinburgh, which dates from 
a much earlier time than the London tower, has 
eight arches springing from the four corners and 
the axes of the four faces of the tower, and these 
carry a lanternlike steeple of considerable elabo- 

720 


A. The head of anything, espe- © 


‘ 
. 


CROWNING 


ration, the whole structure being a singularly 
effective piece of the very latest Gothic feeling 
lingering in the sixteenth century. — R. 8. 

CROWNING. A. The operation, and the 
result, of forming anything with a slight convexity 
upward. Crowning is practised in laying floors 
of broad span, especially to sustain heavy strains, 
in order to offset the sagging likely to result in 
time ; upon roadways to secure a proper drainage 
to the gutters. (See Camber ; Crown-up.) 

B. The termination of the upper part of a 
building by a suitable decorative feature such as 
a cornice, pediment, or finial. 

CROWN STEEPLE. Same as Crown, B. 

CROWN-UP (v.). To give an upward 
tending convexity (to anything). A road or 
so-called flat roof is said to be crowned-up when 
the middle is made higher than the sides. (See 
Camber.) In Gothic vaulting it was at certain 
epochs customary to crown-up each compartment 
of the vault, giving to the middle, the point 
where the diagonal arches cross and where the 
‘boss was situated, an elevation greater than that 
of the points of the transverse and wall arches. 

CROW-QUILL. Asmall,sharp-pointedsteel 
drawing pen, having the barrel holder and pen 
in one piece; supposed to replace the small 
quill pen made from a crow feather, anciently 
employed for very fine free-hand drawing in line. 

CROW’S-FOOT. Same as Crowfoot. 


Crow STEPS: GLIMMINGEHUS, SCANIA, SWEDEN. 


CROW STEP. Any one of the steps of a 
stepped gable. (Called also Cat Step, Corbel 
Step, and Corbie Step.) 

CROW STONE. The capstone of a gable 
upon which is set the finial cross or pinnacle. 

CRUCIFIX. A Latin cross bearing the 
image of Christ. Its use in architectural dis- 
positions is limited to the placing of the Rood 
on the Chancel Screen, which takes thence the 
name Rood Screen, and the sculptures of a 
Calvary, or a Wayside Cross or Market Cross. 
There are, however, a few instances of a rudely 
carved crucifix built into a church wall. 

721 


CRYPT 


CRUCIFORM. Shaped like a cross; i.e., 
with four arms at right angles. (See Cross ; 
Cross Church.) 

CRUCK. Same as Crutch. 

CRUNDALE, RICHARD DE;; architect; 
d. 1292 or 1293. 

Richard de Crundale built, and probably 
designed, the Eleanor Cross which was situated 
in the village of Charing, now the region called 
Charing Cross in London. After his death the 
work was continued by Roger de Crundale (see 
Cross of Queen Eleanor). Richard de Crundale 
did the marble work of the monument of Queen 
Eleanor in the chapel of Edward the Confessor 
in Westminster Abbey, and was employed on 
the works at the palace of Westminster. 

Joseph Hunter, On the Death of Eleanor of 
Castille in Archeologia, Vol. XXIX., p. 167. 

CRUNDALE, ROGER DE; architect. 

In 1292-1293 Roger de Crundale succeeded 
Richard de Crundale as architect of the Eleanor 
Cross, which formerly stood at Charing, now 
Charing Cross (London). He was also employed 
on the Eleanor Cross at Waltham (Essex, 
England). 

Hunter, On the Death of Eleanor of Castille, in 
Archeologia, Vol. XXIX., p. 167. 

CRUSHING FORCE; LOAD; WEIGHT. 
That kind of weight or force which acts or tends 
to act by crushing or compressing the parts of 
a member or material. In technical usage, 
commonly limited to such a load tending to 
rupture the resisting material by its direct 
pressure, such material considered as not being 
subject to breaking by flexure, buckling, or the 
like. (See Resistance ; Strength of Materials.) 

CRUSH ROOM. A room, spacious lobby, 
or salon in a theatre, opera house, or other 
place of entertainment, provided for promenad- 
ing and conversation between the acts or during 
intermissions in the entertainment. The term 
is more general in Great Britain than in the 
United States, where the French word foyer is 
more commonly employed. 

CRUTCH. In England, one of a pair of 
inclined timbers joined at the top and connected 
by one or two tie beams, the resulting frame 
forming the unit in the framework of early 
houses. Such pairs of crutches were placed at 
more or less regular distances apart, the included 
space being known as a bay. (See Wood, Con- 
struction in, Part I.) 

CRYPT. Properly, something concealed ; 
hence, — 

A, A room, whether used merely as a place 
of burial and reverenced when containing the 
ashes of a sanctified person, or used as an oratory 
or chapel. By extension, — 

B. A story beneath the pavement of a larger 
or more important upper church. It frequently 
happens that the crypt remains from some 
much earlier building, and that the newer 

722 


CRYPTOPORTICUS 


structure has been built around and above it 
without serious alteration of the old crypt. On 
this account much of our knowledge of the 


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Crypt: CATHEDRAL OF §. Lucius, CHuUR, SWITZERLAND. 
The choir is approached by the two flights of steps, between which is the 


entrance to the crypt below. . 


earliest Romanesque architecture is derived from 
these small, generally simple, and much-fre- 
quented sanctuaries. The term “crypt ” is some- 
times extended to signify the lower story of a 
two-storied building ; thus, the lower chapel of 
the Sainte Chapelle at Paris, and of the church 
of 8. Francesco at Assisi have been called 
crypts, and the overground crypt of 8S. Ethel- 
dreda’s chapel in London, which is all that 
remains of the great episcopal palace called 
Ely Place, is of exactly the same character as 
that of the Sainte Chapelle ; that is to say, its 
vaults are used to carry the floor of the princi- 
pal chapel on the level of the chief remains of 
the palace—the ground floor (crypt) being 
thus left for special services at special times, or 
for the use of non-residents, or for the daily 
attendance of the servants of the palace. — R. 8. 

CRYPTOPORTICUS. A roofed or vaulted 
passageway or corridor, sometimes, but not 
always, underground, serving either as a shel- 
tered promenade, or as a private communication 
between separate portions of a villa, palace, or 

723 


df 


an 


———) 


a 


ME: 


SS 
—— 


CUL DE FOUR am 


therm in ancient Roman architecture. The 
service of the great therm was largely carried 
on by their means. Imposing ruins of such 
passages remain in the Villa Hadriana 
at Tivoli, and on the Palatine’ Hill by 
the palace of Caligula. Pliny describes 
several in his villa at Laurentium (Ep. 
II., 17) which were wholly above 
ground. —A. D. F. H. < 
CRYSTAL PALACE. An exhibi- 
tion building composed in large part of 
iron and glass; a popular term. The 
original one was that built in Hyde 
Park, London, for the great exhibition 
of 1851, the first international exhibi- 
tion. The name was then extended to 
the great building at Sydenham, south- 
west of London, and, though less uni- 


p 
H ee 


ae 


versally, to the New York exhibition 
building which stood on what is now 
Bryant Park, at Sixth Avenue and 
Forty-second Street. 

CUBCILE. A bedroom or chamber ; 
a word rarely used except in translating 
the Latin cubiculum, or in poetic or 
classic allusions. (See Etruscan Archi- 
tecture.) 

CUBICULUM. A. In Roman 
architecture, a bedchamber or reclining 
room. Those in ordinary Roman houses, 
as at Pompeii, were of small size, lighted 
only through the door. or by artificial 
light, and were entered directly from 
the court. In one instance, at least, 
there are very small window openings 
high in the wall, and in some cases there 
is a relatively large door on the court, 
and a smaller door in addition. Owing 
to their small size they must have been 
but scantily furnished, though often beautifully 
decorated with wall paintings. They were mere 
sleeping cells, wholly unlike the modern bedroom. 

B. By extension, from A, a small enclosed 
space of any kind, in a building; a 


enclosed box een oe — 
at a Roman {hivfil Ae TS 
theatre, orthe “2 Wes 
like. Used. DY Seeeaey Fa 

WY fog tony hat 


Vitruvius to 
designate the 
recesses in 
walls to re- 
ceive the ends 
of »-beamss; 


hee 
ean 
\ aa ait 
\ i) ; 
ih 
\ 


I 

NaH 
Weare UN 
fi 


2 
ea A. D. BF: H. a(n “UM 

CUL DE Cvut pE Four, FORMED BY THE TOP 
FOUR. In oF A NICHE; CATHEDRAL OF 


2 Bosra, SYRIA. 
French archi- ; 


tecture, a half dome, or quarter sphere vault, 

as over an apse or niche ; misapplied in English 

sometimes to completely hemispherical vaults. 
724 


CUL DE LAMPE 


CULDELAMPE. A. An isolated corbel 
serving as a support for an oriel, turret, statue, 
column, or the like ; 
particularly one 
having a mass re- 
sembling an invert- 
ed pyramid or cone. 

B= A- conical; 
convexly rounded 
or pyramidal lower 
Cun DE LAMPE (BRACKET); termination of a 

eo REN ® CHAPEL, pendant, a newel 

post, or the like. 

The term is of French origin, probably 
derived from a fancied resemblance to the 
bottom of a hanging lamp. 

CUL DE SAC. A street, passage, or alley 
having only one issue, 7.e., closed at the further 
end and without branches or cross streets. Prop- 
erly speaking, the cul de sac is the remote end or 
closed portion of such a passage or impasse. 

CULINA. In Latin, a kitchen in the sense 


of a room especially appropriated to cooking ; 


differing from the atrium, in which, in early 
times, was situated the hearth where all the 
cooking was done. In Pompeii, some rooms exist 
which may be called either atrium or culina, as 
they are open with the compluvium, while there 
exists another atrium without a hearth. 

CULL LUMBER. (Abbreviated often as 


culls.) Inferior material ; wood of the lowest 
- grade and not fit for the usual purposes of con- 


struction. The term is used loosely in the lum- 


ber trade, the exact meaning varying in different 


parts of the country. Specifically, the inferior 
lumber not sufficiently good to be graded in 
one of the ‘standard classes. 

CULMIS, DE. (See Dechaume, Nicolas.) 

CULVER HOLE. An aperture in masonry 
to receive the end of a timber. (Compare Cul- 
ver House.) 

CULVER HOUSE. 
A dovecote or pigeon 
house. The old word 
for a pigeon, culver, 
gives this term and also 
Culver Hole, Culver 


CULVERT. A pas- 
sage or tunnel under an 
4 embankment or the like 
~ for the passage of water. 
Generally constructed 


Cur DE LAMPE (BRACK- of masonry and arched. 
ET) FRoM CuurRcH It serves the purposes 


AT East DEREHAM, of g drain, from which 
NoRFOLE. He ; 
it differs as being larger 

and of more elaborate construction. Distin- 
guished from a bridge as being a very subor- 
dinate part of the general structure. 

CULVER TAIL. A dovetail. (See Cul- 
ver House.) 

725 


CUNNINGHAM 


CUM. (In Latin, with, the preposition) ; in 
English ecclesiological use, denoting the com- 
bination of two parishes into one; in such 
phrases as Bolton-cum-Stowe. 

CUM CHILING. Same as Camp Ceiling ;. 
a corrupt form, prevalent in England, and 
sometimes used to designate simply the sloping 
part of an attic ceiling. 

CUNEUS. A. Literally, a wedge ; a Latin 
term for the wedge-shaped or trapezoidal bodies 
of seats between the aisles or climaces of 
ancient theatres or amphitheatres. 

B. In the writings of Vitruvius, a species 
of zigzag or fret painted on flat bands. 


_—. 


jo: ~ 


aH fe SS ea 
< 4 Ss 
io 


~ 


CuL DE LAMPE. 


CUNICULUS. A low underground passage, 
as to a burial chamber of an Etruscan tomb. 

CUNNINGHAM, GENERAL SIR ALEX- 
ANDER, K.C.I.E.; archeologist: b. 1814; 
d. Nov. 28, 1893. 

In 1831 he entered the service of the Hast 
India Company, and from 1840 to 1860 held 
the important office of constructor of public 
works in the Indian army. He won special 
distinction in the Sikh campaign of 1846. In 
1858 he was appointed chief engineer of the 
northwest provinces. In 1846-1847 he pub- 
lished The Temples of Kashmir and Ladakh, 
Physical, Statistical, Historical. In 1861 
Cunningham was intrusted by the viceroy with 
the Archzeological Survey of India, and con- 
tinued that work until his retirement in 1885. 
In 1871 he published Ancient Geography of 
India, and in 1892 his work on Gaya. 

Obituary in Journal R. I. B. A. (1893-1894, 
Deeley. ; 

726 


CUNTZ 


CUNTZ; architect. 

Cuntz appears as architect of the cathedral 
of Strasburg in 1382. He was succeeded by 
Michael von Freibourg (see Michael von Frei- 
bourg). He probably built the screen connect- 
ing the two towers in the third story of the 
facade. 

Gérard, Les Artistes de l’ Alsace. 

CUPBOARD. Originally a set of shelves 
upon which dishes, silver plate, and the like 
‘could be displayed; by transition, and as the 
decorative piece of furniture in question has 
disappeared from use, a small and shallow 
closet. 

CUPOLA. A. A bowl-shaped vault ; and 
the imitation of such a vault in lighter ma- 


CUPOLA OVER THE MIHRAB OF THE MOSQUE AT 
CorpDovA, SPAIN. 


terials. The significance of the term is in its 
form, and while it is erroneous to speak of a 
lath and plaster imitation of a Gothic roof as a 
vault, it is still correct to call a bowl-shaped 
roof a cupola even if it is hung from the roof 
timbers. A distinction is then to be made 
between (1) those cupolas which are of solid 
construction as in the Pantheon at Rome, 
about 142 feet internal diameter ; the cathedral 
at Florence, about 141 feet; the church of 
S. Peter at Rome, about 139 feet ; the ruined 
laconicum of the therm of Caracalla, about 
127 


126 feet ; the mosque of S. Sophia at Cons =a 


stantinople, about 100 feet ; and the mausoleum — 
of Sultan Mahmud at Bijapur in ~ northern 


India, which appears to be 124 feet wide, and 


is built on such terms of construction as to 
make it a marvel of lightness. 

In all these cases the support of the cup- 
shaped vault, as by Pendentives or by a Drum, 
is of especial importance. 

(2) Those cupolas which are partly of ma- 
sonry ; thus, the cathedral of S. Paul, in Lon- 
don, has the innermost curved ceiling, which is | 
visible from the pavement, of solid masonry ; 
and the haunches of this support a cone of — 
brick which carries very sufficiently the lofty 
and elaborate stone lantern; but the rounded 
outer shell of the cupola is of wood and lead, 
resting upon the circular drum of stone and 


upon the brick cone. The Déme des Invalides 


in Paris, where now is the tomb of Napoleon 
I.; built in a similar way of wood above two 
inner structures of stone, but having in this 
case a wooden lantern also. The church of the 
Val-de-Grace, in Paris; of beautiful contour, 
but similar in structure. The church of 8. 
Mark at Venice, which has five masonry cupo- 
las seen from within, the largest about 47 feet 
span, and each of these capped by a high outer 
shell of wood and metal. — 

(3) Those cupolas which are not of masonry 
in any part, but, if of any pretensions to size 
or permanence, usually of iron. Of these, the 
most interesting are those of the Halle au Blé 
at Paris (for which see Iron Construction). 
Capitol at Washington ; of. great dimensions 
and built out in an ingenious way beyond and 
around the original drum of masonry. That of 
the Paris Exhibition of 1878, somewhat more 
than 100 feet in diameter, and an admirable 
piece of engineering. That of the Paris Exhi- 
bition of 1889, nearly as large and very success- 
ful in design. 

There are also the cupolas of special charac- 
ter, such as those of wrought iron with the 
spaces filled in with tile which roof the reading- 
room of the Bibliothéque Nationale at Paris. 
These are not large, having each only about 32 
feet diameter, but nine of them are combined 
in one roof; the supports being four slender 
wrought iron columns, and twelve piers built 
into the outer walls of the room. In like man- 
ner, the later Byzantine buildings of Greece 
and other parts of the Levant, and those imita- 
tions of the Byzantine style which constitute a 
large part of Russian architecture, have cupolas 
of which the drums are singularly lofty, and 
are pierced with elaborate systems of windows, 
while the cupola proper or rounded part be- 
comes a mere roof to a tall cylindrical shaft. 

B. In popular usage, a small structure 
built upon a roof either for a lookout or to com- 
plete a design. Such buildings are commonly 

728 


atts 


FEATE AAV 


CUPOLA 


That of 8. Peter’s church at Rome ; seen from 
the northwest, which is in this church that which 
the northeast would be in a church if the usual 
orientation were followed. The cupola, the design 
of which is ascribed to Michelangelo, owes much, 
it is probable, to the work of Vignola. It is one 
of the three great cupolas of the world, a little 


smaller horizontally than that of Florence cathe- 
dral, but raised much higher above the site. It is 
built entirely of stone, and the interior is faced 
with mosaic, presenting, when seen from the 
church floor below, a more imposing and grace- 
ful effect than any similar structure in Europe. 


aa 


CUPOLATED 


of the nature of a lantern having windows on 
all sides, and being lightly built. In some 
cases, however, they protect the heads of wind- 
ing staircases and are then more massive, with, 
perhaps, a single opening serving as doorway 
of exit to the roof. 

Isabelle, Les Edifices circulaires et les Domes ; 
Gasset, Les Coupoles d@’ orient et d’occident ; Choisy, 


LT’ Art de batir chez les Romains; Choisy, L’ Art 
de batir chez les Byzantines. 
—R.S. 


CUPOLATED. Having one or more cupo- 
las, or formed like a cupola or series of cupolas. 

CURB. A piece or series of pieces along 
the edge of a structure to protect, strengthen, 
or retain other parts or materials, especially 
when rising above an adjoining level. Specifi- 
cally : — 

A, A dwarf wall or similar structure, act- 
ing more or less as a retaining wall; as the 
upper part of the wall surrounding a well and 
which projects above the ground: a well curb. 

B. A line of vertical stones along the edge 
of a sidewalk, often called curbstone, or collec- 
tively, curbstones. 

C. A retaining member or belt, forming a 
ring at the base of a dome, as an iron frame- 
work, or connected stones of a course. 

D. A similar horizontal member set between 
two successive slopes of a roof, retaining the 
feet of the upper tier of timbers (hence Curb 
Roof, which see under Roof) ; a coaming. 

—D.N. B.S. 

CURBSTONE. A stone forming a curb 
or part of a curb, or intended for that purpose. 
(See Curb, B.) 

CURF. An incision, groove, or cut made 
by a saw or other cutting tool, especially one 
across the width of a board or moulding, usually 
for the purpose of facilitating its being bent to 
a curve. Chimneys and piers which have 
leaned from the vertical are sometimes restored 
to verticality by cutting a curf in the side from 
which they lean. In shaping a square timber 
from the log by hewing, it is common first to 
cut along one side of the log a series of curfs ; 
that is, notches, the depth of which is regulated 
so as to form a gauge for the subsequent cutting 
away of the wood between. (Written also 
Kerf.) 

_ CURIA. A structure intended for the use 

of a tribal court, one of those provided for the 
early organization of the Romans; hence, at a 
later time, a building occupied by the Senate. 
It took different forms and was embodied in 
different structures, as described in the follow- 
ing articles. 

CURIA CORNELIA. Built after the 
destruction of the Curia Hostilia, but soon after 
destroyed in the reign of Augustus. 

CURIA HOSTILIA. A building tradi- 
tionally ascribed to a king of Rome, Tullus 

729 


CURTAIN 


Hostilius, who is thought to have produced it 
by altering and enlarging a temple. This 
building was destroyed by accident in 52 B.c. 

CURIA JULIA. built by Augustus, 
though perhaps begun during the lifetime of 
Julius. This building, although altered by 
Domitian, seems to have remained undestroyed 
until the reign of Diocletian, and the building 
of the fourth century has been identified with 
the church of 8. Adriano on the northeast side 
of the Forum. The plan of the building with 
its appendages, as probably left by Diocletian, 
is given by Lanciani (Ruins and Excavations 
of Ancient Rome), and references are given to 
other works. The actual meeting room was 
not very large, apparently 55 by 82 feet, nor 
was it considered a splendid building. Some 
vestige of earlier republican simplicity carried 
to affectation prevented any approach to the 
complicated and splendid character of modern 
legislative buildings ; at the same time it is not 
clear what were the accommodations for the 
business of the Senate apart from its general 
sessions, as for its committee work and the like. 

CURRADI, RAFFAELE; sculptor. 

A sculptor who was employed by Cosimo II. 
de’ Medici, Duke of Florence, to decorate the 
Pitti Palace and the Boboli Gardens. He was 
noted for his skill in working porphyry. The 
grotesques which he made for the portal of 
the Palazzo Fenzi, Florence, are especially fine. 

Gurlitt, Geschichte des Barockstiles in Italien ; 
Ebe, Spdt-Renaissance ; Ebe, Schmuckformen der 
Monumentalbauten. 

CURTAIL. In stair building, the outward 
curving portion of the hand rail and of the outer 
end of the lower step or steps of a flight; pos- 
sibly an abbreviation of curved tail: An ample 
curtail to the lowest two or three steps not 
only enhances their appearance, but offers an 
easier start to persons approaching from the 
side. <A plain semicircular curtail to the lowest 
step is called a bull nose. (See these terms 
under Step.) 

CURTAIN (I.). <A. In fortification, the 
wall between two towers or bastions, and in 
this sense accurately descriptive of a part of the 
defensive works. 

B. By extension, in a building having pavil- 
ions, projecting masses, and the like, the flat 
wall between any two such masses. (See Cur- 
tain Wall.) 

CURTAIN (II.). A hanging, usually of 
soft and pliant material, and usually for screen- 
ing, protecting, or hiding something, or for 
closing an opening, as adoorway. Those which 
hang in the church doorways of Europe are often 
of leather, and heavily lined and stuffed ; but 
curtains generally are assumed to be easily 
movable, and even capable of being compressed 
into narrow folds, for which purpose they are 
hung to rings which slide on a rod. 

730 


rear we i: oll ss ae ith * 
CN Cis iat , vam ‘ 
it Fils ‘ . 


CURTAIN WALL 
CURTAIN WALL. A portion of wall 
contained between two advancing structures, 
such as wings, pavilions, bastions, or turrets. 
The term indicates position, and not character 
or function. A curtain wall may be a mere 


screen, as to a court or yard, or a part of a 
facade; it may be solid or fenestrated, either 


higher or lower than its flanking structures, or 


of the same height. 

In modern construction, most often a thin 
subordinate wall between two piers or other 
supporting members; the curtain being  pri- 
marily a filling and having no share— or but 
little —in the support of other portions of the 
structure. Thus, in skeleton construction, cur- 
tain walls are built between each two encased 
columns and usually on a girder at each floor 
level or thereabouts. ; 

CURTILAGE. A. In the architectural 
sense, a court, usually, though not always, 
understood to be of 
small size. (Rare or 
obsolete.) 

B. In the mod- 
ern legal sense, the 
ground adjacent to a 
dwelling house and 
appertaining to it, 
as yard, garden, or 
court. 

CURVE. In ar- 
chitectural drawing, 
a thin piece of wood, 
metal, hard rubber, 
or like material, cut 
to an outline of va- 
ried curvature for 
laying out, in a 
drawing, curves not 
to be produced with 
the ordinary forms 
of compasses ; either 
because they are not 
arcs of circles, or 
because they are circular arcs of very long 
radius. Sets of special curves are used in 
ship drafting and railway plotting; one or 
two pieces usually suffice for the architect, each 
having a considerable variety of curves in its 
outline. Sometimes called French curve and 
set curve. (See Spline.) 

CUSHION. A rounded projection of a part 
not commonly of that form ; as in later classic, 
a frieze or part of a frieze projecting in a convex 
curve. (Compare Pulvination.) 

CUSHION CAPITAL. A type of capital 
common in Norman and Romanesque work, 
tenth to thirteenth centuries, in England and 
Germany, and to some extent in France, having 
an approximately cubical form with the lower 
part rounded off to meet the shaft, and a 
moulded abacus. The flat part is sometimes 

731 


v 


Cusp: PART OF THE GENDARMERIE IMPERIALE, CAEN 
(CALVADOS), FRANCE. 


The large windows and one in the turret adorned with solid cusps. 


} fs 4 ane > e ak: ‘Bae - 7 rua i sad ne ak 
‘ oan an ete Nagi Nr hur tee, * 
CUT SPLAN. | ne 


Py 


carved, oftener plain. In later examples” the 
lower part is more tapering, and divided into 
four or even more clustered conical masses. 
They appear to have been evolved out of the 
conditions and limitations of the crude early 
work. In early Christian and Byzantine archi- 
tecture certain heavy inverted pyramidal capitals  _ 
approximate the type, but appear to be degen- 
erate Corinthian capitals. (See Capital ; Impost 
Block.) — A. D. F. H. > 
CUSHION RAFTER. Same as Auxiliary 
Rafter, under Rafter. Y 
CUSP. Properly a point; in architecture, a 
point made by the intersection of two curved 
lines or members ; especially in Gothic 
windows, tracery, etc., where the arch 
is diversified on its intrados by folia- 
tion the curves of which are tangent. 
to the inner edge of the larger arch. 
The simplest are those seen in the 
ordinary cusped arch (which see. 
under Arch). Gothic tracery affords. 
many instances of the more elabo- 
rate sorts. (Outs, cols. 733, 734.) 
CUSPIDAL. Formed like a 
cusp ; terminating in a cusp; 
resembling or pertaining to a 
cusp. 


CUSPIDATHE (adj.). Having 
cusps ; composed of, or formed. 
like a cusp or cusps. 

CUSPIDATE (v. 
t.). To furnish with 
a cusp or cusps ; to 
make in the form of # 
a cusp or cusps. sO 

CUSPIDATION. 
A system of orna- 
mentation consisting aa 
of or containing > 
cusps, the tracery of ath 
Gothic architecture 
depending largely 
upon this. 

CUSTOMHOUSE. A building in which 
are the offices for the reckoning and calculations. 
of customs duties. One of the earliest buildings. 
erected for the purpose is the Dogana of Venice. 
Modern customhouses built by the great com- 
mercial nations in their principal seaports are: 
of great size and complexity of plan. ¥ 

CUT BRACKET. - A bracket-shaped piece —. 
of board used either as a shelf support or true 
bracket ; or as an ornament, as under the pro- ey 
jecting end nosings of the treads in an open-- . 
string stair. This latter finish is common in 


ee 
ee re 


“Colonial” houses in the United States. (See ‘4 
Bracketed String, under String.) a 
CUT-OUT, FUSIBLE. (See Electrical Ap- 7 


pliances. ) as 
CUT SPLAY. An oblique cutting of a. 
brick to fit a slope, a splay, or the like, as at. eo 
732 


~ 
os 
= 


CUT STANDARD 


the corners of an octagonal structure, a splayed 
doorway, or the edge of a gable to receive the 
coping. 3 

CUT STANDARD. The solid vertical side, 
or standard of a case of shelves, when cut to 
some ornamental outline, 
as for a bookcase or for 
shelves of diminishing 
width in an étagére, or 
the like. ; : 

CUT STONE. Stone 
accurately shaped for the 


Cusp: Earty DECORATED; 
SOLIHULL CHURCH, 
WARWICKSHIRE. 


The cusp is pierced, and ends not 
in a point but in two reversed 
spirals, —a rare form. 


place it is to occupy in 
the wall, vault, or other 
construction, having care- 
fully cut beds and joints, — 
and a face more or less 
smoothed to the general 
surface of the wall. (See 
Stereotomy; Stone Cut- 
ting.) 

CUVILLIES, FRAN- 
COIS DE (1.) ; architect, 
decorator, and engraver ; 


CUVILLIES 


signed the Fesidenz-theater in Munich, which 
was begun April 15, 1751, and is one of the 
finest examples of the French baroque style in 
Germany. He made extensive additions to the 
Residenz (Royal Palace) at Munich. Cuvilliés 


b. 1698 (at Soissons, Cusp: GotHic TRACERIED WinDOw; LATE 14TH CENTURY (NOTRE DAME, 


Aisne, France) ; d. about 
1767. 
He came to Paris in 1714 and entered the 
atelier of Robert de Cotte (see Cotte, R. de). 
ne Sept. 15, 1725, he 
was appointed Hof- 
baumeister to the 
Elector Karl Al- 
brecht (of Bavaria). 
After Dec. 13, 
1763, he assumed 
the direction of all 
the LElector’s con- 
structions. When 
Karl Albrecht be- 
came emperor as 
Karl VII. (Jan. 24, 
1742), Cuvilliés 
was made Hof- 
kammerrath and 
Hofbaumeister at 
the imperial court. 
He built the 
Cusp: DomeEstic WINDOW, Lustschloss at 
VERONA. Nymphenburg near 


The back of the archivolt cut away, ich. is ‘f 
following the lines of the cusped Munich. It P rob 
intrados. able that he de- 


733 


PARIS). 


All the decorative effect being derived from pierced cusps. 


excelled in the arrangement of parks and gar- 
dens. <A catalogue of his numerous works on 
art and decoration and of his many engravings. 
is given by Destailleur and Bérard (op. cit.). 
Seidel, Die Konigliche Residenz in Miinchen ; 
Destailleur, Notices sur quelques artistes francais ; 


Bérard, Catalogue de lceuvre des Cuvilliés pére 
et fils. 


Lan ae | 


Cusep: WINDOW IN S. STEFANO, VENICE. 
Double-cusped or double-foliated arch, 
734 


CUVILLIES 


CUVILLIES, FRANCOIS DE (II.); archi- 
tect, engineer, and decorator: b. 1734 (at 
Munich, Bavaria); d. about 1805. 

A son of Francois de Cuvilliés (I.) (see Cuvil- 
liés, Fr. I.). He succeeded his father as archi- 
tect of the Bavarian court. He edited his 
father’s works in 1773, and published a Bavarian - 
Vignola and studies of monuments, fountains, 
palaces, tombs, bridges, ete. 

For bibliography, see Cuvilliés, Fr. (1.) de. 

CYANOTYPE. A. The process of making 
prints on paper direct from a drawing or print 
on translucent paper or cloth. Paper is coated 
with a mixture of ammonia, citrate of iron, and 
potassium ferrocyanide. On exposure to light 
this is changed to insoluble Prussian blue ; 
while the lines of the drawing are left in white 
or a much paler blue. The blue print is 
immersed in a bath of clear water and becomes 
fixed by simply washing away all soluble matter. 

b. A print made by the above described 
process. (See Sun Print.) 

CYCLOIDAL ARCH. Anarch of cycloidal 
outline, having for intrados of each side the 
curve described by a point of a circle rolling 
along the rise of the arch, the diameter of 
the circle being half the span of the arch. 
Such arches are very exceptional. — (A. P. 8.) 

CYCLONE CELLAR. A kind of dugout 
or underground retreat constructed in the plain 
region of the United States as a refuge from 
cyclones. — F. 8. D. 

CYCLOPEAN (adj.). In ancient stone 
masonry, rude and of uncertain date; usually 
applied to a structure composed of stones of 
irregular form which have been fitted to one 
another by more or less rough dressing. The 
rudest work of this kind is that common in 
prehistoric work in Greece, in which the stones 
are almost without shape, and their arrangement 
seems wholly accidental, small pieces being used 
to fill up the spaces between the larger masses. 
A more advanced kind of masonry shows a face 
composed of irregular polygons. (See Polygonal 
Building.) 

CYCLOPEAN ARCHITECTURE or 
BUILDING. A primitive method of stone 
construction used in prehistoric times in Asia 
Minor, Syria, Greece, the Islands, and Italy. It 
was so named by Greek writers from the Cy- 
clopes, a race supposed to be its inventors and 
constructors, and was noted for the immense 
size, unfinished state, and irregular form of its 
masses, and for the use of small stones and clay 
mortar to fill in the interstices. As Cyclopean 
is merely a term for the earliest phase of Pelas- 
gic architecture, all historic details are given 
under that heading. — A. L. F. Jr. 

CYCLOSTYLAR. Characterizing a circu- 
lar colonnade or peristyle ; usually one having 
no cella or enclosed central structure ; monopte- 
ral, like the Temple d’_Amour at Versailles. 


735 


i iN Ras Sith Pe A ee ay 
eer catia 205 5 
: , “hal : pA Tbe ahh Mite! h, SDN 

¥ x my tee ye hes 
‘ 3 : Cs laa 


CYMATIUM 


CYMA. A projecting moulding, common 
in classic architecture and its derivatives, hav- 
ing an ogee pro- 
file, consisting 
usually of a con- 
vex and an equal 
concave arc, 
each nearly, or 
quite, a quarter 
round. There is 
usually a verti- 
cal fillet above 
and below the 
ogee. When the 
curve starts out- 
ward and up- 
ward from the 
vertical with the 
convex part first it is called a cyma recta, — 
with the concave part first, it is a cyma re- 
versa. When the moulding starts outward and 
downward it becomes an inverted cyma (recta 
or reversa). The cyma recta is the usual profile 
for the cymatium or crown moulding of a cor- 
nice ; the cyma reversa is common in bed moulds 
and as an exterior moulding or tzenia for archi- 
traves ; in modern work, especially in carpentry 
and joinery, it is known as an ogee, and is in 
common use as a stock moulding, quirked or 
plain filleted. The cyma is not common in 
medizeval architecture. (See Moulding ; Ogee ; 
Profile.) — A. D. F. H. 

CYMATIUM. A. A moulding named by 
Vitruvius, presumably a cyma, but perhaps 
not always or necessarily of any one given 
profile. 

JB. In modern nomenclature, a crown mould- 
ing to a cornice of the classic type. It thus 
specifies a feature and not a profile, The com- 
monest profile is, indeed, that of a cyma recta ; 
but the Tuscan order of Vignola has an ovolo 
and the Doric a cavetto for the cymatium, and 
there was no absolute uniformity even in ancient 
Roman practice. The Vitruvian distinction of 


CyMA. 
A, recta; B, reversa, 


CYMATIUM FROM A HovuUsE NEAR SERDJILLA, 
Syria, c. 400 A.p. 


Doric and Lesbian cymatium is not clearly un- 
derstood. Modern architects sometimes substi- 
736 


, 
\ 
Z 
f 
, 
Fee: 
i 


CYPRUS 


tute a chéneaw for the regular cymatium above 
the corona of the crown cornice. 
—A. D. F. H. 

CYPRUS, ARCHITECTURE OF. The 
ancient architecture, so far as its remains have 
been studied, takes its origin in a very ancient 
and entirely non-Greek original. The abun- 
dance of wood with which the mountains were 
formerly covered, the absence of marble or other 
hard and abundant stone, and the frequency of 
earthquakes, aided in a retention of earlier tra- 
ditions of building, and famous ancient shrines 
have been explored in modern times without the 
discovery of any indications of permanent archi- 
tectural structures. On the other hand, there 
are several buildings of unknown date which 
are extremely interesting, the most important 
of these being that known as the tomb of S. 
Catherine, not far from Salamis, a piece of dry 
masonry of large stones, the roof itself being 
composed of stone. A smaller building, also of 
unknown date, near Larnaka, has the roof 


ETE 


CYMATIUM FROM A HOUSE NEAR SERDJILLA, 
Syria, c. 400 A.D. 


formed of a single stone shaped on the under 
side to a hollow curve, as if in imitation of a 
vault. At Kouklia, among the ruins of old 
Paphos, are the foundations of a temple of 
Aphrodite, and traces of another are to be found 
at Golgoi. Salamis has been explored by the 
managers of the Cyprus Exploration Fund dur- 
ing the years beginning 1890 ; the site of Agora 
and that of the sacred temenos of Zeus have 
been found, and many architectural remains ; but 
no Greek structure exists in a condition other 
than that of complete ruin. The significance 
of these foundations, subterraneous structures, 
basement walls, and bases of columns has yet to 
be fully ascertained. In like manner the Acrop- 
olis of Curium, from the neighbourhood of which 
a vast number of valuable Greek and Oriental 
objects have been brought, mostly from tombs, 
has been partly explored, a theatre has been 
located, and a temple enclosure, with many col- 
umns of granite and marble, has been laid bare 
and mapped. At Dali, the ancient Idalion, an- 
other shrine has been pointed out. 
737 


CYZICHNE HALL 


From all this it appears that nothing of very 
great importance to Greek architecture will be 
learned. Roman remains are also rare, or of 
little consequence, so far as yet known. There 
are several very interesting small Byzantine 
churches, not unlike those of Athens as to their 
small size and their system of construction, but 
peculiar in having in some cases octagonal drums 
upon which rest octagonal cupolas. The Gothic 
buildings of the crusading epoch are much more 
important in size and in architectural pretension. 
The Lusignan dynasty, which was founded under 
the auspices of Richard I. of England in the 
twelfth century, lasted, with some interruptions, 
until the fifteenth century ; and whatever the 
inhabitants of the island were in religion or 
feeling, the ruling race was Catholic and mainly 
French in its associations. The result of this 
is seen especially in the very fine cathedral of 
Famagusta, dedicated to 8. Nicholas; also in 
the church dedicated to 8. Sophia (probably 
with the same significance as in the great church 
at Constantinople, that is to say, as the Holy 
Wisdom, and not to any personal saint), which 
is a Gothic church in general design and in 
detail. The interior is peculiarly interesting. 
The church at Nicosia, a medizval town with- 
out known Greek origin, is also a Gothic church 
of great beauty, although changes have been 
made by the Turks in order to fit it for use asa 
mosque. There are the ruins of an interesting 
Gothic convent, including a superb cloister, at 
Bellepais. One of the most puzzling buildings 
in the island is also at Nicosia. This, although 
its structure marks it as of the thirteenth cen- 
tury, has much curious sculpture bearing all the 
marks of French Romanesque of about 1150. 
All the Gothic buildings in the island deserve 
attention ; especially because of an evident ten- 
dency to carry upon the vaults a solid masonry 
roof of low pitch. It is to be hoped that the 
present English rule will preserve them without 
destroying them by unwise restoration. Cyprus 
is treated at great length in Murray’s Hand- 
book to the Mediterranean, and the classical 
and medizval monuments have been discussed 
by H. B. Walters in the (London) Architectural 
Review, 1888-1889. 


Ohnefalsch-Richter, Kypros, the Bible and 
Homer. 
—R. 38. 


CYRENAICA, ARCHITECTURE OF. 
(See Barca, Architecture of.) 

CYRENE, ARCHITECTURE OF. (See 
Barca, Architecture of.) 

CYRUS ; architect; d. 52 B.c. 

A Greek architect employed by Cicero. He 
made Cicero and Clodius joint heirs of his estate. 
He died on the day when Clodius was murdered. 

Brunn, Geschichte der Griechischen Kiinstler. 

CYZICENE HALL (cus Cyzicenus). In 
ancient domestic architecture, a large hall look- 

738 


‘ os 7 A _ 7 J 7 , Lae ke ee. yc fy, 
7 - a P . hn = eae Oy a . ra ¢ . 
: , i” = % 
A *- 


DAB 


ing out upon a garden; it served the purpose 
of a triclinium or banquet hall, though much 
larger than the ordinary triclinium. The cyzi- 
cene hall was a feature of Greek rather than of 
Roman houses. (Vitruvius, VI., 6.) 


D 


DAB (v.). A. To dress the face of a stone 
or of stonework, by picking or fretting with a 
pointed tool. (Written also, in England, Daub.) 

B. Same as Daub. 

DADO (n.). A. In Italian, a tessera or die ; 
hence the flat face of a pedestal between the 
base and cap. In English it denotes a continu- 
ous pedestal or wainscot, including the base and 
cap moulding, or sometimes only the plane sur- 
face between the base board and cap moulding 
of such a continuous pedestal. <A panelled 
wooden dado is generally called a Wainscot ; 
the words are often used erroneously as if 
synonymous. Dado is not usually used of an 
external pedestal course. 

B. A groove formed by dadoing. (See 
Dado; v.) 

DADO (vy. t.). To cut or form with a groove 
or grooves of a rectangular section, as in making 
the upright sides of a bookcase which are so 
grooved to receive the.ends of shelves ; hence, 
with the preposition in - 

To insert in such a groove or grooves; to 
perform the whole operation of connecting parts 
in such a manner. Thus, it may be said of a 
bookcase that the shelves are to be dadoed in. 
The term is usually applied only to such a 
method of connection when the groove is made 
to receive the full thickness of the inserted piece. 
(See House, v.) 

DAGOBA. In Buddhist architecture, a 
shrine for relics. (For those set up within a 
temple and having a position akin to that of the 
chasse or reliquary in Christian ecclesiology, 
see Chaitya Cave. For the large dagobas of 
architectural character, see Pagoda; Stupa; 
Tope.) 

DAIRY. A building, or part of one, in 
which milk and its products are kept, butter 
and cheese made and packed for market, or 
stored ; usually an unpretending farm building, 
but occasionally built with elaborate care. 
Equable temperature — not too high, even in 
summer, while still perfect ventilation is main- 
tained — and precautions for extreme cleanliness 
are the essential features. Rooms for the cleaning 
and drying of the vessels used, and an opportunity 
for transferring rapidly to the cattle yard those 
products, such as whey and buttermilk, which 
are not commonly salable, are matters to be 
thought of. 

In many country places milk is kept sweet 
by standing the large cans in running or rapidly 

739 


m4 a 
; aps 5) 


‘DALMATIA. 


changing water (see Spring House) ; : or Out cS a 
times a running stream is carried through the 7 


dairy itself. — R. 8. 


DAIS. A. In a banquet hall, or the like, ee 


table for distinguished persons; a high table, 


together with the raised platform on which it ae 


stands ; hence, — 


B. Any similar platform, as in : lectins = 


hall to accommodate the speakers and others. 
C. In French, a canopy over such a table or 
platform, or over a throne or similar seat. 
DALAN; DALLAN. In Persian and 
Indian architecture, a veranda, or sometimes 


a more stately hall of reception, but always 


more or less open to the weather with a roof 
carried on columns, or the like. 

DALLE. In French, a flat slab, large or 
small; in English, a slab of some size larger 
than a tile, as forming a sepulchral monument, 
or the like. 

DALMATA, GIOVANNI. 
Dalmata. ) 

DALMATIA, ARCHITECTURE OF. The 
architecture of the country which is called in 
modern times by the above name, and which is 
a crown land of the Austrian sovereigns. It 
represents the seacoast of the Roman provinces 
of Illyricum from Scutari (now Scodra) on the 


(See Giovanni 


south to Zara on the north, and, in addition to 


this, the islands in the Gulf of Quarnero. Its 
chief town in antiquity was Salona, which was 
an important seaport and a central station of 
the imperial fleet. Nothing is known -of the 
ancient buildings of this town, which are stated 
to have been important, especially after the time 
of Diocletian, who greatly improved the town, as 
no archeological investigation has taken place. 
The same emperor built, in the immediate 
vicinity, that extraordinary villa which, under 
the name of the Palace of Diocletian, has given 
name to the modern Spalato (from Palatium, a 
palace), a little town built chiefly within the 
walls of the ancient imperial residence. 

Salona itself is traceable only by the ancient 
walls, the amphitheatre, of which there are con- 
siderable remains, and the substructures of the 
theatre. There are the remains of a Christian 
basilica of very unusual plan, but this was de- 
stroyed, finally, in the seventh century, so that 
only excavation has revealed the general char- 
acter. Immediately to the south of the city is 
the great square palace of Diocletian, and this 
is so far complete that its architectural character 
is well understood. It has immense interest for 
the student of classical architecture, because of 
its style; with arches very commonly springing 
from the capitals of columns, although in some 
cases a horizontal trabeated structure, reminding 
one of a truly classical entablature, is interposed 
between the capital and the archivolt above. 
There is here also a most singular rotunda, the 
temple of Jupiter, which was covered by a 

740 ! 


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het 


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ip 


i 


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ul 


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a 


DALMATIA 


fy 
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DALMATIA 


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en hi ee oo ot, SRY terse AG pao 5 as 


DALMATIA: DIOCLETIAN’s PALACE AT SPALATO; THE PORTA AUREA OR GILDED GATEWAY. 


cupola of interesting masonry, and a temple 
of Aisculapius, of a more common type; but 
each of these buildings is more nearly classical 
in its architectural adornment. 

Narona, a very ancient city which received a 
Roman colony, and was of importance, has fur- 
nished many Roman inscriptions, but nothing 
of its architecture is known. In general, Roman 
remains are but few or have been but little 
studied, with the single exception of those at 
Salona. 

The more recent architecture of Dalmatia is 
chiefly interesting from the Venetian influence, 
which was vastly stronger than that of the 
Eastern Empire in the earlier days, and was 
supreme at a later time. The buildings at 
Cattaro and Ragusa, in the far south, and those 
of Sebenico and Zara farther north, are of very 
great interest. The cathedral of Sebenico is a 
remarkable building, roofed with stone in an 
unusual way, and, apart from this, of great 
merit. At Ragusa, the municipal palace is the 
important building: Venetian Gothic of the 

741 


fifteenth century with later insertions, as of a 
very interesting round arched arcade. At Trau 
there is a cathedral with admirable Lombard 
Romanesque portal, and a triapsal east end of 
great interest; also a bell tower in which 
Eastern feeling has modified the Italian Gothic 
design in a very interesting fashion. At Cattaro 
there is a cathedral in which many of the details 
are of extreme interest, Italian Romanesque 
passing into Gothic, and with a curious west 
front composed of two square towers with a 
huge archway of entrance between them; a 
design reminding one of the Tyrol rather than 
of any part of Italy. At Zara there are many 
buildings of interest: the Romanesque cathe- 
dral; the round church of S. Donato, an 


‘important building of the type, and worthy 


of comparison with the church of 8. Vitale 

at Ravenna; a baptistery studied evidently 

from the round temple at the palace at Spalato ; 

also the early Romanesque church of 8. Lorenzo ; 

also 8. Grisogono and S. Maria; and details, 

interior and exterior, and church furniture of 
742 


DALY 


extreme interest. In this town, too, there are 
- domestic buildings of Venetian Gothic, at least 
in part, which are as attractive as many of those 
in Venice itself. (Cut, cols. 745, 746.) 

(For the northern part of the Adriatic seacoast 
see Istria, Architecture of.) 

T. G. Jackson, Dalmatia, The Quarnero and 
Istria, Oxford, 1887, a valuable book containing 
much personal observation ; Robert Adam, Ruins 
of the Palace of the Emperor Diocletian, etc., folio, 
1764, a book worthy to be classed with Stuart and 
Revett’s works. Re 


DALY, CESAR; architect; b. 1811 (at 
Verdun, Meuse, France); d. Jan. 11, 1894 
(at Wissous, near Paris). 

Daly’s early education was obtained at the 
Ecole Polytechnique at Douai, France. He 


TYME | a Ppeaer ES 


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ee oe J rats +>, 


Ne oe Pose cae 22 ES 


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DAMMARTIN 
César and his son Marcel. He spent three 
years in the United States, Mexico, and Central 
America, and in 1856 was the first to note 
several important pre-Columbian ruins. In 
1869 he visited Palestine. Next to the Revue, 
Daly’s most important publications were the 
Motifs historiques Warchitecture et de sculp- 
ture dornement, 2 series in 4 vols. folio, 1870— 
1880 ; L’ Architecture privée au XIX siécle, 
2v. in 3 folio, 1870, 1872, 1877; Motifs divers 
de serrurerie, 2 v. in 1 folio, Paris, 1881-1882. 
In his eightieth year he planned and made - 
preparations on a large scale for a new dictionary — 
of architecture. 
H. H. Statham in the Builder for Jan. 20, 1894; 


Obituary in Architecture and Building for Ji an. 20, : 
1894; Charles Lucas in La Grande Encyclopédie. 


—- — 
ee 
a 


Soin ig ao at 


y 
rs Ta 
leo 


ue a 


esas 


eanTTERUNT 


es vvasterases 


Lily 


Roane 


DALMATIA: PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN AT SPALATO; ARCADE OF GREAT COURT AND ENTRANCE. 


afterwards entered the Ecole des Beaux Arts, 
Paris, and the atelier of Jacques Félix Duban 
(see Duban). With the encouragement of Du- 
ban and Labrouste (see Labrouste) he founded 
in 1839 the Revue générale de l’ Architecture 
and continued the publication of that journal 
until 1890. His actual professional practice 
was mainly confined to the restoration of the 
cathedral of Alby (Tarn, France), of which he 
was appointed architect in 1843. The Semaine 
des Constructeurs was established in 1876 by 
743 


TGA A apres 


DAM, NIELS ; architect; b. Oct. 15, 1761 
(at. Copenhagen). 

He won, at the Academy of Copenhagen, the = 
silver medal in 1784, the larger gold medal in . 
1791, and, in 1804, the travelling stipend. In a 
1818 he published Noget om den borgerliche 
Bygningskunst for Bygmestre. 

Weilbach, Nyt Danske Kunstner Lexicon. co 

DAMAS, JEAN DE. (See Jean de Soissons. ) . 

DAMMARTIN (DAMPMARTIN), AN- | 
DRE DE; architect ; d. about 1400. 

744 


DAMMARTIN 


DAMMARTIN 


DALMATIA: THE DUOMO AT SEBENICO; REMARKABLE FOR STONE RoorF. 


Andre was employed at the Old Louvre in 
the year 1365. January 28, 1380, he was 
called to Troyes (Aube, France) to inspect the 
works at the cathedral. In 1383, by letters 
patent of Philippe le Hardi, Duke of Bur- 
gundy (b. 1342; d. 1404), he was appointed 
chief architect of all his constructions and 
especially of the church and monastery of the 
Chartreuse near Dijon (see Sluter, Claux). In 
1384, with Raymond du Temple (see Raymond 

745 


du Temple), he inspected the works at the 
chateau of Rouvres (France). 


Assier, Comptes de Veuvre de Véglise de 
Troyes ; Berty, Topographie, Louvre et Tuileries ; 
Gonse, L’ Art Gothique; Chabeuf, Dijon, Monu- 
ments et Souvenirs. 


DAMMARTIN, GUI (GUIOT) DE; archi- 
tect ; d. about 1400. 
Gui de Dammartin was one of the best 
pupils of Raymond du Temple (see Raymond 
746 


eet ray 


a 


DAMMARTIN 


du Temple), and was employed on the Old 
Louvre. He was the preferred architect and 
sculptor of Jean de France, Duke of Berry. 
Between 1384 and 1387 he rebuilt the great 
hall of the palace at Poitiers (Vienne, France) 
which had been burned by the English in 1345. 

Gonse, L’ Art Gothique; Robuchon, Paysages 
et Monuments de Poitou (Vol. 1, Poitiers). 

DAMMARTIN, JEAN DE; architect ; d. 
about 1454. 

January 24, 1421, Jean was made maitre de 
Veeuvre (supervising architect) of the cathedral 
of Le Mans (Sarthe, France). He built the 
northern arm of the transept with its rose 
window. In 1432 he became architect of the 
cathedral of Tours, where he completed the 
nave and began the main portal. 

Grandmaison, Tours archéologiques ; Bauchal, 
Dictionnaire. 

DAMON, CAPTAIN ISAAC; architect. 

Damon studied architecture with Ithiel Town 
(see Town, I.) of New York, and was from 
1812 to 1840 the leading architect in western 
Massachusetts. Among his works were the 
first church of Northampton (built 1811, 
burned in 1878), the first church of Spring- 
field (about 1818, still standing), the church 
and county courthouse in Lenox (about 1814, 
still standing). 

‘ C. Gardner in Am. Architect, Vol. XLVII., 
p. 40. 

DAMP COURSE. A course or layer of 
impervious material in a wall or floor to pre- 
vent the ingress of moisture from the ground or 
lower courses. It extends entirely through the 
wall, and perhaps upward on the outer face or 
in the thickness of the wall. It may be of 
lead, asphalt, or of compact and non-porous 
stone. 

DAMPER. A valve or diaphragm to check 
or control the draft in a flue or duct. In open 
fireplace flues, the damper is often a cast-iron 
or soapstone flap, in the throat, lying back, 
when open, upon a ledge at,the back above the 
throat, and tilted forward when it is desired to 
close the throat against down draughts. In 
smoke pipes and furnace flues it is commonly a 
metal diaphragm pivoted transversely. 

DAMPMARTIN. (See Dammartin. 

DANCE, GEORGE Ciays architect; b. 1695; 
d. Jan. 11, 1768. 

December, 1735, Dance was appointed 
“clerk of the city works” by the corporation 
of the city of London. Between 1739 and 
1753 he designed and built the Mansion 
House (the official residence of the lord mayor 
of the city of London), which was altered 
somewhat by his son George Dance. (See 
Dance, George, II.) He built many London 
churches. 


Arch. Pub. Soc. Dictionary ; Britton and Pugin, 
Public Buildings of London. ’ 


747 


at Parma. 


5) ’ 
, iy ~ 7 Ca ae 


DAR 


b. March 20, eS ees Jan. 14, 1825, ths 

A son of George Dance (L. ‘F (see Dance, a 
George, I.). He went to Italy and in 1763 a 
won a gold medal at the Academy of Fine Arts 
In 1764 he was admitted to the 
Academy of S. Luke at Rome. Returning to 
England he succeeded his father as clerk of the _ 
city works in 1767. Between 1770 and 1778 
Dance erected the famous Newgate Prison 
(London). 

Redgrave, Dictionary of Artists; Britton and 


Pugin, Public Buildings of London ; Arch. Pub. 
Soc. Dictionary. 


DANCETTE (adj. and n.). A. iat her- 3 
aldry, having the edge cut into a zigzag; said 4 
of a fess or similar bearing ; said also of a single 
line which acts as a boundary line. By exten- 
sion (noun) a zigzag band or bar, or a row of 
lozenges or similar figures joined by their corners. 

B. In architecture, a zigzag used for orna- 
mental purposes, as in the Romanesque style 
of England or Normandy. (Compare Batons 
Rompus ; Zigzag.) 

DANCKERTS DE RIJ, CORNELIS (the 
elder) ; architect ; d. about 1595. 

This Danckerts, father of the more famous 
Cornelis Danckerts the younger, was city archi- 
tect of Amsterdam. 

Kramm, Hollandsche en Vlaamsche Kunstschil- 
ders, etc. 

DANCKERTS DE RIJ, CORNELIS (the 
younger) ; architect ; b. 1561; d. 1634. 

A son of Cornelis Danckerts de Rij the 
elder. In 1595 he succeeded his father as city 
architect of Amsterdam (Holland). According 
to Immerzeel, he built the Haarlemmer poort, 
the Zuiderkerk, and the Noorderkerke in Am- 
sterdam. He also built the fine tower of the 
Westerkerke. 

Kramm, Hollandsche en Vilaamsche Kunst- 


schilders ; Immerzeel, Hollandsche en Vlaamsche 
Kunstenaars. 


DANESE. (See Cattaneo.) = 
DANIELLO DA VOLTERRA. (See Ric- a 
ciarelli, Daniello.) ma 
DANISH ARCHITECTURE. (See Den- a 
mark, Architecture of.) : 4 


DAPHNIS ; architect. 

Daphnis was one of the architects of the 
temple of Apollo near Miletus. (See Theodorus.) . 

Brunn, Geschichte der Griechischen Kiinstler. yy 


DAR. A. In Indian and Persian architec- 
ture, a gateway. The term enters into many 
compounds, as buildings are named from the a 
gateways which they cover or protect, and gate- a 
ways themselves take names from the roads 
passing through them, the cities to which these. 
roads lead, and the like. 3 

B. Also, in Oriental architecture, a place of 4 
abode, a dwelling house, and by extension a city 

748 


in the same connection ; as the German word 
Residenz-Stadt. This term also enters into 
many compounds, and, in alliteration in Euro- 
pean languages, one set of compounds cannot 
always be distinguished from another. 

DART. The pointed member which alter- 
nates with the egg-shaped detail in the orna- 
ment known as Egg and Dart, or Ege and 
Anchor. 

DA SILVA. (See Silva.) 

DATUM LINE; POINT. In surveying, 
platting, or designing, the base line or starting 
point at which the work of measuring or laying 
out begins, and from which distances, heights, 
or angles may be reckoned. 

DAUB (n.). The material used to daub; 
the covering as applied by daubing; a rough 
coat of mortar thrown on a wall to give it a 
rough, uneven appearance, sometimes to resem- 
ble rough stones; rough cast. (Also called 
Daubing.) 

DAUB (v.). To cover or smear roughly, as 
in building, with coarse plaster or clay ; espe- 
cially when done without any attempt to pro- 
duce a uniform and regular coat ; as in covering 
wattle work or filling the chinks of a log con- 
struction. (See Chinking ; Log House ; Wattle 
and Daub ; Wattling.) 

DAVID, CHARLES ; architect ; b. 1552; 
d. Dee. 4, 1650. 

In 1582 David married the daughter of 
Nicolas Lemercier. (See Lemercier, Nicolas.) 
In 1585 he succeeded his father-in-law as archi- 
tect of the church of S. Eustache (Paris), and 
continued that work in the peculiar and inter- 
esting style established by his predecessors. He 
built the choir (1637) and the old portal which 
was reconstructed in 1753 by Jean Hardouin- 
Mansart de Jouy. (See Hardouin-Mansart de 
Jouy.) 

Palustre, Renaissance en France; Calliat and 
Le Roux de Lincy, EL glise Saint-Eustache @ Paris. 

DAVID D’ANGERS, PIERRE JEAN; 


sculptor ; b. 1788 (at Angers, Maine-et-Loire, 


France) ; d. Jan. 5, 1856. 

David’s father, Pierre Louis, was a wood 
carver who took an active part in the wars. of 
the French Revolution. Pierre Jean was taught 
to model in his infancy, and at the age of twenty 
went to Paris. He was at first employed on 
the decoration of the Arc de Triomphe du Car- 
rousel, which was completed in 1809. (See 
Percier and Fontaine.) He entered the atelier 
of Roland at the Hcole des Beaux Arts, and 
in 1811 won the Premier Grand Prix de 
Rome. In 1816 he was commissioned to com- 
plete the statue of Condé, now at Versailles, for 
which Roland had made a sketch. This work 
begins his long series of public statues and monu- 
ments, of which the most important are: the 
monument of Bonchamp (1824), that of Fénelon 
(1825), that of General Foy at Pére Lachaise 

749 


DEAD 


(1827), that of Racine (1855), that of Guten- 
berg at Strassburg (unveiled June 24, 1840), 
and that of René d’Anjou, inaugurated at An- 
gers (France) Jan. 2, 1853. David’s favourite 
work was the charming statue of a girl called 
La jeune Greque, which he made for the 
monument to Marco Bozzaris at Missolonghi 
(Greece) (1827). Between 1828 and 1835 he 
made the sculpture of the triumphal arch 
called Porte d’ Aix at Marseilles, and between 
1830 and 1837, the sculpture of the pediment 
of the Panthéon (Paris). The most character- 
istic of David’s performances is the splendid 
series of medallion portraits of celebrated con- 
temporaries which he began about 1827. 

Jouin, David @ Angers ; Brownell, French Art ; 
Blanc, Les artistes de mon temps. 

DAVIOUD, GABRIEL JEAN ANTOINE; 
architect ; b. Oct. 30, 1824 (at Paris); d. 
April 6, 1881. 

He was a pupil of Léon Vaudoyer (see Vau- 
doyer). In 1855 he was made architect of 
the plantations and promenades of Paris. 
About 1862 Davioud built the Thédtre Lyrique 
and the Thédtre du Chdtelet (Paris). In 
association with Bourdais, he designed and 
built the palace of the Trocadéro for the expo- 
sition of 1878. 

Destors, Notice Nécrologique in Revue générale 
de l’ Architecture, Vol. 38 (1881), p. 125. 

DAX, PAUL; painter, glass painter, and 
architect ; b. 1503; d. 1561. 

He painted the glass of the palace and of 
the palace church at Innsbruck in the Tyrol in 
1540, and was later commissioned to paint 
eighteen windows for the Rathaus at Ensisheim 
in Alsace. He surveyed the boundary between 
Bavaria and the Tyrol, and made a relief map 
of northern Tyrol. 

Seubert, Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexicon. 


DAY. Same as Light, in the sense of one 
division of a window, as, in a large church 
window, the space between two adjoining mul- 
lions. 

DAYLIGHT. An open space; a clear in- 
terval, as between the jambs of a window. 
Thus a window measuring 3 feet between the. 
outer masonry jambs is said to be 3 feet wide, 
mason’s daylight. (Compare Jour.) 

DAY’S WORK. A. Work executed at 
a given rate per day, as distinguished from that 
paid for by the piece or contracted for at a 
given total figure. Day’s work is especially 
advantageous where quality is of greater im- 
portance than time or cost in money. 

B. The amount of work performed by, or to 
be required of, a mechanic in one day within 
the limit of hours allowed by law or custom in 
his trade. (See Contract.) 

DEAD (adj.). A. Flat, dull, without brill- 
iancy, aS varnish which has been rubbed so 

750 


DEAD COLOUR 


that it has little or no gloss; flat, as a coat of 
paint. 

B. Without variety ; 
features, as a blank wall. 

C. Without spring or elasticity ; impervious 
to sound, as a floor which has been made non- 
conducting. 

D. Without motion ; quiescent, as a more or 
less stationary load as distinguished from the 
load due to persons or movable furniture. (See 
Dead Load.) 

E. Without action; without independent 
power of motion, as a dead bolt. 

F. Useless; no longer serving the original 
purpose, as a flue which has been closed up. 
(See Deafen ; Flat ; Flatting.) 

DEAD COLOUR. Colour having no gloss 
or lustre. In painter’s work this effect is pro- 
duced by diminishing the amount of linseed oil 
in proportion to the turpentine used in mixing 
the paint. (See Flat; Flatting.) 

DEADEN (v.). To make dead ; to construct 
so as to be dead, in the sense of Dead, A or C. 

DEADENING (n.). A. The process of 
making dead. 

B. Material used to deaden. 

DEAD HOUSE (I.). A house or room 
for the temporary accommodation of dead bodies ; 
especially one provided for the public exhibition 
of unrecognized corpses with a view to their 
identification. It is thus distinguished from 
the Charnel House, in which, in former times, 
bodies were kept until the flesh had dried up 
or decayed ; and the Bone House, or Ossuary, 
to which the bones were finally removed from 
the charnel house. 

DEAD HOUSE (II.). Among the Natchez 
tribe of American Indians, an oval structure, 
with a circumference of about 100 feet, with 
no window, and a low narrow doorway, where 
the bones of the dead were placed together with 
certain fetiches, and a perpetual fire was kept 
burning. (See Ghost Lodge, under Lodge.) 
The Tlingit of the Northwest Coast build small 
houses to contain boxes holding the ashes or 
the remains of the dead. These houses are of 
logs or slabs, a few feet square, and are some- 
times surmounted by carved figures of the totem 
of the deceased. — F. 8. D. 

DEAD LOAD. A more or less permanent 
and stationary load, as distinguished from the 
load of persons, movable furniture, and the like. 
Especially the load caused by the weight of a 
structure as distinguished from the load which 
it may be intended to support. Thus, in 
designing a truss or calculating the size of 
timbers to carry a floor, the weight of the floor- 
ing, ceiling, and other portions of the structure 
are considered as dead load. (Compare Live 
Load, under Load.) 

DEAD SHORE. A vertical shoring timber 
left in a wall after the completion of the repairs 

761 


without important 


Martens 


- DEANE 


or underpinning on account of which it was 
introduced ; the masonry or brickwork being 
built up to it on either side, or even around it 
on all sides. 

DEAFEN (v.). Properly, to render or to 
construct so as to be impervious to sound, as 
by the introduction of felt or other non-con- 
ducting material between the two thicknesses 
of a double floor, or by plaster filling between 
beams or studs. In this sense, same as Deaden. 
By extension, to fill in or construct in a manner 
similar to the operations described above, 
whether primarily for the purpose of preventing 
the passage of sound or not; as in making a 
floor fireproof by filling the spaces between the 
beams with non-combustible materials. 

DEAFENING (n.). Materials used, or 
intended to be used, to deafen with ; the process 
of applying such materials. 

DEAL. In English usage, a piece of pine 
or fir lumber cut to the dimensions commonly 
required in joiner work and the lighter branches 
of carpentry ; and hence, without the article, 
such lumber collectively. The standard deals 
average 12 feet by 3 by 9 inches; these are 
sawed into whole deals of 14 inches thick; slit 
deals of 3 of an inch thickness (three cuts), and 
five-cut stuff when the thickness is 4 inch or 
less. Pieces less than 7 inches wide are called 
battens ; if less than 6 feet long deal ends. This 


whole system of cutting and naming sawed lum- 


ber is unknown in the United States. (See 
Lumber.) — A. D. F. H. 
DEAMBULACRUM. In Roman architec- 
ture, a walk or passage, usually covered. (Com- 
pare Deambulatory, which is the same word 
applied to Christian churches.) (Written also 
Deambulatio ; Deambulatorium.) . 
DEAMBULATORY. A covered passage 
or walk, as the ambulatory of a cloister ; spe- 


DEAMBULATORY OF NoTRE DAME DU PORT AT 
CLERMONT-FERRAND (PUY-DE-DOME), FRANCE. 


cifically, an aisle extending around the apse of 
a church. An apse aisle. (Cuts, cols. 753, 
754; 755, 756.) 

DEANE, SIR THOMAS; architect ; b. 1792; 
d. Sept. 2, 1871. 

Deane was the son of a builder of Cork (Ire- 
land). He made a fortune in his father’s busi- 
ness, became mayor of Cork, and was knighted 
in 1830. He then commenced practice as an 
architect and built at Cork the Bank of Ire- 

752 


\ 
ul 
:- 
| 
i 
4 


; 


church of S. Denis, 


DEANERY 


land, the Savings Bank, the Queen’s College, the 
portico of the Courthouse, ete. With his son 
Thomas Deane he built the Museum at Oxford 
(England). 

Redgrave, Dictionary of Artists. 

DEANERY. The official residence of the dean 
of an Anglican collegiate or cathedral church. 

DEAN’S SEAT. The throne or fixed seat 
provided for the dean when acting as president 
of the chapter, as of a cathedral. Occasionally 
in a chapter house this 
feature is treated with 
great elaboration, as 
in the cathedral church 
of S. Mungo in Glas- 


gow. 
DEARN. Same as 
Durn. — (C. D.) 


DEATH HUT. (See 
Dead House, IT.) 

DEBRET, FRAN- 
COIS ; architect; b. 
June 27,1777; d. Feb. 
19, 1850. 

Debret was a pupil 
of Charles Percier (see 
Percier). In 1813 he 
replaced Cellerier as ar- 
chitect of the abbey 


where he accomplished 
numerous restorations. 
He was himself replaced 
by Viollet-le-Duc in 
1846. After 1822 De- 
bret laid the founda- 
tions of the building of 
the Ecole des Beaux 
Arts (Paris), which was 
continued by his pupil, 
Jacques Félix Duban 
(see Duban). 

Lance, Dictionnaire ; 
Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 

DE BROSSE. (See 
Brosse. ) 

DECADENCE. De- 
cline in purity, simplic- 
ity, or significance, as 
in sculptural or archi- 
tectural decoration, or 
in the application of 
architectural design to building. <A state of de- 
cadence does not exclude attractive and interest- 
ing work of many kinds; and there may be a 
marked decadence in some branches of art while 
others still flourish. Thus, in the fourth century 
A.D., the great basilica begun by Maxentius and 
finished by Constantine about 315, and still ex- 
isting in part on the northeastern side of the 
Roman forum, is a building of great magnificence 
and extent, and of remarkable boldness of exe- 

753 


DECADENT 


cution, although contemporary with a decline in 
sculpture so complete that it is one of the un- 
solved problems of artistic history. Soa century 
later, and still more in the sixth century, sculp- 
ture, having almost disappeared from the Roman 
world except in the carving of conventional 
leafage, was in a sense superseded by mosaic, 
which art reached at this time a previously un- 
known pitch of decorative magnificence. (For 
the decadence of art in the eighteenth century, 


/ 


reas 


ae 
ae & 
ae Gu 
= 


TOM Sa, 


|S ee 


IE 


DEAMBULATORY: NOTRE DAME DE CHALONS (MARNE), FRANCE, 13TH 


CENTURY. 


see Barocco; France, Architecture of ; Germany, 
Architecture of ; Italy, Architecture of.)—R. 8. 

DECADENT. In a state of decline or dete- 
rioration in style or excellence. The term is used 
to characterize the closing period of the history 
of a style in architecture when marked by a nota- 
ble falling off in purity, good taste, and refinement 
of detail; as, for instance, the Roman architec- 
ture of the fourth century 4.D. (See Decadence ; 
Roman Imperial Architecture.) 

764 


Cn Nea 


i 


J > 4 Fo ac ; fe 


DECADENZA 


: is e \ “4 


yy 


DEAMBULATORY OF THE CATHEDRAL OF TOLEDO, SPAIN: THE OUTER 
ONE OF THE Two AISLES OF THE APSE, 14TH CENTURY. 


DECADENZA. In Italian, the decadence. 
The term is applied specifically to the decline of 
the Classicismo, or formally classical style of the 
seventeenth century. 

DECASTYLE. Having ten columns in the 
front or end row, consisting of a row or rows of 
ten columns; said of certain classic temples, of 
which the chief example was the great temple 
of Artemis at Ephesus. The temple of Zeus Olym- 
pius at Athens, formerly supposed to have been 
decastyle, has been proved to have been octastyle. 
The temple of Venus and Rome, built by Hadrian 
in Rome about 130 a.p., was decastyle, the only 
known example in Roman architecture. (See 
Columnar Architecture.) 

DECHAUME or DE CULMIS, NICOLAS ; 
architect. 

In 1316 Dechaume made a visit of inspec- 
tion to the cathedral of Chartres with Pierre de 
Chelles. (see Chelles, P. de) and Jacques Lonju- 
meau of Paris. In 1319 he was made super- 
vising architect (maitre de l’ceuvre) of the 
cathedral of Sens, and retained that ofhce until 
1339. He is supposed to have built, at that 
cathedral, the central stone tower, the chapels of 
the deambulatory, and most of those of the nave. 

Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 

755 


Ps ie 
aS og 


- ris : 7 eur 
| << moe 
ro 


| Nil 


oP are a ‘ Be Be 4 ae i 

DECORATED ARCHITECTUR 

DECK (n.). A floor, or platform, especial 
when open to the weather, as a flat uppermost 
portion of a roof which is elsewhere of a steep — 

slope. ee 

DECK (y.). To provide with a deck; to © 
cover as with a floor or deck. Gener- _ 

aly with over. 
DECKER, PAUL; architect 
and engraver; b. 1677 (at Niirn- 
berg, Germany); d. 1713. 4 

In 1699 Decker went to 
Berlin and was associated — 
with Andreas Schluter (see 
Schluter, A.). In 1707 he 
was appointed court architect 
at Bayreuth (Bavaria). His 
Itirstlicher Baumeister was 
published after his death. It 
has been recently republished 
with an introduction by R. 
Dohme (Berlin, 1885, 1 vol. 
folio). 


R. Dohme, Hinlettung to his 
edition of the Fiirstlicher Bau- 
meister ; Seubert, Kiinstler- — 
lexicon. 


DECORATE (v.). To make 
beautiful or interesting to the | 
eye, whether by the proper 
arrangement, shaping, and col- . 
ouring of the essential part or 
by the addition of ornament, 
or in both ways. (See Deco- 
rative Art.) 

DECORATED ARCHITECTURE ; DECO- 
RATED STYLS. The Gothic architecture of 


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DECORATED: THE ENGLISH DECORATED STYLE; 
WinpbDow oF S. PETER’S-IN-THE-EAST, OXFORD. 


England of the style which followed next after a - 
the early English, so styled by Thomas Rick- a. 
756 


DECORATION 


man (see Rickman). The epoch covered by the 
Decorated style may be considered as prevailing 
from 1280 to 1380, or for very nearly the years 
covered by the reigns of the three Edwards. 
(See England, Architecture of ; Scotland, Archi- 
tecture of.) 

DECORATION. A. The act or art of mak- 
ing beautiful or attractive. 

B. The result of a deliberate attempt to 
beautify or adorn. In this sense, used more 
especially for the sculpture, painting, inlay, or 
similar added ornamentation. (See Decorative 
Art.) 


See bibliography under Mosaic; Mural Paint- 
ing; Polychromy; Sculpture. The decorative 
work of modern highly trained artists can best 
be studied in the work of a single artist and his 
assistant. Havard’s L’uvre de P. V. Galland 
tells of one who worked in painting, tapestry, and 
many applications of art. In this, as in most kin- 
dred subjects, the most valuable writing is to be 
found in the columns of periodicals. R.§ 


DECORATIVE ART. The art by which 
that which would otherwise be merely useful 
is rendered delightful to the eye or interesting 
to the mind, by the use of form and colour, 
arrangement of parts, and frequently expres- 
sional or descriptive painting or sculpture. 

The terms ‘‘decoration” and ‘ decorate,” in 
their logical senses, all point toward fitness and 
toward a proper and seemly arrangement either 
of the essential parts or of the added ornaments, 
or both, as partly seen in the signification of 
decorous, decorum ; they have also in different 
degrees lost their original meaning, and tend to 
imply rather the bringing in of extraneous or 
inessential parts to produce an ornamental effect. 
Thus, the verb to decorate has grown to imply 
the addition to the essential structure of sculp- 
ture, or inlay, or painting, or some such artistic 
means which are not called for by the primal 
requirements of the building itself. The adjec- 
tive decorative has a somewhat less decided 
meaning; thus, the phrase ‘ decorative treat- 
ment ” may be used to imply the laying out, the 
composing, the massing of the essential parts 
of a building as well as the addition of sculp- 
ture or colour. 

Architecture is a decorative art because it has 
to do with making that beautiful, suggestive, or 
attractive which might exist and do its neces- 
sary work perfectly well without the possession 
of any esthetic charm. The planning and archi- 
tectural treatment of a building is not unlike 
the arranging and decorative treatment of a 
sword hilt, as of a sixteenth century rapier, or 
other weapon intended at once for hard service 
and for beauty of design ; the essential charac- 
ter of each part must of necessity be retained, 
and yet each part is so modified that it reaches 
a singular degree of elegance, suggestiveness, 
and even abstract beauty ; while finally, deli- 

757 


” 


DECORATIVE ART 


cate chasing, and even the addition of floral or 
animal forms, or even of human forms, in cast 
and highly finished metal, corresponds, in the 
sword hilt, to the application of similar orna- 
ments to a building. In the fourth and fifth 
decades of the present century, decorative art 
in this large sense had almost disappeared ; and 
there has been, since 1850, but a slow and too: 
self-conscious effort at recovery of the old un- 
sought ease of design. The adornments which 
we apply —alike to our buildings and to the 
few groups, vases, pieces of furniture — are 
the work of the draughtsman or modeller who 
produces something which he thinks fine in 
itself, and then applies it, haphazard, to a uten- 
sil or a building, rather than the work of a 
true decorative artist. Traditions of decorative 
treatment which passed from Egypt and from 
Mesopotamia into Greece and Italy, and which, 
strengthened by Hellenic influence, were per- 
petuated by the Roman domination so strongly 
that they survived the chaos of the earlier Mid- 
dle Ages, being aided therein by the continued 
existence of the empire centred at Constantino- 
ple, —those traditions, which are traceable in 
no uncertain way through the Gothic epoch, 
through the epoch of the Renaissance in Italy, 
and through the succeeding styles of the six- 
teenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, 
seem finally to have perished soon after the 
close of the Napoleonic wars. From that time 
on the tendencies which had been seen at an 
earlier day became dominant, and persons charged 
with architectural or other decorative design- 
ing became self-conscious and overmastered by 
theory ; they went afield to study this style or 
that in the work of the past, and deliberately 
undertook the task of making designs in Egyp- 
tian, in Persian, in Grecian, or in Chinese taste. 
Similar attempts had been made in other ages. 
Under the Emperor Hadrian, people tried to be 
Greek in the style of the earlier epoch ; under 
Louis XV., the French and Dutch artists tried 
to be Chinese, imitating, as they thought, the 
beautiful silks, paintings, and carvings which 
were brought from the far East ; under Charles 
II; and his successors, English builders tried to 
be Gothic, and Sir Christopher Wren designed 
the western towers of Westminster Abbey. All 
these, and many other, fancies there have been, 
each of which would have seemed the evidence 
of feeble and failing artistic sense ; but the tra- 
ditions still had life, and therefore decorative 
art lived on. In our own time, traditions, if 
not absolutely dead, are preserved only by 
some few artists of very singular insight and 
of critical instinct ; and, at the same time, the 
fancy for studying different styles has become 
immeasurably stronger than in any past age 
because of the facilities which travel, the rapid 
development of scientific archeology, and the 
photograph give to the collector and the copyist. 
758 


DECORATIVE ART 


- During the decade 1889-1899 there has been 

a marked tendency in France and Germany 
to develop a decorative art of which it may be 
thought the primary characteristics are that it 
makes the greatest possible use of the human 
figure, generally nude, while it ignores almost 
altogether the natural forms of plants. This 
is probably because the art of conventionalizing 
flowers and foliated ornament has perished, and 
the realistic treatment so common from the 
middle of the century to the beginning of the 
last. decade had become offensive to all persons 
of refined taste. The Japanese and Chinese 
way of drawing flowers and plants is felt to be 
out of reach of the European designer ; in like 
manner, the medizval way, whether of the 
thirteenth or of the fifteenth century, is felt to 
be impossible to him ; and there has not been 
time to devise a new system of drawing such 
forms. Perhaps the eagerness above noted to 
use the human figure has kept the artist from 
caring to study plant form ; as, indeed, was the 
case among the Greeks of the greatest epoch. 
It is some confirmation of these theories that 
animal forms lower than those of humanity are 
rarely used ; and then in a very abstract way 
indeed, as mere concomitants to the human 
subject. Resort is had to unmeaning scroll 
patterns, waves, ripples, zigzags, and flamelike 
and cloudlike forms, in all cases where the 
human form cannot be applied. 

It is evident that such a system of decorative 
art requires an extremely delicate and refined 
taste to keep it from becoming somewhat ridic- 
ulous, On the other hand, it is evident that 
much of this kind of good taste is to be found 
diffused among a very large class of artists. 
Men are much more apt to have good taste 
than they are to have ideas. This is seen in 
the tendency to adorn exteriors and interiors of 
buildings alike by means of surface texture. 
This is sought in modulations of colour, such as 
are to be found in natural stones, and in bricks 
and terra cotta exposed to different degrees of 
heat or modelled to different surfaces ; and, for 
interiors, in the use of textiles, costly or finely 
woven, and of one tint or of several kindred 
tints. A drawing-room in a really magnificent 
dwelling will have its walls covered with a 
coarse white cotton fabric upon which needle- 
work in very pale yellow has been applied, the 
pattern of this needlework being quite indiffer- 
ent because the separate lines of yellow silk 
can hardly be detected by the eye. Evidently 
what is needed for success in these simple ways 
of adornment is, primarily, good taste; and 
this good taste exists in great abundance and 
can almost be trusted to produce a not disagree- 
able result so long as no attempt is made at 
greater boldness of design. 

It. appears, however, that the untrained 
designer can do nothing whatever in the way of 

759 


Este ee OS Sos. eg 


DECORATIVE ART 


contrasting colour; and nothing in the way of 
such flower-and-leaf design as abounds in the 
work of all Oriental nations. The humblest 
Chinese painter of porcelain, or worker in 
enamel, can handle a palette which includes 
dark and light blue, dark and light green, vivid 
yellow and deep red, with gold as the uni- 
versal harmonizer ; and he can design conven- 
tional flower forms which he will invest with 
these contrasting colours in a fashion which no 
European artist can approach. ‘“ The untrained 
designer ” — those words are used deliberately, 
because the one art of original force which the 


European world is capable of is that of highly 


organized sculpture or fully developed painting, 
such as is taught in the schools and practised 
only by the recognized master whom we call 
“sculptor” or ‘‘painter”; while the trained 
workman, full of tradition and gained knowl- 
edge, and well prepared for decorative work, 
though still to be found in France and Italy, is 
hardly to be reckoned on and is passing away. 

The position of the architect is very singular ; 
for, while many architects think much of the 
decorative part of their business, they have but 
little inducement to devote much labour or care 
to it. The principal is much too occupied to 
design; the pay required by the specially 
skilled designer would be high, and the man 
himself might be found capable of little else ; 
there is but little demand from the client, who, 
generally, takes the scrolls and the friezes which 
the architect’s draughtsmen copy unchanged 
from old work as being entirely satisfactory. 
The architect, therefore, even of the best inten- 
tions and the most serious good will, finds the 
task of applying true decorative art to his work 
on the whole beyond his strength or outside of 
his opportunities. The greatly changed and 
still rapidly changing conditions of building are 
also very much against any such attempt, as is 
shown by the hopeless way in which old archi- 
tectural forms are applied as mere surface orna- 
ments to buildings which are constructed in a 
wholly novel manner and which assume wholly 
novel proportions. 

It seems clear, then, that the best hone, for 
the future is to follow the line of least resist- 
ance and to encourage the painter and the 
sculptor to turn their attention to decorative 
work. There is, of course, no real distinction 
to be made between decorative art and art 
which is not called by that name; the artist 
will instinctively, and without the need of a 
definition to guide him, design his painting for 
a flat wall and his painting for the curved sur- 
face of a vaulted ceiling in two different ways, 
and they will be more or less unlike the same 
artist’s composition for an easel picture accord- 
ing to the circumstances and according to the 
nature of the man. That the painters and 
sculptors of first-rate ability have begun, dur- 

760 


DE COTTE 


ing the past quarter century, to consider more — 
gravely than before the necessities of the situa-— 


tion and to prepare their work for its readiest 
and most fitting adaptation to buildings and 
other objects of utility, is the best sign for the 
future of decorative art. — R. 8. 

DE COTTE. (See Cotte.) 

DEERING. (See Gaudy-Deering, John 
Peter.) 

DEEWAN. Same as Divan, in senses A 


and B. 


DEFLECTION. The act of turning aside or 
the state of being turned aside from the normal 


form or direction ; especially in building, the » 


bending of a horizontal or other member as a 
beam or post under a load, or by the force of 
pressure, heat, or the like. Deflection may 
be temporary or permanent. Every member 
has a limit of safe deflection, which limit varies 
greatly according to the material. Thus, a stone 
lintel cannot be said to receive any perceptible 
deflection without rupture; but an iron or 
wooden beam may be deflected very considera- 
bly from the normal and yet be able to recover 
itself perfectly in case the load is removed ; or 
it may carry that load with safety for a length 
of time. — R. S. 

DEGAGEMENT. In French, a -space 
rather restricted as to size, forming a connec- 
tion between two rooms, or between a room and 
a more public place as a hall or passage ; thus 
avoiding the inconvenience of opening adjoining 
apartments directly into each other, and giving 
more privacy. No exact equivalent exists in 
English ; but the term may be more or less 
accurately translated in each case by such a 
name as vestibule, lobby, anteroom, or the 
like. 

DEINOCRATES ; architect. 

This architect appears under various names : 
Dinokrates (Vitruvius), Dinochares and Timo- 
chares (Pliny), Cheirokrates (Strabo), Stasi- 
krates (Plutarch), etc. The place of his birth 
is also variously given, Macedonia, Rhegion, 
and Rhodes. He was the favourite architect of 
Alexander the Great (b. 356; d. 323 B.c.), 
whose attention was attracted by his scheme 
for transforming Mt. Athos into a colossal 
statue. Deinocrates was employed to lay out 
the city of Alexandria (Egypt). He rebuilt 
the temple of Artemis at Ephesus. 

Brunn, Geschichte der Griechischen Kiinstler ; 
Vitruvius, ed. Marini; Plinius, Hist. Nat. ; Wood, 
Discoveries at Ephesus. 

DE JOLY. (See Joly.) 

DEKASTYLOS. A decastyle building 
(Vitruvius). 

DE LA BARRE. (See Barre, Elroy De 
La. 
43 LABORDE. (See Laborde.) 

DEL MORO, LUIGI. (See Moro, Luigi 
Del.) 

761 


DE L’ORME 


DE L’ORME, JEAN; engineer and architect. 
A brother of Philibert de Orme (see De 
l’Orme, P.). He followed his brother to Paris, 
and Jan. 13, 1552, succeeded Gilles le Breton 
(see Breton, Gilles le) as maitre genéral des 


ceuvres at Fontainebleau. In the same year 


he went to Italy to fortify the cities of Parma, 
Siena, etc., which were then garrisoned by the 
French. 

De Laborde, Les comptes des batiments du voi ; 
Chevalier, Archives de Chenonceau ; Bauchal, Dic- 
tionnaire. 

DE L'ORME, PHILIBERT ; architect; b. 
about 1515; d. Jan. 8, 1570. 

De l’Orme’s father was Jehan de l’Orme, archi- 
tect at Lyons, France. Berty supposes that he 
was related to Pierre and Toussaint Delorme (see 
Delorme, Pierre and T.), master masons at Gail- 
lon. Various passages in his works point to 1515 
as about the date of his birth. He went to Rome 
at nineteen or twenty, and in 1534 became a 
protégé of the learned Marcellus Cervinus, who 
was elected Pope in 1555 as Marcellus II. He 
was also employed by Paul III. (Pope, 1534—- 
1549) at S. Martino del Bosco in Calabria, 
In 1536 De Orme returned to Lyons with the 
famous General Guillaume du Bellay and his 
brother, Jean du Bellay, the cardinal. The por- 
tal of S. Nizier at Lyons is ascribed to him. 
He followed the Cardinal du Bellay to Paris 
and began for him the chateau of Saint-Maur- 
les-Fosses. In 1546 he entered the royal ser- 
vice charged with the inspection of fortresses in 
Brittany, and distinguished himself by defend- 
ing the city of Brest against the English. Jan. 
29, 1548, he was designated architecte du roy 
and April 3 was appointed inspecteur des bdti- 
ments royaux at Fontainebleau, Saint-Germain, 
etc. He also directed the manufacture of tapes- 
try at Fontainebleau. Becoming the preferred 
architect of Henri II. and Diane de Poitiers, he 
was endowed by them with the benefices of five 
abbeys having a revenue of 6000 livres, and Sept. 
5, 1550, was made a canon of Notre Dame (Paris). 
After the death of Henri II. (July 10, 1559) he 


‘was superseded in the office of inspecteur by 


Primaticcio (see Primaticcio). He retained his 
benefices, however, and his will, published in 
the Archives de Vart francais, shows a consid- 
erable fortune. The palace of the Tuileries was 
begun by De l’Orme in 1564 under the personal 
direction of the queen dowager, Catherine de’ 
Medici (b. 1519; d. 1589). His design con- 
templated an immense rectangle 188 m. long by 
118 m. wide. Of this only the garden front 
was built, and of this front only the central 
pavilion with its connecting wings was by De 
VOrme. His work was almost entirely re- 
modelled by Jacques Lemercier (see Lemercier, 
J.), Louis Levau (see Levau), and D’Orbay in 
the reign of Louis XIV., and by the architects 
of Napoleon III. The palace was destroyed by 
762 


| DELORME 
the commune on the night of May 23-24, 
1871. The chateau of Anet was the chief 
glory of Philibert de POrme. An inscription 
over the main portal dates the work between 
1548 and 1552. The chateau was spared by 
the Revolution, but was sold Feb. 1, 1798 for 
3,200,000 frances without its movables. Much 
of the architectural decoration was bought for 
the government by Alexandre Lenoir (see Le- 
noir, A.), assisted by Napoleon Bonaparte, then 
first consul. The portal of the main building 
stands now in the court of the Zcoles des 
Beaux Arts in Paris. The palace was then 
broken up for building material, except the left 
wing, partially restored in 1828. The chapel 
was restored by A. N. Caristie (see Caristie) 
and reopened Sept. 3, 1851. The tomb of 
Frangois I. at Saint-Denis is the only work of 
De VOrme which is now intact. The archi- 
tecture is ascribed to him exclusively in the 
Comptes des batiments du roi. He became 
superintendent at Fontainebleau after the death 
of Francois I. and in the Salle du Bal substi- 
tuted a fine ceiling of wood for the vault pro- 
jected by Gilles le Breton (see Breton, Gilles 
le). At the chateau of Monceaux he first used 
the couverture a la Philibert de V Orme, 
a method of building wooden roofs which sub- 
stituted for single heavy beams planks bolted 
together ‘‘so that the junction in each case 
took place upon the centre of the piece by 
which it was doubled” (Pattison, op. cit.). There 
is a record of a contract with him dated Jan. 
27, 1557, for the construction of the bridge and 
gallery at Chenonceau. In 1561 De lOrme 
published, avec privilege du rot (Charles IX.), 
Nouvelles inventions pour bien bastir et a 
petite fraiz, etc., and in 1567, Le premier 
tome de Parchitecture, etc., dedicated to Cath- 
erine de’ Medici. The second volume never 
appeared. In 1858 M. Leopold Delisle discov- 
ered in the Bibliotheque Nationale a manu- 
script entitled Instruction de Monsieur ad’ Ivry 
dict De ?Orme, a personal defence of about 
1560 which throws much light upon his career. 
It is printed in Berty, Les grands architectes 
Srancais. 

Vachon, Philibert del Orme; Berty, Les grands 
architectes Jrangais ; Palustre, La Renaissance 
en France ; Charvet, Philibert de VvOrme in An- 
nales de la Société Ac. de Lyon; Lemounier, 
P. de VOrme in Revue de lV’ Art; ’Pinor, Mono- 
graphie du chateau d Anet ; Roussel, Histoire 
et description du chateau @ Anet ; Mrs. Pattison, 
Renaissance of Art in France; Chenneviéres, 
Archives de l'art francais. 

DELORMBE, PIERRE; architect. 

Pierre was one of the three principal archi- 
tects of the chateau of Gaillon (Eure, Nor- 
mandy), the others being Pierre Fain (see Fain, 
P.) and Guillaume Senault (see Senault). 
About 1502 he was employed by the Cardinal 
Georges I. d’Amboise (d. May 25, 1510) to 

763 


x Els i A ; awe , 
: ; A a oe 
mY it =F lua ve a) =n, ’ oe 
5 . iy i; 


His name first appears in the accounted a 
cardinal’s chateau at Gaillon, Jan. 1, 1507. 
He built the so-called Maison Pierre Delor me, 
(destroyed) on the south side of the main co 
facing the grande maison of Guillame Senaul 
The comptes show that he was constantly em- 
ployed at Gaillon during the life of the first 
cardinal. It is supposed that he was related to i. 
Philibert de l’Orme (see De l’Orme, Ph.). <a 


Palustre, La Renaissance en France ; i 
Comptes de dépenses du chateau de Gaillon. 


DELORME, TOUSSAINT ; architect. 
Toussaint was one of the architects of the 
chateau of Gaillon, and probably related to 
Pierre Delorme (see Delorme, Pierre). He 
was employed with Michellet Loir to decorate 
the gallery and terrace of the grande maison _ 
on the side of the chateau toward the moat. __ 
Deville, Dépenses du chateau de Gaillon. . 
DELUBRUM. In Roman archeology, a 
sanctuary ; a temenos or enclosure comprising  —_— 
a temple and sacred area; or, again, a shrine 
with a fountain of ablutions. The term seems 

to have had all of these and other similar mean- — 
ings, in succession. (See Templum; which ~ 
term underwent similar changes of meaning.) —__ 
DEMETRIOS ; architect. 
A priest of the temple of Artemis at Ephesus 
and one of the architects of that building. (See 

Chersiphron and Theodorus.) | 
Brunn, Geschichte der Griechischen Kiinstler. 
DEMICIRCLE. (See Surveying.) : 
DEMIMETOPEH. A half, or incomplete, \ 
metope in a Doric frieze ; that for instance in 
a Roman Doric order between the last triglyph 
and end or corner of the frieze, though thisis —_— 
really less than half a metope. A demimetope _— 
is sometimes left on either side of a reéntering =~ 
angle in the frieze. 
DEMOLITION. The operation of taking — 
down a building by the gradual and systematic 
removal of its materials, as distinguished from 
destruction by fire, explosion, or the like. In 
large cities, at least in the United States, it 
gives occasion for a distinct trade and business, | 
those who follow it profiting chiefly by the sale _ 
of secondhand building materials from the demol- 
ished buildings. Demolition of old buildings 
requires care and system, and in cities must be 
carried on under special precautions against 
accident and against public annoyance from dust, 
dirt, and falling materials. 
DE MONTFERRAND. (See Montferrand.) 
DEN. A room especially reserved for the 
work or for the moments of leisure of a single 
person, in which that person’s private property 
and preparations for work and the like can be 
kept together without disturbance. _The term 
occurs as long ago as the middle of the eigh- 
teenth century, but apparently in a jocose sense. 
In the United States, and very recently, the 
764 


DE NEUFFORGE 


term has become usual and is given to any 
private office or sitting room in a dwelling 
house, especially a man’s private workroom. 
(Compare Boudoir.) 

DE NEUFFORGE. (See Neufforge.) 

DENHAM, SIR JOHN, K.C.B.; archi- 
tect and poet; b. 1615 (at Dublin) ; d. March 
19, 1688. 

Denham came with his father to London in 
1617. He took his bachelor’s degree at Oxford, 
and studied law at. Lincoln’s Inn. He was 
created surveyor general of his Majesty’s build- 
ings by Charles II. Sir Christopher Wren was 
made his associate in 1661. 

Arch. Pub. Soc. Dictionary. 

DENMARK, ARCHITECTURE OF. The 
peninsula of Jutland as far south as Ribe, the 
islands of Zealand, Funen, Laaland, and Borne- 
holm, with some smaller islands, are-the terri- 
tories properly included in Denmark. In 
considering the architecture of this region it 
is to be noted that its influence on the rest of 
Europe has been slight, and, however attractive 
‘the buildings are to the traveller, they have 
never been studied with any thoroughness. The 
earliest buildings of consequence are the round 
churches, of which four are in the island of 
Borneholm, ene in the island of Funen, two in 
the island of Zealand, and one only on the 
mainland. They are generally alike in having 
a choir of comparatively great size, or, at least, 
of great length, and the entrance porch at the 
opposite side, sometimes carried up into a 
tower; thesé two members projecting boldly 
from the circle which constitutes the nave and 
its aisles, if the church has one. In this latter 
respect, some of the round churches have a 
complete system of pillars and arches carrying a 
clerestory, but the clerestory in at least one 
instance is square and carried by four piers ; the 
square clerestory rising above the circular aisle 
roof without disguise. (See Baptistery; Round 
Church.) Other churches in Denmark are gen- 
erally Romanesque, of a simple character such 
as corresponds to the plainer churches of the 
second half of the twelfth century in Germany. 
Such churches are the cathedral at Ribe and 
that at Viborg, both on the continent; and 
also the cathedral at Roeskilde, in which the 
nave is vaulted in parallelograms with their 
length contrary to the main axis of the church, 
and the aisles in parallelograms lying in the 
same direction as that axis; and which has 
an interesting deambulatory. At Aarhuus is a 
church of the thirteenth century, and with 
pointed windows, though not in any true sense 
a Gothic structure. The gables of the east and 
west ends and the smaller gables which front 
the roofs of the aisles, arranged like great dor- 
mer windows projecting from the nave roof, are 
all finished in brickwork in a style not unlike 
those richer ones at Liibeck and other cities of 

765 


DENMARK 


Germany. + A curious church at Kalundborg is 
described as a cruciform church without aisles, 
and as having five towers, namely, a square one 
at the crossing and an octagonal one at the end 
of each arm of the cross. These octagonal 
towers are of different sizes, that at the princi- 
pal entrance and that at the choir end being 
larger and finished with gables at all the sides 
of the octagon, while the other two have hori- 
zontal cornices throughout. It seems probable 
that the suggestion for this grouping of towers 
came from such great southern churches as the 
cathedral at Tournai (see Belgium, Architecture 
of); for the group of four slender towers sur- 
rounding a larger central tower must have had 
a powerful influence on the builders of the time. 
In fact, no group of towers known to us has 
greater possibilities, and it is to be regretted that 
the Gothic builders did not push the scheme to 
a final result. 

It is interesting to note the marked interest 
which the Danish builders, like those of Sweden, 
took in the German neoclassic architecture of 
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It is, 
indeed, not strictly accurate to hold the Danish 
work as in all respects suggested by German 
examples, as there are many signs of indepen- 
dent thought. Thus, at Copenhagen, a most 
interesting statehouse has a marked pictur- 
esque character due to the very lofty dormers 
which break the main roof in a fashion which 
reminds one of the chateau of Josselin in 
Brittany. The royal castle of Kronborg, near 
Elsinore (Helsingor) on the narrow waters of 
the sound, is treated in a similar way, but 
with this peculiarity, that the dormers are few 
—only three or four on each long face—and each 
of these is as large as a three-story house, while 
the great stretches of roof between are broken 
by very small dormers of wood covered with 
metal and without especial character. The still 
larger royal castle of Frederiksborg has five 
stories in the walls, and above these rise dormers 
almost as large as those of Kronborg; while 
towers of very great size, some of them ten 
stories high, some octagonal, and some square, 
stand at the corners and break the curtains of 


the great building. These buildings are mainly 


of the sixteenth century, at which time a de- 
cided movement in building seems to have pre- 
vailed. Later buildings, such as the Palace 
Schillemann at Copenhagen, are of the fantastic 
eighteenth century style; the Hermitage, a 
royal summerhouse, standing near the capital, 
is of 1740, but is much purer in style, with a 
really delicate design with Italian suggestions ; 
and the principal royal palace of Christiansborg 
in Copenhagen, built about 1740, is also a 
simple and tasteful design with a very interest- 
ing open colonnade dividing two of the courts. 
Neckelmann, F.S., and Meldahl, F., Denkmaeler 
der Renaissance in Daenmark, Berlin (no date), 
766 


DENTEL 


1 vol. folio; Helms, Jacob, Ribe Dom-kirke, Copen- | 


hagen, 1870, 1 vol. folio; Narjoux, Félix, Notes de 
voyage dun architecte dans le nord-ouest de 
Europe: Croquis et Descriptions, Paris, 1 vol. 
8vo, 1876; Holm, C. F.; Hansen, Heinrich ; etc., 
Danske Mindesmaerker, Copenhagen, 1869, 1 vol. 
folio. 

A folio volume has been dedicated by J. F. 
©. Uldall to the churches of the province of 
Salling, and this reveals the existence of a whole 
class of small early churches. A French essay 
included in the volume deals with the granite 
churches of Jutland. — R. 8S. 

DENTEL. Same as Dentil. 

DENTICULATED. Provided or adorned 
with dentils; thus the caryatid porch of the 
Erechtheum has a denticulated cornice. The 
term is especially applied to one form of Roman 
Doric order in which dentils take the place of 
mutules in the cornice; in the cornice of the 
Doric order of the theatre of Marcellus at Rome 
both features appear, making it a denticulated 
mutulary cornice — the only example of its kind. 

DENTICULE. Same as Dentil. 

DENTIL. A small rectangular block, form- 
ing one of a series closely set in a row, generally 
between two mouldings, and intended for orna- 
mental effect by alternation of light, shade, and 
-____________. shadow. Rows of dentils 
are found under the coro- 
na of an Ionic or Corin- 
thian cornice. One of the 
earliest examples is in the 
cornice of the caryatid porch of the Erechtheum, 
Athens ; another is that of the Choragic Monu- 
ment of Lysicrates, while 
in Roman Ionic and even 
Roman Doric buildings it 
is a very common feature. 
In the Roman Corinthian, 
also, there is a row of den- 
tils between two mould- 
ings under the modillions, 
The proportions of classic 
dentils vary considerably ; 
in some of the best exam- 
ples the width and projec- 
tion are each equal to two 
thirds the height, and the 
inter-dentil or space is 
one third the height; 
which approximates to 
one sixth the lower diam- 
eter of the column. 

In Byzantine,  espe- 
cially Veneto-Byzantine, 
architecture a form of 
double alternating dentil 
is used: (see Venetian 
Dentil below. Called also 


DENTILS. 


VENETIAN 


DENTIL, 
CUT IN THE Hoop 


ted vat ne Denticle. See Billet ; 

Ge wee ew LONI Uracs) 

THE METHOD. eee: na Byte eed «i 
767 


DEPOT 


Venetian Dentil. One of a series of square 


blocks alternating with sloping surfaces, as de- 
scribed below. Also, the ornament so produced 
in general. A square-edged projecting fillet, or 
listel, is cut either on one edge or alternately on 
one and on the other side, so as to produce 


VENETIAN DENTIL. 


sloping surfaces which occupy half the width of 
the fillet. In this way a projection and a de- 


pression alternate along each cut side or edge 


of the fillet ; the projections on one side, of the __ 


double cut form, 
corresponding to 
the depressions on 
the other. The 
same form occurs, 
though rarely, in 
French Roman- 
esque. 
ornament peculiar to Venetian architecture, 


VENETIAN DENTIL. 


some of which deserve the name dentil as well | 


There are other forms of square-edged — 


as the above-described form, but the term is 


generally limited as stated. (See Notch Orna- 
ment.) — R. 8. . 


DENTIL BAND. A. A rectangular mould- — 


ing in the bed-mould of a cornice of classic type, 
having the profile and position of the dentils of 
the order, but without the interdentils being 
cut; it is as though the whole row of dentils 
had had the spaces between them filled up solid. 


B. A band or flat moulding in a bed-mould, 


such as would be left by the stripping away 
of the dentils, the upper bed-mouldings being 
usually correspondingly set back ; the same as 
A with diminished projection. 

DEODATUS (ADEODATUS). 
mati.) 

DEPENDENCY. A building, wing, or room 
subordinate or serving as an adjunct to the 
main building or apartment. Thus the stables, 
kennels, servants’ quarters, etc., are depend- 
encies of a great mansion. 

DEPETER. Same as Depreter. 

DHPOT. 


(See Cos- 


In French, a place of deposit ; 


hence, in England, and, especially, in the United — 
States, and in composition, as ‘‘ railroad depot,” 


a station on a railroad. The term seems to 


have been employed in the first place to denote 


large terminal stations where much railroad 
property was stored ; later, it became the com- 
mon term for any station, and has been gradu- 
ally replaced by the word station. In English, 
commonly without the accents. 

768 


DEPRETER 


DEPRETER. Plastering to which an irreg- 
ular rough finish is given by setting small stones 
in it while soft. (See Hard Cast; Plaster ; 
Rough Cast.) | | 

DERHAM, ELIAS DE. 
Derham.) 

DERN. Same as Durn. 

DERRICK. A machine for raising, lower- 
ing, and moving weights.- In its original and 
simplest form it consists of an upright leg, near 
the bottom of which is pivoted the lower end of 
an inclined boom, which is raised and lowered 
by tackles passing from its outer end to the 
head of the upright, and thence down to a wind- 
lass or similar machine. The end of the boom 
has, thus, three motions: vertical, lateral about 
the pivot, and radial; which feature distin- 
guishes such forms of derricks from Cranes. 
The boom is provided with additional tackles 
for attaching to the weight to be moved. In 
modern times the term is applied to almost any 
form of hoisting machine consisting of one or 
two legs, guys, and tackle, and with or without 
a boom. — D. N. B.S. ) 

DESAUBEAUX or DESAUBEAULX, 
PIERRE ; architect and sculptor. 

Desaubeaux worked on the chateau of Gail- 
lon (Eure, France) at the beginning of the six- 
teenth century. Between 1520 and 1524 he 
made the bas-relief of the “Tree of Jesse,” in 
the tympanum over the main door of the cathe- 
dral of Rouen, France. From 1523 to 1525 he 
worked on the monument of the cardinals d’Am- 
boise at the cathedral of Rouen. 

Deville, Tombeaux de la Cathédrale de Rouen ; 
Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 

DESCHAMPS, JEHAN (J OHANNES DE 
CAMPIS) ; architect and sculptor; d. 1280. 

Deschamps made the plans of the cathedral 
of Clermont-Ferrand (Puy-de-Déme, France), of 
which the first stone was laid in 1248. 

Thibaud, La Cathédrale de Clermont, in Revue 
de Vart chrétien; La Faye de |’ Hopital, Descrip- 
tion de la Cathédrale de Clermont. 

DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY. A branch 
or department of Projection (which see). 

DESGCODETZ, ANTOINE ; architect and ar- 
cheologist ; b. 1653 (at Paris) ; d. May 20, 1728. 

Desgodetz was sent to the French Academy 
at Rome, as pensionnaire du roi, in 1674. 
Returning to Paris in 1678, he was made in 
1680 contréleur of the buildings at the chateau 
of Chambord (Loir-et-Cher, France). In 1699 
he was made architecte du roi and in 1707 pro- 
fessor at the Académie. His principal book is 
the Hdifices antiques de Rome (Paris, 1682), 
printed by order of Colbert at the royal expense. 

‘He published also Des Ordres d’ Architecture ; 
De la construction des démes, des églises, des 
palais; Des lois des bdtiments suivant la 
coutume de Paris, ete. 

Lance, Dictionnaire. 

769 


(See Elias de 


DESIGN 


. DESIDERIO DA SETTIGNANO ; sculptor 
and architect ; b. 1428; d. 1464. 

Very little is known about his life. His most 
important work is the monument, in the church 
of S. Croce (Florence), of Carlo Marsupini (d. 
1453), chancellor of the Florentine republic. 
He made also a charming tabernacle in the 
church of §. Lorenzo (Florence). Desiderio is 
mentioned among the sculptors who worked on 
the arch of the Castel Nuovo, Naples. He died 
prematurely at thirty-five. 

Geymiiller-Stegmann, Die Architektur der Re- 
naissance in Toscana; Miintz, Renaissance ; Per- 
kins, Tuscan Sculptors; Vasari, Milanesi ed. ; 
Vasari, Blashfield-Hopkins ed. 

DESIGN (I.). A. The art and practice of 
so arranging forms and colours, or objects hav- 
ing form and colour, that there are reached 
certain definite results intended to be agreeable 
to the eye and to embody some idea of the 
designer. The term, signifying primarily Draw- 
ing (which see; compare also French, dessin, 
dessiner ; Italian, disegnare ; Spanish, disevio, 
disefiar), is so far unfortunate that it conveys 
the idea of putting the form and colour upon 
paper rather than the act of inventing. Inven- 
tion would be a better term than design for the 
production of a new or partly new composition 
in form or colour, or both. 

B. By extension, the art of bringing to com- 
pletion any visible and tangible work of human 
thought and skill; thus, an engineer designs a 
locomotive, and his design for it is approved or 
disapproved. In a similar sense, an architect 
designs a building ; that is, he plans it, imagines 
its exterior appearance, and the interiors of the 
halls and the larger rooms, and selects in advance 
the materials for all its parts. 

The first object in designing a building is to so 
shape, connect, and arrange rooms and passages 
that they will best serve their purpose ; and this 
includes the placing of windows with a view to 
admitting daylight in the right places and in 
the needed quantities, of sources of artificial 
light, of fireplaces and other sources of heat, 
and of doorways. Thus, if a bedroom be in 
question, the doorway should not, when the door 
is open, command a view of the bed or of the 
washstand or dressing table, and there should 
be at least one window which can be left to 
admit light and a current of air, without the 
necessity of exposing the bed to either. A 
bathroom should not have the bath tub, nor 
any other fixture, set against a window back. 
A dining-room must have the doorway to the 
service room or butler’s pantry in such a place 
that the guests will very seldom have occasion 
to pass it. In each of these rooms, the door of 
entrance must be hinged in such a way that, 
until it is wide open, it will partly conceal the 
room within. 

These and such other general rules apply to 

770 


DESIGN 
the separate rooms and to combinations of two 
or three rooms ; but the design of the building 
involves the harmonizing of these special re- 
quirements with the more general ones of so 
arranging all the rooms on the ground floor and 
those of the second floor, and of other floors, 
that the flues will be carried up in such groups 
or in such close neighbourhood to one another 
that the number of separate chimney stacks 
will not be unreasonably great, that in no case 
shall a fireplace be set in an awkward or inacces- 
sible corner, that walls and if possible even small 
partitions may be carried up through story after 
story so that none will be left resting upon the 
floor, and that the arrangement of the windows as 
seen from without is harmonious, agreeable, and 
in strict accordance with the style of the exterior, 
while, at the same time, they come perfectly well 
in the rooms themselves. In practice, it is found 
impracticable to do this unless the architectural 
design is allowed a certain picturesqueness of 
treatment. It is impracticable in an inexpensive 
house to provide at once for convenience and for 
stately and symmetrical exterior design. So with 
the equally great necessity of architectural effect 
within the building — the much desired stateli- 
ness is often wholly unobtainable in connection 
with perfect convenience ; and a satisfactory re- 
sult is only to be obtained when a certain free- 
dom, as of picturesque and unexpected grouping 
of parts within, is allowed. The more expensive 
the building, the more easy it is, as a general 
thing, to obtain dignity both within and with- 
out in combination with fitness. At the same 
time it must be noted that the remarkable pieces 
of domestic architecture, the Italian palazzi and 
the French chateaux, and their like, were planned 
and built with a lavish use of space and materials, 
and with a disregard for the minor conveniences 
which have been discussed above, which would 
be impossible in a private building in the nine- 
teenth century. A noble family, building a 
palazzo in Bologna or in Rome, seems to have 
been content with suites of large rooms opening 
into one another without convenient access to 
corridors, without closets or provision for the 
convenient placing of furniture of all kinds. The 
great size of the rooms and their high windows, 
which filled all parts with light, enabled them 
to dispense partly with the above-named con- 
veniences, and to separate parts of a great hall 
or chamber by means of screens more or less 
permanent, and by curtains and the like. More- 
over, in the days when this stately architecture 
was brought into being, family life had not as 
many requirements as to-day. It will be found 
that the designing of a house, large or small, 
for a family which proposes to live in the whole 
of it and which has a refined and exacting taste 
in artistic design and in practical convenience, 
is the most difficult problem which can be set 
the architect. 


771 


-and, moreover, that there is no one in offici 


The case is different when a large 
building is undertaken. It is generally fo 
in such a case that there are no such well-d 
fined and generally accepted rules of plannin 


life connected with the city hall, the state capi- — 
tol, or the palace under consideration who has ss 
any very accurate notions of what is required. ‘i 
Any such official who has a ready-made scheme — 

for the plan of a building or a part of it is 
either overpersuaded or overruled, and in prac- 

tice the architect is restrained only by the ideas — 
concerning grandeur or beauty of some member 
of the building committee. The design is very 
apt to be made from without inward, and the 
exterior treated first. It is an exceptional — 
thing, a courthouse or a legislative building it ee 
which the same minute care for convenience as 
is required in a private house should be com- 
bined with a magnificent or beautiful exterior. 
Such buildings exist; but they hardly receive 
more notice than buildings of much less merit 
for the public are little likely to judge of the ~ 
labour attending the plan, or of the success 
which has resulted from it. 

On the other hand, a bank or similar busi-— 
ness building may be the medium of very care- — 
ful thought ; for the important interests which 
are at stake and the necessity of providing for — 
the rapid and easy transaction of business by 

many clerks of different degrees and different — li 
departments, and the need of perfect supervision — 
of all these by the chiefs, makes the vlaunines », 
of such a building very difficult and very inter- & ae 
esting. The safe or safes must be in exactly — 
such relations to the cashier, the tellers, the 
bookkeepers, etc.; the position of the cashier’s 
office is of extreme importance, the easy com- 
munication of this and the president’s and per- = 
haps of the vice president’s office with the 
whole bank must be carefully considered ; and — 
if the building occupies more floors than one, 
or more levels than one in the same story, the 
result may be more successful but the labour 
involved is made greater. 

In all such cases it will be found that a style 
of architecture which admits of very free treat- 
ment, in the ordinary use of the phrase, is 
better than one which requires rigid adherence 
to certain dispositions. It was urged, as one 
of the reasons for the adoption of medieval 
styles of building, that such freedom was pos- 
sible alone in Romanesque or Gothic art; that 
in these styles alone could a window be opened — 
where it was needed, some doorways made 
small, others large, some rooms high, others 
low, and all with perfect facility for obtaining 
an architectural effect both within and without. 

The practice of the French designers of the last 

half century has gone far to prove the contrary 

of this proposition. The uniformly neoclassic 

character of the design of Parisian buildings, 
772 


DESIGN 


both for residence and for business, and the 


presence in the capital of a great number of 
highly taught and very sagacious architects, has 
brought into shape a style allowing of any 
diversity of size, of almost any irregularity of 
disposition, all architecturally disposed and all 
brought into a certain artistic harmony in at 
least the better instances. The very irregularity 
of the Paris streets, crossing one another at 
oblique angles, has developed a singular freedom 
of planning, and the apparently classical spirit 
of the exteriors has modified itself perfectly to 
these requirements without losing artistic char- 
acter. The practice of Paris, then, seems to 
point to the following conclusions. (1) The 
architects of a given time and place should be 
nearly of one mind as to the character of their 
buildings, the general architectural style to be 
employed, and the general use of materials and 
the like. (2) The interior should be allowed to 
express itself very freely in the exterior by 
means of fenestrations, grouping of roofs, and 
the like. (3) The artist who undertakes a 
new building must really be content to give 
to it a great deal of patient thought and to 
elaborate his interior with constant mental 
reference to the exterior which is to accompany 
it. If these conditions are fulfilled, it appears 
that there may grow up in any country, among 
any modern people, an architecture with a cer- 
tain satisfying quality, a certain intellectual 
merit appealing to our reason and our sense of 
the fitness of things. At present it does not 
appear that great artistic beauty can be pro- 
cured in this way. That seems to be hardly 
within our reach because of that lack of intelli- 
gence in purely decorative work which is char- 
acteristic of all modern European peoples, and 
which has been referred to in many pages of 
the present work. — R. 5. 

DESIGN (II.). Ancient Art and Modern 
Position. Ancient styles of architecture had 
this in common, that they were all traditional. 
Even at the Renaissance the movement was a 
general one, and the style of building was only 
a reflection of a style-thought, although the 
inner principle was then gradually changed. 
Many a great mind dealt with architecture at 
this period, and many original characteristics 
were shown in individual works ; but the cen- 
tral principle—the compelling idea from first 
to last — was a desire to show a mastery in 
the scholarship of ancient art. When this 
scholarship had covered the field of research, 
a break in the development was inevitable, and 
another point of departure in the scholarship 
of past art had to be found. The Gothic art 
of France and England was now explored and 
copied, but just in the same way that Roman 
art had been. The form only was Gothic, the 
principle was still the Renaissance one of 
scholarship. The consent to this Gothic Re- 

773 


DESIGN 


naissance was not nearly so unanimous as the 
consent to the Renaissance proper, and, since 
the breakdown of the Gothic revival, we have 
had a series of attempts of the same kind ; each 
of them, however, has embraced less ground 
and has lasted for a shorter time than the one 
before it. There is, perhaps, this difference in 
the two revivals, that in the former one scholar- 
ship was the avowed end, while of the latter 
one some people have said that the aim was to 
find a point of departure for a new growth ; 
but in any case the departure was never made. 

Others have hoped that a “modern style” 
would come of the use of new materials ; but 
this is easily seen to be fallacious, as the real 
question is of the spirit which is to enlighten 
all our work, not of the matter of a small part 
of it. Is our architecture to be “‘ modern art,” 
when steel and aluminum are used, and not 
“art” when wood and stone are employed ? 

What is wanted is the art which shall use 
all materials in a fine and reasonable way, mak- 
ing the forms, moreover, carry some spirit-con- 
tenting quality which we call Beauty. In the 
second place we must raise the level of the 
whole range of building art instead of shutting 
out all but a small fraction from our purview ; 
for the few supreme works will only spring up 
where there is a wide basis of good common 
building. Thirdly, we need some point of view 
which shall interest all the workers employed, 
for a building is no mere design; it is a thing 
shaped by millions of handstrokes, and these 
strokes must all be guided by intellect and 
heart. I claim for the sphere of modern 
architecture all buildings, all materials used 
in their construction, and all the workmanship 
involved in erecting them.. The real purpose 
of our art is the expressive use of materials for * 
the satisfaction of worthy needs. Ancient work 
should properly be used as a body of ready-made 
experiment and as a glass for self-criticism. 
Within the phenomena of the architectural 
styles there are certain large principles common 
to all vital periods, and it is these principles 
which will still form the positive conditions 
of modern architecture. 

Although our wide and accurate knowledge 
of past art has been one of many causes for our 
present sterility in production, we shall best at- 
tempt to rectify this, not by seeking to forget 
the past, but by seeking another point of out- 
look, —a larger view and the recombination 
that follows minute analysis. He who at this 
time knows best what the constant spirit of 
past art has been knows best what its future 
may be. 

All design is a dealing with certain problems 
in the light of a body of observation and experi- 
ence. As to general arrangement, we are mostly 
agreed that the first consideration should be 
utility, and as to construction that it should 

774 


DESIGN ; 


be governed by stability. Beyond this, there 
is no agreement as to elements and no recog- 
nized basis of criticism, other than that of 
archeological correctness — judgment by author- 
ity ; and modern architecture in this respect is 
in the position of early science before it was re- 
generated by the doctrine of the necessity of 
experiment. All criticism of art which is not 
a mere expression of ‘‘ taste” comes to this, — 
it is either a statement of “authority” or it 
examines a work “according to reason.” It is 
those organon of reason as applied to modern 
design which we are here concerned with. 
Proportion. Before passing on, I should 
like to examine the scholastic theories of de- 
sign, but I must content myself with a few 
words on proportion and symmetry. That 
there is in the nature of things a series of agree- 
able relations generally applicable is a dogma 
which has been almost unquestioned. But this 
perfect relation can only be in the agreement of 
the object with all its conditions, as a perfect 


tree is differentiated into palm or oak according 


to latitude, and these, again, in their size and 
character so as to be in harmony with the sev- 
eral soils, ruling winds, and so on. Proportion 
in architecture is nothing but a relation of parts 
conditioned by utility, materials, scale, and habit. 
All the talk about proportion, from Alberti to 
Chambers, only resulted in the copying of mar- 
ble buildings in brick covered with plaster, and 
in fixing the relations of parts in buildings of 
different scale. Now, a true proportion can 
only exist when there is a just relation between 
weights and supports, and if the materials or 
the scale is changed this equilibrium is destroyed. 
For instance, increase the Parthenon, and the 
area of the supports is only increased according 
to the square, while the weight increases by the 
cube. Convenience again dictates much which 
passes for abstract proportion ; for example, the 
ordinary two squares of a doorway ; and doubt- 
less if we were accustomed to roll into a room 
horizontally the “‘ right proportion” of 3 feet 6 
inches to 7 feet 0 inches would be just the other 
way about. Many attempts have been made to 
prove that the Gothic churches were set out by 
some method of squaring or triangulation ; but 
the great latitude in the application of the 
squares and triangles — fitting them either to 
the inside, the centre, or the outside of walls, 
and then adding a margin for error — amounts 
rather to disproof, and the historical study of 
such buildings as Chartres and Westminster 
shows that they overlie earlier buildings, the 
foundations of which were the governing condi- 
tions in planning them. 

Symmetry. An attempt has also been made 
to make a dogma of symmetry. There is (1) the 
symmetry in all directions, as the sphere; (2) 
the axial symmetry, as of a prism or a tree; 
(3) the symmetry to a plane, as of a man or a. 

775 


~' + a. 4 “ — ‘ e > 2) oY 3 bac na ’ 


Yr ote 
a 


DESIGN ~— 


ship ; (4) balance ; (5) irregularity. What is 


usually meant by symmetry in architecture is — i 
symmetry on both sides of a vertical plane (3), 
and it is at once evident that it is a great and © 


arbitrary limitation of the field. There is, how- 


ever, this much in symmetry: where the pur- ee 
pose of a building is all gathered up at a centre 


there is likely to be an approximation to (2), 


or even, as far as possible, in some topes and 
Where the purpose of 


tomb chambers, to (1). 
a building develops as we enter it, as in an 


Egyptian temple, or where performers and au-— a 
dience have to be considered, a symmetry along | 
the plane of action is certainly appropriate, just  _ 


as the symmetry of an animal and a ship is to 
the planes of movement. 
pose of a building is more complex, as in a house, 
it is probable that there should be always some 
attempt at balance of parts as expressive of 
thought and order ; the extreme of irregularity, 
indeed, is unthinkable. 

Order. 
abstract considerations is the desirability of order, 
which itself is based on convenience and on ideas 
derived from the harmony in nature’s order. 

Unity. A close study of examples of ancient 
art shows many minor adjustments of parts, 
such as the use of curved surfaces and inclined 
lines in Greek architecture. 
fications are often explained as if they were 


intended as optical corrections made for the — 
purpose of making the square and the straight — 


appear square and straight to the eye, which 


would otherwise misconceive them. The gen- 
eral principle is more certainly expressed in — 


what a practical man would -call “ taking off 
the hardness,” a harmonizing the quantities by 


mixing them; for instance, if we look ata man _ 


or a tree we see that every part-is ‘shaded ” 
into the next. We may find approximations to 


geometrical solids in simple objects, but we are | 


not likely to find a cube or prism forming a 
part of an organism. A Greek portico contains 
the rounded surfaces of the statues, the cylin- 
drical shafts, the inclined pediment, the vertical 
walls. The adjustments ‘“‘sweetened ” all these 
together. The ordinary theory fits only one point 
of view, and indeed is merely a front elevation 
(on paper) explanation. The ‘ imperceptible 
correction” of the steps of the Parthenon, for 
instance, is a very obvious incorrectness, when 
the steps are seen from the end. The principle 
of “sweetening,” on the other hand, is quite 
general, and the irregularities of Gothic work 


conduce to the same unity in the total result. 


In the simplest case it is desirable to have a 
mean between extremes, as for instance black, 
white, and gray, vertical, horizontal, and in- 
clined ; and three colours or tones, at least, are 
required to give colour. 

Adaptability. Essential character is an- 


‘other desideratum, — every building and detail 


776 


Even where the pur- 


These refined modi- — 


The general law in regard to these oa 


ny ae ©, 


DESIGN 


~ should be shaped so as best to express its typi- 


cal character. A spire may be high; the glory 
of a dome is its expanse. 

Beyond these general rules, which we gather 
from a wide observation of past art, — rules 
rather too negative and academically elegant for 
the practical builder, — there are other great 
conditions which must ever form the positive 
groundwork of all progressive schools of building. 

Nature. Man’s building work, when the 
product of healthy and stable conditions, is as 
much a part of nature as a bee’s or a bird’s. 
Harmony with the rest of nature is the great 
tule, and old building work is the crowning in- 
terest of landscape. ‘‘ Architecture,” says W. 
Morris, “‘means the moulding and altering to 
human needs of the very face of the earth.” 
While the influence of nature on architecture 
is largely in a spiritual or epical quality, — to 
be seen in the work of the hands of those 
whose hearts beat close to the bosom of the 
earth, — nature will also furnish well-defined 
positive conditions which result in the differ- 
encing of local types where buildings are grown 
on the spot, and not ‘‘designed” through the 
post office. It is, moreover, as much the great 
reservoir of artistic ideas as of electrical force. 
All flourishing periods of art have been the re- 
sult of a going back to nature, and naturalism 
has been one of the constant elements of style 
from prehistoric times to the present day. Now, 
it is with these constant elements of style that 
architecture as an idea is alone concerned. We 
must bury the dead body of the styles — improp- 
erly called “revived” when they are only ex- 
humed —and open our hearts tonature. To get 


‘on practical designing terms with nature we must 


exchange the botanist’s and painter’s way of 
looking at the world for the observation of other 
facts of form and colour — the plan and pattern 
of things ; but the highest purpose in ornamen- 
tation, as in all art, is the gathering out of na- 
ture of those particular facts and expressions 
best fitted for a given purpose. Give us fresh 
observations of nature, and it must delight us ; 
give us scholarship, and at best we can only 
say that you are clever. 

Tradition. By this group of positive con- 
ditions I mean the great store of past experi- 
ence, remote or recent. ‘To make these prop- 
erly available, our present methods of studying 
the monuments must be reversed ; instead of 
studying them archeologically we must study 
them as essays in practical building, under cer- 
tain conditions. We should put aside the curi- 
ous and the highly specialized, and look, on the 
contrary, for what was universal — the central 
stem of the development of building. If we 
will thus concern ourselves less with styles, and 
regard these old facts from our proper stand- 
point, the whole body of this past experience is 
ours to profit by. We should observe what re- 

177 


DESIGN 


sults were the direct outcome of the use of cer- 
tain materials: the enamelled brick encased 
walls of Assyria and Persia, the granite and 
marble monolith building of Thebes and Athens, 
and the solid mortar masonry of Rome. Hay- 
ing studied the wall, we might explore all the 
developments of arching, doming, and vaulting. 
The wall, the pillar, the arch are ours, but not. 
the Egyptian or Romanesque varieties. We 
should get much more from such a process than. 
from collecting drawings of “ features” and try- 
ing to recombine them in the drawing-master 
designs we call Classic or Gothic. We should 
look at the piecing of the stones together in the 
plain wall, the texture of the plastering, the 
colour of the tiles, the durability of the cast 
lead, the method of applying rough cast. As 
builders we want the methods, not the results. 
But above all, we must use old art as an incen- 
tive and a witness to the fact that, of old, art had 
a message, and we must learn to read its final 
expressional result as a work of art. To attempt. 
to revive one given style is to exclude the others ; 
the whole of past art experience is ours, and out. 
of the critical use of past tradition considered 
as a whole we must build up a current custom, 
a tradition of our own. 

We must not study Greek as Greek, nor 
Gothic as Gothic; but see in them only phases. 
of the one universal art. As we look into the 
mirror of history at the arts of men, we see that 
the images presented to us are not isolated ; 
every phenomenon, every period, overlies and is 
interwoven with all the rest; all is movement, 
flux, and change, but all is one. Recognizing 
thus that not Classic or Romantic alone, but the. 
whole of art is ours, we see that the essence of re- 
vivalism must be in not being open to the influence: 
of past art, but in arbitrary shutting off of all 
but one set of influences. The student of archi- 
tecture should seek to estimate the valuc of this. 
or that structural method for present-day mate- 
rials and common needs, and try to read the 
expression of old art so that he may learn to 
express to-day’s motives. Let him, in a word, 
so far as he studies past art, classify his ob- 
servations in structural and artistic categories, 
and not according to geography and chronology. 
The one will prove a knowledge of art; the 
other a knowledge about art. Whatever sug- 
gestions he gathers in this way must be purged 
of the local and particular ; for instance, we 
may learn much about building with large 
stones from the Greeks, but there must be no 
pretence of Jonic or Doric in modern art. We 
may learn much of story and romance from 
Gothic work, and certain methods of handling 
from the Renaissance; but there must not be: 
anything deliberately medizeval or Italian al- 
lowed to remain in our own work. 

Need. <A third cornerstone of a positive 
foundation for modern design is Utility. At 

778 


] 


DESIGN 
first sight there seems little danger of this 
being forgotten, for supply and demand are 
very well adjusted. But need does not mean 
the same thing as demand, and a wise consid- 
eration of what are true needs would carry us 
far and give us nearly all we want. This low- 
est, firmest ground for art should at once —if 
we could only realize the things which we really 
require — give us a well-ordered country, clean 
towns, workmanlike building, bright colour, 
light in our rooms, and shelter at our doors, 
and we ‘should not for long lack an interested 
public — intelligent craftsmen, and beauty 
would soon spring up by the-way, for beauty 
is to art what happiness is to conduct. I do 
not think that it is possible for a work at the 
present moment not to recall some one phase 
of past art more than another ; but these stig- 
mata of the styles are measures of our weak- 
ness, not of our strength ; and if it is impossible 
to get a “design” together without Greek or 
Gothic, it would be possible, when it is once 
made, to hunt out every known trick of style, 
pilasters, eggs and tongues, pinnacles, gargoyles, 
and all the rest; and then to make a concen- 
trated appeal to the imagination in some little 
panel of sculpture or piece of precious material. 
Materials. .A fourth group of positive con- 
ditions, those given by the materials we use, is in 
many respects the most important of all. It 
is not by an impossible return to some art 
Eden, a general agreement as to a point of de- 
parture and a point of view, but by a common- 
sense adaptation of means to ends by reasonable 
methods of workmanship, and by the simple 


expression of our delight in making things, that 


we shall form a school of art. 

Beyond the initial impossibility of our doing 
work like the old, because we are modern, there 
are further impossibilities as to materials and 
labour. For instance, in the Middle Ages it 
was often cheaper to use timber in large bulk 
rather than to cut it down with great labour ; 
and an Elizabethan author tells us how the 
curved braces in old ‘timber-framed houses 
“came of husbandry in dealing with their ma- 
terials,” and what before was rejected as crooked 
‘doth now come in the fronts and best parts 
of the work.” Thus, the naturally bent tim- 
ber, by the excellent device of the craftsman, 
became a new beauty, and such economic de- 
velopment has ever led to new forms. And 
this is the reason that none but those who deal 
with materials at first hand can design any- 
thing really fresh and lasting. Consider this 
further, not only in regard to the materials, but 
to the tools. All right “finish” of surfaces 
and appropriate ornamentation are direct out- 
comes of the tools in the hands of a thinker; 
a potter, for instance, thinks with his thumb. 
He may begin with an idea, but the pot insists 
on developing in its own way. If, however, a 

779 


Pee = DESIGN» e ; 
4: designer ” epee a to design a pot he c can 
at best generalize a notion from a numbe 
pots done by potters. | How can any one not 
glass blower know in any fresh way what go 
form or workmanship in glass is? The sam 
consideration applies to textiles and all other 
arts ; the Greek ornamentation, which has been . 
copied by thousands of miles for hundreds of Bis 
years by connoisseurs of exquisite taste, was 
developed at the brush end by common pottery — 
painters ; and our very alphabets, as is acknow- 
ledged, were never designed by grammarians, but - 
changed in form as the tool used in writing — 
changed. All ornamentation may be define eam 
as worthy thought expressed in the language 
of the tool. Once, long ago, a Chinese potter 
found that a certain pigment fired on a certain 8 
body produced a heavenly blue. Another found — 
that baking under certain conditions made the __ 
glaze crackle. A Persian found out lustring; 
and another liked the accidental running of 
colours we admire in Rhodian ware. Whatis 
true of these is true of building. Suppose a 
doorway is needed, or a font, or capital ; a man 
who knows how stone is obtained in convenient 
sizes, and who knows its pleasant qualities of 
surface when treated in a certain way, tries, by _ 
the smallest modification of the original masses, 
to get a suitable form for the jamb, or bowl, or — 
weight bearer. This is the law of all stone 
design and the line of evolution of all fit mould- 
ings; the best figure sculptures, even, are those 
in which the final work still retains the evidence 
of the log or block from whence they were hewn. 2 
This, indeed, is one great distinction between 
ancient sculpture and modern figure work: one 
was cut out of a block of stone by the thinking = 
workman; the modern method has been to fin; —_ 
ish a full-size model in clay, and copy that into 
stone. In building, this ‘‘ blockiness” is of the 
greatest importance, our power of following the ~ 
reasoning of the workman being of the essence 
of our pleasure in a work of art. All the de- 
tails of a building should first be functional, of 
the nature of bearing blocks, sheltering projec- * 
tions, protecting margins, and soon; and then ~~ 
each one must be made suitable for its special ‘@ 
purpose by special thought. It thus becomes 
organic and truly original. ; 
Moulding is a minor modification of form, 
often done for a useful purpose, as for rounding 
an edge or forming a drip. It is usual to confuse 
moulding with the objects moulded ; cornices or 
architraves, if functional, are not necessarily 
moulded. All our merely ornamental cornices 
are to be traced back historically to the fact 
that when the early Greeks built temples with 
mud walls they projected the wooden rafters to 
form a shelter, and put a wide terra-cotta — 
gutter, forming a cyma, on the top. ‘A bold 
plaster cornice” around. a drawing-room is a 
modern plagiarism of Greek thinking. 
780 ae 


~ 


j 


DESJARDINS 


All consideration of architectural results leads 
us back to material determining conditions, and 
there are infinite possibilities open for natural 


growth to that architecture which shall once 


again examine the groundwork. When a seri- 
ous general interest is taken in erecting buildings 
for noble uses, we shall find in these consider- 
ations of materials, need, tradition, and nature, 
all that is required to build up a positive style 


of architecture. 


Beyond this, fine schools of architecture show 
evidence, in their expressional result, of the rul- 
ing thought of the several ages of which they 
were part: the hieratic mysticism of Egypt, 
the political culture of Greece, the vitality and 
romanticism of Medieval Europe. This qual- 
ity, which I venture to call expressionism, is, 
in truth, present in all work to those who can 
read the language of men’s art; it is only a 


question of greater or less nobility at Athens 


or Amiens, or London and New York. Poetry 
has been said to be a criticism of life ; all seri- 
ous art is a criticism of ourselves, and exactly 
what we put into the constructive argument 
will tell in the result: choice of material for its 
lastingness, harmony with environment, careful 
workmanship, skilful adjustment, —all these 
are written across it, and these form its proper 
style. 

One final word in regard to our own contem- 
porary and future style, to express dissent from 
those who would call it eclectic. Let those who 
pursue eclecticism as an ideal call themselves ec- 
lectics, by all means ; but so far as modern work 
is growing and coherent, based on the right hand- 
ling of material, it is not eclectic. Is this modern 
spirit in art best left otherwise unnamed, or is 
there something in a name which reacts on 
thought and precipitates ideas which before only 
floated in the mind vague and unfixed? I incline 
to the refusal of all labels. Naturalism will not 
do unless it is stretched to cover the crudest 
abstraction ; nor realism, unless it includes the 
uttermost of romance; nor humanism, which 
has been limited by association with the renais- 
sance. But if a name must be found it should 
be wide enough to include all these together and 
to cover the whole ground between the four 
cardinal points of art —nature, tradition, re- 
quirement, material. Might the builders and 
craftsmen amend the impressionist art of the 
painters into expressionist art! 

—W. R. Leruasy. 

DESJARDINS, ANTOINE; architect; b. 
July 25, 1814 (at Lyons, France) ; d. 1863. 

Desjardins studied architecture first at Lyons, 
and afterward entered the atelier of Jaques 
Félix Duban (see Duban, J. F.) at the Hcole 
des Beaux Arts (Paris). In 1848 he was 
made diocesan architect at Lyons, and in 1854 
architect in chief of that city. At Lyons he 
restored the Hotel de Ville and built the new 

781 


DETAIL 


wing of the Palais des Arts, the monumental 
fountains of the Place Louis XIV., and the 
Place de  Impératrice, ete. 

Maurice du Seigneur, in Planat’s Encyclopédie 
de lVarchitecture. 

DESPATCH TUBE. The conveying tube 
or pipe in a pneumatic despatch system. 

DESSUS DE CHEMINEE. The space 
above a chimney piece treated architecturally, 
or filled with a painting or other work of art. 
This definition excludes the hood of a medizval 
chimney, and includes only the treatment of the 
flat piece of wall forming the front of the chim- 
ney breast, and usually applies only to a panel, 
canvas, or the like which fills but a small part 
of it. The family portrait or other large pic- 
ture which often occupies the space above the 
mantelpiece in old English houses is hardly 
called by this name, which implies rather a 
treatment in strict accordance with the archi- 
tecture of the room. | 

DESSUS DE FENETRE; DESSUS DE 
PORTE. In interior decoration the space above 
a window or door which, in the styles of the 
eighteenth century, were often filled with a 
painting of importance or a carved and partly 
gilded panel. The terms have been to some extent 
Englished, as over-door panel, and the like. 

DESTRE, JULIEN ; architect. 

In June, 1651, Philip IV. of Spain (b. 1605 ; 
d. 1665) authorized the construction of the 
Hotel de Ville at Lille (Nord, France), then a 
city of Flanders, and under the dominion of the 
Spanish crown. The following year the plans 
were presented by Julien Destré, maitre ingé- 
niaire et architecte, according to which the 
building was constructed. 

Palustre, Za Renaissance en France, Vol. I. 

DETAIL. In building, or the design for a 
building, a part small in proportion to a larger 
whole. Thus, the details of a church include 
not merely each separate sculptured capital, 
base, traceried window, or the like, but also the 
whole of the porch, of a flying buttress with its 
pinnacle and the sculpture decorating it, ete. 
If one were to make a relevé of 8. Peter’s, in 
Rome, the separate drawing in which the curva- 
ture of the dome was accurately plotted would 
be the drawing of a detail, or, in other words, a 
detail drawing ; and in like manner the careful 
representation of one of the capitals, or of a 
single panel of the mosaic within, would be a 
detail ; but so would be a drawing of one whole 
section of the dome with its panels of mosaic in 
their due succession. Details, then, and the 
drawings of details, are treated here altogether 
purposely, because it is mainly in connection 
with the preparation of designs that the term 
is used. One rarely speaks of the details of an 
existing church porch from which he is receiving 
pleasure, though it would still be common to 


say that the porch was fine in detail. 


782 


DETAIL 


A subject which has not received sufficient 
attention is the extraordinary effect of elabo- 
rate detail upon the general design of a build- 
ing. It is rather customary to speak of the 
general composition as if it could be considered 
independently of the details, large and small. 
In fact, however, the whole of the effect of a 
large building may be greatly enhanced or 
marred by the disposition of details, even if 
they are as small as the sculpture of archi- 
traves or of capitals. Any one who is familiar 
with watching buildings in process of erection 
will have noted that those buildings which are 
enriched with sculpture are very greatly modi- 
fied by the completion of that sculpture in 
cases where it is wholly or partly executed 
after the stones have been put in place. The 
library of S. Mark’s would be altogether differ- 
ent in its effect upon the spectator if its sculp- 
ture were removed from the spandrels, the 
smaller and the greater friezes, and the para- 
pet. Buildings which are to be completed 
without the use of sculpture should be de- 
signed with a view to the effect which -they 
may be made to produce without the assistance 
of such detail; and those buildings which are 
not to have arcades, colonnades, piers, parapets, 
bay windows, towers, or similar breaking up of 
the surface and variation of the sky line should 
be designed with a view to doing without them. 
This requirement, which seems obvious, is so 
often disregarded that we all see instances of a 
church intended to have a tower in the future 
standing many years without this tower. Evi- 
dently, something is wrong here; either the 
design does not require the added detail of the 
tower, in which case it will be spoiled by this 
addition ; or it does require that detail, and 
should not be shown without it. Or if a tower 
bears too large a proportion to the whole design 
of a church to be considered a detail, the same 
truth holds with regard to a projecting porch, 
or to the addition of granite columns with 
carved capitals and bases, or even to the mere 
carvings of parts which have at first been left 
plain. 

The most frequent solecism which is com- 
mitted by designers who are thoughtless of 
these requirements is the taking of details from 
highly decorative buildings of the past to use 
in plain buildings of to-day, or the reverse. 
The same order which suits well the elaborate 
and very rich library of 8. Mark would be a 
feeble thing if seen in a building deprived of 
other decorative detail. (See Composition I. ; 
Massing ; Plan ; Projet.) 

Modern writers have seldom interested them- 
selves in architectural detail, because the ten- 
dency of architectural designing is away from 
the combination of details to make up a whole, 
and in favour of designing buildings with a sin- 
gle eye to massing and proportion, and the 

783 


DIAMETER. 


later addition of highly wrought sculpture a 


painting. The use of detail in Roman impe- 


rial work, in which many interesting questions 


were solved and much valuable experience 
gained, has not been studied in modern times ; 
but see the bibliography under Roman Impe- 
rial Architecture. The Romanesque and Gothic 
detail only has been carefully studied. (See 
bibliography under each of those terms.) For 
the extreme view of the value of detail to a 
building, see Ruskin, Seven Lamps of Archi- 
tecture and Stones of Venice; and note espe- 


cially the often cited chapter on the “ Nature 


of Gothic” in the latter work. — R. 8. 

DETAIL DRAWING. A drawing showing 
the details of a composition, or parts of them. 
Such drawings are commonly made of full size, 
or on a scale two or three times greater than 
the general drawings. 

DEVICE. A pictorial or sculptured design, 
usually emblematic or symbolical, expressing a 
sentiment and often accompanied by a motto in 
which the same or a similar sentiment is put 
into words. The device (called also impresa 
or imprezza) was common in the sixteenth and 
seventeenth centuries, and a simple one or a 
single element or part of one is often found in 
architectural decoration. The device is freely 
taken by any person at pleasure ; and it differs 
in this from heraldic bearings (see Arms) which 
are always the direct gift or “grant” of a 
superior authority. 

DE WAILLY. (See Wailly, Charles de.) 

DIABASE. A dark gray to black igneous 
rock, composed essentially of augite and a soda- 
lime feldspar. Also called trap and more rarely 
greenstone. —G. P. M. 


DIACONIA. A chamber or building de- | 
pendent upon a church and placed under the 


care of a deacon, for the relief of the poor, aged, 
or infirm ; either as a hospital, asylum, or place 
for dispensing charity. The term is medieval, 
though it is said to be still used in Germany. ~ 

DIACONICON; DIACONICUM. A. 
Originally, a place in which the deacons kept 
the vessels used for the church service ; hence, — 
_ B. Formerly, in general ecclesiological usage, 
a sacristy. In Greek churches, a room corre- 
sponding to the sacristy of a Western church, 
usually on the south side of the bema or sanctu- 
ary. (Compare Prothesis.) 

DIAL. <A. An instrument for determining 
the hour of the day by means of the shadow 
cast on a graduated surface. In its simplest 


form, the non-portable dial consists of an iron | 


rod fixed in a wall, its shadow moving over a 

series of radiating lines painted or cut on the 

masonry below. (See Sun Dial.) Hence, — 
B. Any similar graduated surface, especially 

when circular ; as the face of a clock or metre. 
DIAMETER. A. An _ imaginary line 

through the centre of a circle or sphere, and 

784 


Pe ee gt #1 oe a 
—_— © e yo TS 


DIAMICTON 


terminating in the perimeter or surface; a 
similar line in a circular cylinder. 

B. The length of a diameter in sense A. 

In the system of proportions devised by the 
Italian architects of the classic revival (Vignola, 
Palladio, Scamozzi, etc.) for the classic orders, 
the diameter of the lower part of the shaft of 
a column was taken as a standard of dimension 
for all parts of the order. It was divided into 
two modules, and these into “ parts ” or minutes, 
twelve for the Tuscan and Doric, eighteen for 
the Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite orders. 
Other writers have used other subdivisions. 

This highly artificial analysis of the propor- 
tions, establishing a rigid and arbitrary canon, 
was evidently unknown to the Romans, although 
with their love of system they developed certain 
traditional rules, more or less flexible. Vitru- 
vius gives certain of these, employing the term 
crassitudo for the diameter of the shaft as a 
unit for certain measurements and _ spacings ; 
but he does not make it the basis of a whole 
system of detailed proportions as do the Italian 
classicists. (See Column; Intercolumniation ; 
Order ; Shaft.) 

DIAMICTON. A kind of masonry used by 
the Romans and described by Pliny as having 
the body of the wall “stuffed” (farcire)-with 
broken material. The description would fit 
almost any of the massive ancient masonry in 
the city of Rome. 

DIAMOND. Generally the same as lozenge; 
sometimes a square when set diagonally, or with 
its diagonals respectively vertical and horizontal. 
The term is scarcely to be considered as technical 
and is of very loose application. 

DIAMOND WORK. A kind of mason 
work in which the pieces are set so as to form 
diamonds on the face of the wall. (Compare 
Opus Reticulatum.) 


DiaPER: EL-BARAH IN SYRIA; 5TH TO 6TH 
CENTURY. 
DIAPER. A pattern for the decoration of 
a flat or unbroken surface, consisting of thé con- 
785 


DIDRON 


stant repetition of one, two, or more simple 
figures which connect with one another more or 
less closely. A 
pattern consist- 
ing of entirely 
separate figures 
as where a fleur- 
de-lis is repeated 
at small inter- 
vals, is not a 
diaper but a 
sowing, semé, or - 
sprinkle; the 
diaper must 


\a Va 

cover the ground NN JA 
ti ly, , 
amen WC AC Ya 


ing or passing 


DIAPER ON Doorway, NortH 


into- -one-an- SIDE oF CHOIR (PORTE 
h Th f Rovce), Norre Dams, 
other. LS A2 Panis. 


a broken or wav- 

ing line constantly repeated and constantly 
crossing itself divides the surface into alterna- 
tions of larger and smaller convex and concave 
spaces, and if each one of these spaces is occupied 
by a piece of leafage, or 


eels) wal : : 
ISACING | the like, that is a diaper 

Sj aa an in the se sense of the 
Ki Re ae%! term. e name 1s evl- 
ARS eee «© ently derived from the 
[el a aiaatt terms in different lan- 


guages signifying jasper, 
and refers to the deco- 
rative effect of veining and 
the like; although this is 
familiarized by being pre- 
pared for constant uni- 
: form repetition. —R. 8. 

DIASTYLE. Having columns spaced with 
a clear intercolumniation of three diameters. 
Some authorities give four diameters, but this 
may refer to the spacing from axis to axis. 
(See Intercolumniation.) 

DIATONOUS (pl. -oni). In Greco-Roman 
work, going through a wall; said of a bond 
stone. 

DIAZOMA. A passage or aisle in a Greek 
theatre concentric with the outer wall and with 
the orchestra, and communicating with the 
radial aisles. There was usually only one 
diazoma, dividing the auditorium at about the 
centre. 

DICKINSON, WILLIAM ; architect. 

Between 1671 and 1680 Dickinson superin- 
tended the erection of 8. Bride’s church, London, 
from designs by Sir Christopher Wren. He 
was surveyor of Westminster Abbey in the early 
part of the eighteenth century. 

Redgrave, Dictionary of Artists. 

DIDRON (AINB), ADOLPHE NAPO- 
LEON ; archeologist ; b. March 13, 1806; d. 
Nov. 13, 1867. 


DIAPER FROM THE 
MONUMENT OF 
WILLIAM DE VA- 
LENCE, WEST- 
MINSTER. 


786 


Se, ee Eye a ee eR ae ae pee 


DIE 


Didron began with the study of law. Turn- 
ing his attention to archeology, he was appointed 
secretary of the Comité des monuments histo- 
riques newly established by Guizot. In 1844 he 
established the Annales Archéologiques. Di- 
dron published Jconographie chrétienne, His- 
toire de Dieu (1 vol. 4to, Paris) ; Manuel des 
cuvres de bronze et dorfévrerie du moyen 
dge (1 vol. 8vo, 1859) ; Iconographie de Vopéra 
(1 vol. 8vo, 1864) ; and numerous important con- 
tributions to the Annales Archéologiques and 
other archeological journals. 

De Guilhermy, Didron in Annales <Archéolo- 
giques, Vol. 25, p. 877; Notice Nécrologique in 
Revue Générale, Vol. 25, 1867. 

DIE. The body of a pedestal between the 
base and cap, especially when its form approaches 
a cube or rectangular prism. 

DIENZHOFER. (See Dinzhofer.) 

DIE SQUARE (adj.). Having accurately 
finished faces forming true right angles and 
arrises ; said especially of timber when carefully 
dressed for fine work. 

DIETTERLIN (DIETTERLEIN), WEN- 
DEL; architect, painter, and goldsmith; b. 
1550 (at Strassburg) ; d. 1599. 

Dietterlin owes his reputation to his work on 
civil architecture in five books, the different 
books appearing under different titles between 
1593 and 1599. He painted the ceiling of the 
great hall of the Lusthaus at Stuttgart with 
the Creation of the World and the Last 
Judgment. 

Seubert, Kiinstler lexicon; La Grande Ency- 
clopédie. 

DIGLYPH. A member having two vertical 
channels or grooves, without the two lateral 
half grooves which characterize the triglyph. 
The diglyph is almost unknown in classic ar- 
chitecture, the few illustrations given in old 
works being of doubtful accuracy. (See Tri- 
glyph.) 

DIKE. Originally a trench, a digging of 
any sort. In modern usage, a raised embank- 
ment or wall, thick in proportion to its height, 
and intended to resist the pressure of water. 
The embankments which keep the sea from 
overrunning the shore of the Netherlands are 
called dikes, and the Mississippi levees are dikes 
also, though not so called. A dike differs from 
a dam in keeping water out rather than re- 
straining the flow of water, as of a river; but 
the distinction is not absolutely maintained. 

DILAPIDATION. Technically, and in Eng- 
lish legal usage, the act of injuring or allowing 
injury to be done to property which is held for a 
time. The term includes destruction and taking 
down as well as the result of neglect. In ecclesi- 
astical law, the term is especially in use because an 
incumbent of a benefice is bound, under certain 
limitations, to keep the lands and buildings of 
his residence in good order; and because the 

787 


DINING ROOM 


appraisal of the injuries which have befallen : 
them during the incumbency of any one person 


is a matter of very serious consideration and 
thought, certain surveyors being particularly 
engaged in this practice. 

Fletcher, Banister ; Dilapidations, a Text-book 


for Architects and Surveyors in tabulated form, 
4th ed., London, 1891, 1 vol. 12mo. 
—R.S8. 


DIMENSION. (For the dimensions of im- 
portant buildings, see size.) , 

DIMENSION LUMBER. Lumber which 
is accurately sawn to certain specified or fixed 


dimensions, especially of relatively large size. 


More specifically, in the United States, such 
lumber larger than scantling. (See Lumber.) 

DIMENSION STONE. Ashlar, or cut stone, 
as distinguished from rubble ; especially when 
cut to more or less accurately specified dimen- 
sions. (See Ashlar ; Masonry.) 

DIMINISH (v. t.), to make smaller; (v. 
int.), to become smaller. 

The verb and its derivatives are used in con- 
nection with the tapering of shafts of columns 
from the largest diameter at the base to the 
smallest at the necking of the capital ; with the 
narrowest rail of a panel door, which is usually 
at the top and so named in contradistinction to 
the lock rail in the middle and the bottom rail ; 
to an arch which is less than a complete semi- 
circle in curvature, etc. The term diminishing 
of a column or diminishing column is sometimes 
used for shafts which are conical merely, as dis- 
tinguished from those which are cut with an 
entasis. Most shafts in medizeval work are 
cylindrical, that is to say, have no diminution 
at all. — R. 8. 


DIMINUTION (as of a shaft). (See Dimin- | 


ish. ) : 
DINGLE. In local United States’ usage, 
an enclosure constructed about an entrance, as 
a protection from the weather (C. D.). (See 
Weather Door, under Door; Wind Porch.) 
DINING ROOM. The principal room used 
for meals, and in which the family in a private 
house, or the guests in a hotel, or the like, come 
together at mealtimes. It is most generally 
the only room used in this way, but compare 
Breakfast Room; Café; Lunch Room. (For the 
dining room in the Roman house, see Cenacu- 
lum; Cicus; Tablinum; Triclinium.) In the 
United States, it is generally held that the ser- 
vice room or the butler’s pantry should be closely 
connected with the dining-room, and also with 
the kitchen. Thus, in country houses, the whole 
plan is very seriously affected and the freedom 
of planning seriously impaired by the desire to 
bring these three important rooms into close 
touch with one another, while at the same time 
the dining room is required to have a given ex- 
posure, as toward the sunset or toward a certain 
view supposed to be very attractive at a certain 
788 


DINOCRATES 


The demand for a very short route from 


hour. 
the kitchen to the dining room through the 
service-room is not so decided on the Continent, 
or even, perhaps, in England, the difference be- 
ing partly caused by the more general employ- 
ment by the wealthy of well-trained domestics 


in sufficient number. It is a plan not without 
its advantages in summer time and in warmer 
climates for a good part of the year, to have the 
meals served in a large hall which may answer 
for other purposes, as for the principal family 
sitting room. In fact, except for the lingering 
odours of certain dishes, the use of the sitting 
room for meals has many advantages ; the room 
can thus be made much larger, and in strictly 
family life nothing that is disagreeable, and 
much that is pleasant, results from this ar- 
rangement. The requirements for a dining 
room of a club or hotel are obvious, such as 
facility for ventilation, the supply of abundant 
light, and perfect ease of access for the domes- 
tics on the one hand, and the guests on the 
other. — R. 8. 

DINOCRATES. (See Deinocrates.) 

DINZENHOFER, KILIAN IGNATZ ; 
architect ; b. Sept. 1, 1690 (at Prague); d. 
Dec. 17, 1752. 

The family of Dinzenhofer came originally 
from Bamberg in Bavaria, where were several 
architects of that name. His father, Christoph, 
was an architect, practising in Prague (Bohemia). 
Kilian went to Vienna in his twentieth year and 
worked with Fischer-von Erlach (see Fischer 
von Erlach, J. B.). He travelled in Italy, France, 
and England, and settled in Prague after the 
death of his father, in 1722. He was employed 
on nearly all the most important buildings under- 
taken at Prague at this time. His chief work 
is the cupola of the church of 8. Nicholas, at 
Prague. 

Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie. 

DIORAMA. A. A large picture arranged 
for public exhibition in a dark room and made 
almost deceptive by means of optical illusions 
effected by the illumination. Hence, — 

B. A building especially arranged for the 
accommodation and exhibition of such a picture. 
Sometimes with a revolving room or “specta- 
torium,” as in that erected in London in 1822, 
by Morgan and Pugin. (Compare Panorama.) 

DIORITE. A dark, usually greenish to black, 
igneous rock, composed mainly of hornblende 
and soda-lime feldspars ; also called green stone 
and trap. —G. P. M. 

DIOTO-SALVI ; architect. 

_ One of the most important of the successors 
of Buschetus (see Buschetus). His name and 
the date of foundation, 1153, are found in an 
inscription of the baptistery and in an inscrip- 
tion of the church of S. Sepulchro in Pisa 
(Italy). 

Rohault de Fleury, Monuments de Pise, p. 54. 

789 


DISINTEGRATION 


DIPLINTHIUS. In Roman building, a 
particular form of brick. The exact significa- 
tion of the word is uncertain; perhaps a brick 
of double the standard length, to be used as a 
header in a bond course. (Vitruvius, IT., 8 ; see 
Rect es Bie) 

DIP PIPE. In Great Britain, the short 
vertical pipe connecting a water closet with a 
D trap (A. P. 8.). (See under Trap.) 

DIPTERAL. Composed of, or provided with, 
two rows of columns; especially when applied 
to a Greek temple, having two rows of columns 
on all sides. (See Columnar Architecture.) 

DIPTERON ; -OS. A dipteral structure 
(Vitruvius). 

DIPYLON. In Greek, originally, an adjec- 
tive; “having two doors or two gates.” Used 
absolutely, and also in Latin, the gateway of 
the city of Athens, on the side toward the cera- 
micon (keramikos) ; also, the temple or shrine 
of Janus. The Athenian gate is celebrated 
because in the immediate vicinity was a cemetery 
in which have been found many splendid speci- 
mens of the Greek funeral stele. It is also the 
only gate of which some vestiges are left. 

DISCHARGING PIECH. Any piece or 
member so disposed as to relieve a support- 
ing member of a load that would otherwise be 
imposed upon it, and to transmit or discharge 
the load to another point or points. (See Dis- 
charging Arch, under Arch.) 

DISH (v.). To form with a depression of 
the surface, generally for the purpose of retaining 
water ; as to prevent overflow. A dished slab 
to a washstand is one having the general surface 
depressed slightly, leaving a rim about the edges. 

DISH OUT (v.). -A. To construct a frame 
or cradle, for a cove or similar curved surface ; 
as by curved ribs at the meeting of a ceiling and 
wall. 

B. Same as Dish. 

DISINTEGRATION. The destruction of 
the cohesion of the particles of which a body is 
composed ; especially as applied to stone. It 
is generally due to the destruction of the cement- 
ing substance by the action of frost, or water, 
etc., as water which has been absorbed into the 
pores of the stone, in freezing expands and throws 
off grains and even scales from the surface. 

Like corrosion, disintegration can only be 
prevented by the application of a coating which 
will keep out the disintegrating force, generally 
freezing water, from the pores of the material. 
In some cases the action is chemical, as formerly 
in the smoke-laden atmosphere of London, that 
of sulphuric acid acting upon the carbonates of 
lime, etc. A coating of silicate of lime is effi- 
cient as a protection for some years. Various 
other substances and processes are on the market 
for this purpose, some of which are applied with 
heat. (See Preservation.) 

For works of importance, stones should be 

790 


A We oe ee ey 


DISPENSARY 


selected which are the least absorbent, in which 
the cohesion of the particles is most resistant, or 
whose chemical constituents are least liable to 
be injured by the gases to which they are to be 
exposed. — W. R. H. 

DISPENSARY. Primarily, that branch or 
office of a hospital which has to do with the dis- 
pensing or giving out of drugs and other things 
necessary for the treatment of the sick. By ex- 
tension, and in the large cities, an office in which 
out-patients are treated, usually at a very low 
rate, or free of charge. The term is even ap- 
plied to that branch of a surgical, orthopzedic, 
or ophthalmic hospital where relief is given by 
simple operations. Such establishments are 
often recognized and regulated by law. 

DISPOSITION. The placing of the different 
parts of a building; whether, in plan, the differ- 
ent rooms, passages, staircases, closets, and the 
like; or, in the exterior, the chief masses and 
the larger and smaller details. The term may 
be thought synonymous with Distribution, but 
there is perhaps a tendency to apply Disposition 
to the placing of any one part of the building, 
or of any one principal design, with its appurte- 
nances ; while Distribution applies only to the ar- 
rangement of many parts taken together. Thus, 
one might say that the disposition of the dining 
room is excellent, meaning thereby its placing 
with regard to the exterior and to the other 
rooms of the house; and would say of all the 
rooms taken together that the distribution was 
excellent. (See Design; Massing; Planning; 
Proportion.) — R. 8. 

DISSECTING ROOM. A room necessarily 
large and perfectly well lighted in which dissec- 


tions of the human body are carried on for the 


anatomical instruction of students in medicine 
and surgery. Apart from a large bare room, the 
requirements are merely abundant opportunity 
for washing, large cloak rooms, usually furnished 
with separate lockers for the students and dem- 
onstrators, in which the outer protective gar- 
ments used in the dissecting room can be kept; 
refrigerating chambers for the preservation of 
subjects; a crematory furnace in which great 
heat can be maintained without danger to the 
building; and a most elaborate system of forced 
ventilation. The ideal dissecting room should 
be closed to the external air and should depend 
upon the ventilation alone for its sanitation and 
comfort; but it is hard to induce building com- 
mittees to accept this proposition even when the 
dissecting room is practically unused through 
the summer months. — R. 8. 

DISTEMPER. Same as Tempera. 

DISTEMPER GROUND. A surface prop- 
erly prepared for the laying of colour in distem- 
per; as described under Tempera. 

DISTILLERY. A building or buildings, or 
a part. thereof, for distilling liquids of any kind, 
especially spirits. 

791 


DIVIDERS 
DISTRIBUTION. (See Disposition.) 
DISTYLE, Having two columns in front; a 

term used in describing the plans of classic build- 
ings. (See Columnar Architecture.) 
DISTYLE IN ANTIS. Having two col- 
umns in front between antz; used of temples 
or shrines whose front porch ( pronaos) is formed 
by prolonging the side walls of the cella in front, 
finishing them with ante, and placing two col- 
umns between them, as in the temple of Themis 
at Rhamnus. (See Columnar Architecture.) 
DITRIGLYPH. A. In a Doric entablature 


the space from the centre of one metope to that 


of the second metope from it, including thus two 
triglyphs. 

B. In a Doric building, a space between two 
columns such that two triglyphs intervene over 
the intercolumniation instead of one, as in the 
ordinary arrangement. 


DITRIGLYPHIC. Arranged with a ditri- 


glyph. 

DITTON, JOHN DB; architect. 

In 1320 he was appointed clerk and keeper 
of the king’s works at the Palace of Westminster 
and at the Tower of London. 

Arch. Pub. Soc. Dictionary. 

DIVAN. A. A council chamber, court, or 
state room, especially in the Levant or among 
Mohammedan peoples generally. 

5B. A room, especially in the Levant, having 
one side entirely open, as toward a garden, and 
a floor raised by one or two steps. 

C. In the West, a broad and long seat, com- 
posed of a mattress or long cushion either laid 
directly on the floor or upon a low bench, gener- 
ally against the wall; distinguished from a sofa 
or lounge as having no back or arms, and as being 
more or less stationary. A similar raised seat 
or couch is called in the Levant a lewan, and 
the word divan or deewan is used for the apart- 
ment. 

D. By extension, among European peoples, a 
smoking room, or a public house or room where 
smoking is the chief enjoyment. Generally fur- 
nished with divans in sense C.—D.N.B.S. 

DIVIDERS. A pair of compasses having 
both legs terminating in points, for use in laying 
off given distances, or in dividing a given dis- 
tance into a given number of equal parts; whence 
its name. 

Bisecting Dividers. Dividers so adjustel 
that the distances between two pairs of points 
have a constant ratio of one half. (See next 
term.) 

Proportional Dividers. Dividers whose legs 
extend in both directions from the pivot, giving 
two pairs of points. The pivot is movable along 
a graduated scale so that the distances between 


the respective pairs of points may be adjusted 


to any given ratio. Thus, if it is desired to copy 

a given drawing on a scale twice as great, the 

pivot is placed on the graduated scale so that 
792 


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DIVINITY HALL 


the distance spanned by one pair of points will 
always equal twice the amount subtended by the 
other pair. The scale is graduated mathemati- 
cally for other proportions; and there is some- 
times, also, a scale giving the 
ratios between the sides of 
regular polygons and _ the 
radii of their respective cir- 
cumscribing circles, so that a 
given circumference may be 
readily divided into a de- 
sired number of equal parts. 
—D. N. B.S. 
DIVINITY HALL. In 
Scotland, the building or de- 
partment of. a university in 
which theology is taught. 
DIWAN. A council 
chamber, court room, or hall 
of audience; the same word 
as Divan, but used in Eng- 


oe eal OSL 


DOGE'S PALACH 


the Pont de la Concorde in Paris. 
lumnar Architecture.) 

DOG. In general, any simple appliance, usu- 
ally of metal, for securing parts or members to- 


(See Co- 


LUST Tes) BRT ee 


iG 


lish chiefly in combination, 
and as denoting special and 
local Oriental apartments. 
Thus, diwan-i-khas and di- 
wan-l-wam were, under the ~ 
Mogul dynasty in India, the 
one an inner council cham- 
ber of the emperor himself, 
and the other the large gen- 
eral audience chamber where 
receptions were granted to 
crowds of people. In North 
Africa small diwans in pri- 
vate houses are sometimes 
circular, and covered by cir- 
cular cupolas. 

DOBIE. Same as Adobe, an American cor- 
ruption. 

DODECASTYLE. Having twelve columns 
in the front row; said of temples and buildings 


DoGer’s PALACE OF VENICE; SECTION THROUGH THE 
SOUTHERN PORTION, FRONTING ON THE RIVA 
DEI SCHIAVONI. 


A. Ground story, with minor offices (as of police) between 
the open arcades @b andcd. 8. Second story of small 
offices between open arcades. C. Great Hall, called Sala 
del Maggior Consiglio; about 82 feet wide between the 
outer walls: 170 feet long, 21 feet high. 


of classic type. The only known example in 
antiquity was the Telestereion at Eleusis; in 


DoGu’s PALACE, VENICE; PorTION OF SEA FRONT (SEE SECTION). 


gether by means of one or more projecting teeth 
or bent portions, as a lug, acramp. Usually in 
combination, as dogtie, dogiron. More specifi- 
cally :— 

A, A carpenter’s instrument, used to force 
floor boards tightly together. 

B. A firedog. (See Andiron.) 

DOGANA. In Italian, a customhouse or 
office building for the collection of taxes on mer- 
chandise. In Venice the Dogana di Mare, or 
customhouse for merchandise arriving by sea, 
is a very interesting building, known to all trav- 
ellers as filling the sharp angle between the Ca- 
nal’? Grande and the Canale della Giudecca. 
It is a one-story building, erected toward the 
close of the seventeenth century. 

DOGE'S PALACE. The official residence 
of a sovereign prince called Doge, and of which 
only two have existed, namely, at Genoa and 
at Venice. The first, on the Piazza Nuova at 
Genoa, has been almost entirely replaced by 
modern buildings, but a great tower remains. 
The beautiful building at Venice is more often 


modern architecture a conspicuous dodecastyle | called the Ducal Palace. The southern face on 
facade is that of the Chamber of Deputies, facing | the quay (the Molo) is Gothic of the fourteenth 
793 794 


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' : i - \ F 


DOG GRATE 


century ; the western face on the Piazzetta was 
built at a later time in close imitation of the 
former. The eastern front on the narrow canal 
(Rio del Palazzo) is a remarkable and unique 
monument of the Renaissance, built toward the 
close of the fifteenth century. The three fronts 
on the court are of a curious transitional archi- 
tecture. A magnificent late Gothic doorway 
called Porta della Carta leads from the Piazzetta 
to this great court, and opposite to this is the 
Giant’s Staircase, a beautiful work of the Renais- 
sance. Some of the halls and rooms of the 
palace are of peculiar importance, architectu- 
rally, or more often because of the paintings in 
them; such are the Sala del Maggior Consiglio, 
the S. dei Quatro Porte, the 8. del Scrutinio, 
the 8. dei Pregadi (or del Senato), the Chie- 
setta, or Chapel, and the Anti-Chiesetta, the 
Collegio, and the Anti-Collegio.—R. S. 

DOG GRATE. A movable fire-grate, in- 
tended to be supported on dogs or andirons. — 
(C. D.) 

DOG KENNEL. (See Kennel.) 

DOG LEG; DOG LEGGED. (See under 
Stair.) 

DOG TOOTH. A pyramidal sculptured or- 
nament generally forming one of a series close 


Doc-TootH Movutpine, KETTON CHURCH, 
RUTLAND. 


together, resembling a row of teeth. The com- 
mon form has a base, square or approximately 
square, and is formed by the points of four leaves 
radiating from a raised centre. This ornament 
is very common in English work, especially of 
the thirteenth century. 

DOKHMA. (See Tower of Silence.) 

DOLCI, GIOVANNI (GIOVANNINO) 
DI PIETRO DEI; woodworker (intarsiatore) ; 
sculptor and civil and military architect; d. 
about 1486. 

He first appears in the records of the reign 
of Nicholas V. (Pope 1447-1455), and was em- 
ployed by Pius II. (Pope 1458-1464). Under 
Paul IT. (Pope 1464-1471) he held the office of 
soprastante delle fabbriche, and worked at the 
Vatican and the Palazzo di 8. Marco (Rome). 
Under Sixtus IV. (Pope 1471-1484) he built 
the Sistine chapel (Vatican, Rome), which is 
incorrectly attributed by Vasari to Baccio Pon- 
telli. Two bulls of Sixtus IV., dated Nov. 14, 
1481, are in existence, which confide to Giovan- 

795 


nino the reconstruction of the citadel of Civit M 
Vecchia. Oct. 17, 1482, he was created chate- 
lain of that fortress. (See Pontelli.) 


Miintz, Renaissance ; Miintz, Les Artsadlacour 


des Papes. 


DOLERITE. A coarsely crystalline form of . = 


basalt or diabase. —G. P. M. 
DOLMEN. In Brittany, and elsewhere in 


France, a rough stone monument, prehistoric or 


of uncertain date; usually a flattish rock sup- 
ported by smaller stones which partly surround 
the chamber of which the large stone forms the 
roof. (See Cromlech.) 


DOLOMITE. A stone resembling limestone, 


but consisting of the mixed carbonates of lime 
and magnesia. —G. P. M. 

DOM. A. In German, a cathedral church. 

B. In German, same as Dome. 

DOME (n.). A. A building; generally one 
of importance, and a public building rather than 
a dwelling : — 

‘¢ Here, hard by Vesta’s temple, © 
Build we a stately dome.”’ 
— Macavray. 
In this sense used only in poetry or in a loose 
and general way. The use, in Italian, of the 
word duwomo, and the corresponding German ~ 
word dom, applied to a cathedral church, seems 
to have had no influence in England. 

B. A cupola; more commonly used for a | 
large one covering in a good part of a building. 
In this sense also it is loose and inaccurate, and 
it would be far better if the word cupola were 
used exclusively for a roof of this kind. 
Byzantine Architecture ; India, Architecture of ; 
Moslem Architecture ; Neoclassic Architecture ; 
Roman Imperial Architecture.) | 

Gothic Dome. A structure supposed to be 
possible or conceivable ; at once a true cupola 
and Gothic in structure and design. A true 
cupola could not exist in Gothic architecture. 
When, however, a vaulted compartment is much 
crowned-up, the rounded forms approach those 
of a dome in this sense (see cut of the church 
of 8. Maria d’Arbona under Italy, The Marches). 

DOME (v.). To provide or roof with a dome 
or domes. To form like a dome. 

DOME LIGHT. In American dwellings, 
especially in the city, the skylight above the 
principal staircase, and serving to light the hall 
and passages ; so called because of the imitation 
dome in lath and plaster, which was commonly 
placed below the horizontal surface of glass, 
making a quasi architectural finish to the wall- 
ing of the hall. 

DOMENICHINO. 
ico.) 

DOMENICO (BERNABEI), DA COR- 
TONA (called BOCCADOR) ; d. about 1549. 

He derived his name from the city of Cortona 
in Italy. Mariette (op. cit.) gives Bernabei as 
the family name, and says that Domenico was a 

796 


(See Zampieri Domen- 


(See\ 7am 


DOMENICO 


pupil of Giuliano di San Gallo (see San Gallo, 
Giuliano di). He was brought to France by 
Charles VIII., and in the accounts of that king 
is called faiseur de chasteaulx et menuisier. 
In the accounts (dépenses secretes) of Francois I. 
there is an entry concerning payment to him for 
engineering work, bridges, mills, and the like, 
done at the chateaux of Tournai, Ardres, and 
Chambord. On this record has been based the 
erroneous assumption that he drew the original 
plans for the chateau of Chambord (see Nepveu). 
An inscription which formerly existed over the 
main portal of the old Hoétel de Ville in Paris, 
which was destroyed by the Commune, May 24, 
1871, ended with the words Domenico Corto- 
nensi Architectante. It has also been the 
accepted tradition since Sauval that Domenico 
designed the central portion of the facade of the 


* 
ae 
KSSSSS9 ie 


DONATELLO 


DOMICAL. Pertaining to, resembling, or 
characterized by, a dome ; domed ; as a domical 
pendentive, a domical vault, a domical church. 

DOMINICAN ARCHITECTURE. (See 
Monastic Architecture.) 

DONALDSON, PROFESSOR THOMAS 
LEVERTON ; architect ; b. Oct. 17, 1795; d. 
Aug. 1, 1885. . 

At the age of sixteen he entered his father’s 
office, and in 1817 won the silver medal at the 
Royal Academy. In 1818 he began a tour in 
Italy and Greece, some of the results of which 
were published in the supplementary volume of 
Stuart and Revett’s Antiquities of Athens in 
1830. A list of his buildings is given by Gru- 
ning (op. cit.). For about ten years after 1835 
he held the office of Chairman of the Commis- 
sioners of Sewers of Westminster and a part of 


DomicaL: CHuRcH oF §. Front, PERIGUEUX (DORDOGNE), FRANCE; ROOFED WITH FIvE CUPOLAS. 


old Hotel de Ville. Modern criticism, however 
(Vachon, Palustre), gives him simply the posi- 
tion of consulting or associate architect (see Se- 
bastiano Serlio and Fra Giocondo), and ascribes 
the authorship of the Hotel de Ville to Pierre 
Chambiges (I.). 

Bauchal, Dictionnaire ; Vachon, L’ Ancien Hotel 
de Ville; Palustre, La Renaissance en France ; 
Calliat-Leroux de Lincy, Hotel de Ville; Chenne- 
viéres, Archives de Vart frangais ; Mariette, Abe- 
cedario ; De la Saussaye, Chambord ; Sauval, An- 
tiquités de la ville de Paris. 

DOMENICO DI BACCIO D’AGNOLO. 
(See Baglioni Domenico. ) 

DOME OF THE ROCK. (In Arabic, Kub- 
bet Es-Sakhrah.) Same as Mosque of Omar. 

DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE. (See 
Apartment House; Casa; Chateau; Cottage ; 
Flat ; Hotel; House; Manor; Palazzo; Tene- 
ment House; Villa.) 

797 


Middlesex. He was professor of architecture 
and construction at University College, London. 
He was a member of the building committee of 
the exhibition of 1851, held numerous foreign 
honors, and was member of many societies. 
Professor Donaldson was a supporter of the 
Arch. Pub. Soc. Dictionary, and contributed 
much to the earlier volumes. 

Gruning, Memoir in Royal Inst. of British 
Architects, Transactions, 1886. 

DONATELLO (DONATO DI NICCOLO 
DI BETTO BARDI); sculptor; b. between 
1382 and 1387 (Donatello did not know his 
own age precisely) ; d. Dec. 13, 1466. 

Donatello was the son of a wool carder of 
Florence (Italy), and received his first training 
in the atelier of a goldsmith. He spent much 
time in Rome with Brunellesco (see Brunellesco) 
between 1403 and 1417. The work ascribed 

798 


DONJON 
to the early part of his life is characterized by 
extreme realism, and includes the statue of 


David, called ‘‘ Zuccone,” on the Campanile, the 


marble David at the Museo Nazionale (about 
1416), the seated S. John the Evangelist at the 
cathedral of Florence, and the 8. George of Or 
San Michele (Donatello’s best work). From 
1425 to the expulsion of the Medici in 1433 he 
was assisted by Michelozzi (see Michelozzi). 
They made together the tomb of the deposed 
Pope John XXIII. at the baptistery (Florence), 
the Brancacci monument in Naples (finished 
about 1427), and the exterior pulpit of the 
cathedral of Prato, for which the contract was 
signed July 14, 1428. He finished the tomb 
of Giovanni de’ Medici in the old sacristy of 8S. 
Lorenzo (Florence) about 1428. The singing 
gallery (Cantoria) now in the Museo Nazionale 
was made between 1433 and 1440. The me- 
dallions (copied from antique gems) in the 
spandrels of the court of the Riccardi palace 
(Florence) and the bronze doors of the old sac- 
risty of 8. Lorenzo belong to the same period. 
In 1444 he began the great equestrian statue of 
Erasmo Gattemelata at Padua (finished 1453), 
and the splendid series of statues and bas-reliefs 
in the church of 8. Antonio in that city. 

Miintz, Donatello; Hans Semper, Donatello ; 
Schmarzow, Donatello; Tschudi, Donatello e la 
critica moderna. 

DONJON. ‘The strongest part of a strong 
castle of the European Middle Ages. It was 
usually a tower more or less completely sepa- 
rated from the other works and defences, but 
always capable of prolonged defence after the 
rest of the castle had been mastered by the 
assailants. The earlier donjons were usually 
round towers, but in the fourteenth century 
and later they were often square or of irregular 
outline. Originally, the apartments of the lord 
of the castle and his family were in the donjon, 
but this ceased when the desire became mani- 
fest for much more spacious and comfortable 
rooms, and when, at the same time, the entire 
circuit of the walls became an organized whole, 
capable of defence, every part in harmony with 
and assisting every other. From both these 
causes, the peculiar importance of the donjon 
disappears as early as 1350, although there still 
remains an exceptionally strong tower or group 
of towers which can be called by that name. 
(Called also Keep.) 

DONNER, GEORG RAPHAEL; sculptor 
and architect; b. May 25, 1693 (at Essling 
near Vienna); d. Feb. 15, 1741. 

After the siege of Vienna in 1683 and the 
defeat of the Turks, there began an important 
period of architectural development in Austria 
which continued far into the eighteenth century. 
The sculptured decoration of these buildings is 
usually in the debased baroque style. The 
work of Raphael Donner is an exception, being 

799 


a i i é 
A al as - OP tad Woy 
Poy ; cae lo 


RA tal: 


rk un te ery 
y 


DOOR ae 
characterized by great simplicity and refine- 
ment. Donner’s baptismal name was Georg. 
The name Raphael was added later. He was | 
educated in the convent of the Heiligen- 
kreutz in the Wiener Wald, where he met 
his first teacher, the sculptor Giuliani As 
early as 1724 he appears attached to the im- 
perial court at Vienna. In 1725 he went to 
Salzburg (Austria) to execute the figures of 
the stairway of the archbishop’s palace of Mira- __ 
bell. About 1727 he went to Presburg in 
Hungary and was appointed director of the 
buildings undertaken by Esterhazy, Prince, pri- _ 
mate of Hungary. Nov. 4, 1739, Donner — 
completed his most important work, the great 
fountain in the Neue Markt (formerly Mehl- 
markt) at Vienna. He made also the fountain 
of the Rathhaus at Vienna, with the bas-relief _ 
of Andromeda. 

Falke, Raphael Donner in L’ Art, Vol. V. ; 
DOOK. A piece of wood, as a plug or 
block, inserted into a masonry wal! to provide 

a place for nailing. | 
DOOR. The filling, usually solid, of a door- 
way, so secured as to be easily opened and ~— 


Door oF 8. ANASTASIA, VERONA; DECORATIVE 
FRAMING IN Woop. 


shut. It is much more common to support a 
door by hinges secured to the doorpost or frame 
at the side; but a door may turn on pivots at 
top and bottom, as frequently in antiquity, or 
may slide or roll up horizontally or vertically. 
Where the solid filling is hung by hinges at 
the top of the doorway, or where it slides | 
vertically, in the manner of a portcullis, it is 
rarely called a door. (For the more usual a 
manner of hanging doors, see Hinge). The a 
doors of antiquity are but little known to us; 
a few of bronze, belonging to the later years of 
the Roman Empire, still exist, and it may be 
said that modern doors of metal have been 
800 


DOOR 


studied from the ancient examples. The doors 
of the Middle Ages were usually of solid planks 
set edge to edge, and secured to each other by 
dowels or bands ; the whole being held in place 
by the long strap hinges having holes through 
which nails were driven through the wood and 
clinched on the other side. Panel doors are not 
very ancient, but their obvious superiority in 
lightness, in permanent retention of their plane 
surfaces, and in counteracting almost entirely 
the shrinkage of wood, has made their use 
almost universal. 
favourite medium for rich ornamentation. 
—D.N. B.S. 

Batten Door. One in which the body of 
the door is made of boards or planks having 
battens nailed across them to keep all in place ; 
common in very rough work, barracks, sheds, 
outbuildings, etc. (Compare what is said under 
Cleat.) 

Blind Door. In the United States, a door 
having the character of, and serving as, a blind ; 
4.e. having fixed or movable slats. (See 
Blind, A.) 

Cellar Door. Any door, especially an out- 
side door, leading to a cellar ; more specifically, 
one set on a considerable slope with the ver- 
tical and often approaching more nearly to the 
horizontal ; in use at the head of stairs leading 
to a cellar from outside the house. Low walls 
are carried up on either side of the stairway, and 


these slope from nothing, at the landing of the - 


stairs, to a sufficient height above to correspond 
with the opening in the house wall, which itself 
must be high enough to allow head room. 

Crapaudine Door. A door turning upon a 
pivot at top and bottom, the pivots being let 
into sockets in the lintel and threshold. 

Double Door. One which is divided into 
two folds, one of them being hung on each side 
of a doorway, the two folds, or valves, meeting 


in or near the middle, and closing the opening ;: 


commonly known as a Folding Door. 

Double Framed Door. One in which there 
is an outside framed structure complete with 
stiles and rails which encloses and holds a sec- 
ondary framed structure of stiles, rails, and 
panels, the latter forming, as it were, a panel 
to the outside frame. 

Double Margin Door. A door made to ap- 
pear as though consisting of two leaves, as in 
imitation of a folding door. It has a stile at 
the centre twice as wide as the side stiles, and 
centre beaded, or otherwise finished to re- 
semble two stiles, therefore showing a double 
margin. 

Dutch Door. In the United States, a door 
divided horizontally into two pieces, so that the 
lower half can be kept shut and prevent the in- 
gress of fowls and small animals and the passage 
of children, while the upper half remains open 
for the admission of air. 

801 


Doors have always been a 


DOOR 


Falling Door. Same as Flap Door, B, be- 
low. —(C. D.) 

Flap Door. A. A door placed horizontally 
or on an incline, and opening up, as is common, 
over steps leading to a cellar from the street. 

J. A small door or shutter in a vertical 
opening, but hinged at the bottom so as to 
open downwards.—(C. D.) (Compare Trap 
Door, below.) 

Folding Door. A door divided into two or 
more folds, or valves, which are hinged to the 


MMU MBNA ROTO TAN SOW 


RAERIRRIADTA AABN TS 


RASS 


TI ee in 


a b 
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=% 
3 
Ed 
25 
by 


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FS 
: 
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iS 


S 


OUUORCOUTT nT rT nnn 


LVM MNS 


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inte 


NARA NN gg CAO, 
nut et 


CUNT Tce rte 


MY MYO 


POO eT 


SAAN 


=% 
SANA ATN AR RATES 
OG former 


Door oF CARVED Woop, VENICE; FROM A 
PALAZZO OF ABOUT 1550. 


frame or to one another. A few doors exist in 
which each half is again halved, much on the 
principle of the folding inside shutters of a 
window. Of similar character are the doors 
arranged in schoolhouses, church lecture rooms, 
and the like, which, by means of a series of 
valves hinged one to another, may divide a 
large room as if by a partition, and open it up 
again into one room by folding against the wall 
the valves forming the partition. Something 
similar is to be found in connection with cer- 
tain park gates which are closed by night and 
opened by day. In such cases, it is essential 
that the valves should be supported by means 
of little wheels running on arcs of metal set in 
the floor or the road. The above are properly 
folding doors, or gates; the word is applied 
also to Double Doors. 

Half Door. A. Properly, one half of a 
Dutch Door ; the term is also applied to the 

802 


DOOR 


Dutch door complete, as when it is said that 
the outer doorways of a frame house are hung 
with half doors. 

B. In the United States, a door less in height 
than the doorway, so as to leave a considerable 
opening above and below. 

In Greek ecclesiology, the 


Holy Doors. 
doors of the Iconostasis. 
Jib Door. A door so hinged as to be flush 


with the wall on either side, and to be, if care- 
fully adjusted, almost indistinguishable when 
shut. The object of it is usually not secrecy, 
but the preser- 
vation of perfect 
symmetry in a 
room where other 
doors correspond 
each to each, and 
no such feature 
is desired at the 
place where the 
jib door is put. 
Ledged Door. 


DOOR 


Royal Door; Doors. In Greek ecclesiology, 
those leading from the narthex into the church ; 
sometimes the central door of three or five simi- 
larly placed. 

Sash Door. One of which the upper half, 
or thereabouts, is constructed as a sash to hold 
glass; generally as one piece, but sometimes 
having a movable sash. 

Sham Door. A door finished only on one 
side, and set in a wall or partition to appear 
like a practicable door. 

Sliding Door. A door arranged so as to slide 
| sidewise. In sta- 
bles, freight 
houses, ete., it 
slides in the open 
against the back 
face of the wall ; 
in dwelling 
houses it slides 
into a pocket in 


tition. It may be 


One constructed 


either single or 


with the use of 


ledges, as in a 


Swing Door. 


Batten Door. 


One which has 


Overhung 
Door. One 
hinged at the top 
and swinging up- 
ward, requiring 
to be held open 
by a hook. 

Revolving 
Door. A weather 
door recently 
(1900) devised 


no striking 


past the door post, 
at the side oppo- 
site the hinges. 
Such doors are 
commonly hung 
with double ac- 
tion 
hinges ; but it is 


in the United 


States, which, 


pairs of single 


when in opera- 
tion, consists of 
four equal fiaps 


action hinges by 
using a strip of 
wood as thick as. 


hung at right 


the door, hinged 


angles to a pivot 
at the axis of a 
eylindrical struc- 
ture within which 
the doors revolve. 
The outer edges of the doors are finished with 
rubber strips maintaining close contact with the 
inside face of the cylindrical shell, which is 
pierced with two opposite doorways so disposed 
that the direct passage between them is at all 
times closed by the doors, in whatever position. 
Pedestrians pass by pushing any one flap, as in 
a turnstile. When not in operation, the doors 
may be folded together so as to allow of direct 
passage at either side, or bolted across the pas- 
sage for security. 

Rolling Door. A rolling shutter applied to 
a doorway. (See Shutter.) 

803 


DooR-IN THE FACADE OF THE CHURCH OF S. GERVAIS, PARIS; 
c. 1680 


to the doorpost 


to the door on 
the other, the 
hinges being nat- 
urally turned in the opposite ways. 

Storm Door. Same as Weather Door. 

Trap Door. One fitted to an opening in a 
horizontal, or nearly horizontal, surface, as a floor 
or roof, the essential fact being that a person 
ascends head first through it and descends feet 
first. The cellar door, as described above, is a 
variety of trap door. 

Venetian Door. A doorway divided into three 
parts by two mullions, or shafts, the central and 
wider part being occupied by the door, and the 
narrow side openings being windows. The central 
opening generally has a glazed arch over the door- 

804 


the wall or par- — 


double. = 


piece, and swings ~ 


spring 


easy to arrange, 
one with two — 


on one side and — 


~ we 


spring whose action is checked gradu- 


were made of strips of plank held to- 


‘ * i ¢ | 
a’ 7 ere att a 


[= DOOR BAND 
_ Weather Door; Doors. A door or pair of 


_ doors planned to shut quickly behind persons 
passing through the outer doors of a lobby, and 
so to prevent much ingress of cold air; these 
are commonly extra doors fixed outside of the 


usual entrance in cold weather, and the term is 


_ often used to include the light and sometimes 


temporary vestibule or porch which includes the 
door. (Compare Wind Porch.) 

Wicket Door. (See Wicket.)—D.N.B.S. 

DOOR BAND. A. A bar or large bolt 
used to fasten a door. 

B. A strap hinge or strip hinge, especially 
in doors made of plank set edge to 
edge, and in which the principal means 
of securing the planks in their place is 
by the hinges themselves. 

DOORBELL. A. A contrivance 
for notifying persons within a house 
or apartment that some one seeks ad- 
mission ; formerly, a bell hung on a 
spring, and set ringing by pulling a 
wire which was pulled by a knob or 
lever outside, the fashion of which 
changed greatly during the early years 
of the nineteenth century (see Bell 
Hanging); afterward, usually a gong 
struck by a lever which was pulled by 
a wire as above stated. More lately, 
very often an electric fitting. (See 
Electrical Appliances.) 

B. A bell attached to a door, which 
cannot be opened without ringing the 
bell; used as a signal, as in a small 
shop. — R.S8. 

DOOR CHECK. A mechanical 
contrivance for automatically closing a 
door ; the power being supplied by a 


ally by a pneumatic piston or similar 
contrivance, causing the door to close 
gently. 

DOORNAIL. A nail made of soft 
iron so as to be easily clinched, and 
having a large head; such as were 
used in those medieval doors which 


gether mainly by cleats or battens, or 

by the straps of the hinges, the nails passing 
through from side to side, and holding the parts 
together. 

DOORPLATE. A metallic plate fastened 
upon a door, bearing the name of the occupant 
of the house. The custom of using these, once 
almost universal in many towns, has been aban- 
doned, partly because of the facility which it 
gave to dishonest beggars. The name was 
often engraved on a silver plated circle sur- 
rounding the bell pull. 

DOOR SPRING. An appliance made with 
a spring or springs to hold a door in a given situ- 
ation ; generally fast shut. (See Door Check.) 

805 


DOORWAY 


DOORSTEAD. The structure forming a 
doorway ; a doorway together with the sur- 
rounding parts. 

DOORSTEP. A. The sill of a doorway; 
that upon which one steps in passing from a 
lower level through the doorway. 

B. By extension, the platform with two or 
three steps outside of an outer door. (Com- 
pare Porch ; Stoop.) 

DOORSTONE. A stone serving as a door- 
step in sense A. 

DOORSTOP. A. A knob or block screwed 
to the floor or to the base of an adjoining wall, 


bevied 


, 4; 
“ey 
f vA! 
‘) YT 
U 1. 
Yj 


Z 


SSSSS 


SSSA SSS 
ST ale ———— 
NYG 


SSSSASSSS5 


AMS 


DooRWAY: THE RATHHAUS, RATISBON (REGENSBERG), 


BAVARIA; C. 1662 A.D. 


’ 


to prevent the door from swinging back too far ; 
it is usually provided with a rubber ring or buffer. 

B. A mechanical device for stopping or hold- 
ing an open door; some of these devices holding 
it at one point only, others being attached to 
the door, and checking it at any point. (See 
also Stop; Stop Bead.) 

DOOR TREE. (See Tree.) 

DOORWAY. An opening for entrance to, 
and exit from, a building or part of a building ; 
such an opening, together with its immediate 
surroundings. (Compare Doorstead.) 

Notched Doorway. A doorway narrow 
at the bottom for about one third of the 

806 


DOORWAY 


total height, and then notched back, to about 
double its starting width, on one or on both 
sides. It is found in the modern Pueblo Indian 
villages of Arizona, and in Cliff Dwellings and 
other ruins of the Southwest. In the Cavate 
Lodge construction of the Verde region in Ari- 


AISaVar 
ae AWA 


DORIC ORDER 


As these openings were closed by blankets or 
mats, the narrow bottom part was an advantage 
in keeping out the winter air. (See Cavate 
Lodge, under Lodge; Communal Dwelling.) 
(Cuts, cols. 813, 814 ; 815, 816.) —F. S. D. 
DOORWAY PLANE. A splayed jamb 
and correspond- 
ing intrados of an 
arched doorway. 
D’ORBAIS. 
(See Orbais, 
Jean d’.) 
DORCHES- 
TER STONE, 
An olive gray 
carboniferous 
sandstone, from 
Shepody Moun- 
tain, New Bruns- 
wick. 
—G. P. M. 
DORIC OR- 
DER. A. One of 
the five orders 


Italian writers of 
the sixteenth cen- 
tury, to whom, 
however, Greek 
architecture was 
almost wholly un- 
known. 

B. The style of 
architecture used 
in the greater 
number of Greek 
temples known to 
us, and of which 
the Parthenon 
serves as the type. 

Although the 
temples of Pes- 
tum and Sicily 
were within the 
reach of the stu- 
dents and builders 
of the Renais- 
sance, there is no 
evidence that they 


Ae 


paAotemtos 


I de | OV adr 10 jae 8) 1 


distinguished be- 


tween the Greek 
type and the Ro- 


man modification 


DooRWAY: CHURCH AT GROTTA-FERRATA (LATIUM), ITALY. 
The carved marble doorpiece is of unknown early date ; the mosaic above is of the 12th century. 


zona, another form occurs, as of a pear with the 

small end down, instead of rectangular. Door- 

ways of this kind were adapted to Indian life, 

where burdens were carried on the back, making 

width at the bottom unnecessary ; enough for 

the free movement of the legs being sufficient. 
807 


of it. Considered, 
then, as one of the 
‘five orders,” 
the Doric is somewhat rare in Roman work. 
The earliest example of it known to us is the 
temple at Cori, the ancient Cora, near Velletri, 
in Italy. This building is thought to be of the 
time of Sulla. The column has a very small 


_ base, consisting of a single torus or large convex 


808 


recognized by the— 


, 


~~ ae 
7 ¥ 


; 
fy 


i 


* 


_ In Roman prac- 


‘of an echinus or 


DORIC ORDER 


moulding, with a narrow fillet above it. The 
shaft is fluted with very narrow fillets between 
the flutes, and for two thirds of its height, the 
lowermost one third being simply brought to a 
polygon. The capital has annulets and above 
these a very slightly convex curve ending in a 
fillet which interposes between the curve and 
the abacus. This example is unique, and no 
other piece of Roman work known to us has at 
all its general character ; it is probable that its 
peculiar forms are 
derived from the 
later architecture 
of Greece, though 
it is impossible 
now to point to 
any building 
which served as 
its model. 


tice, the order is 
conditional, tend- 
ing toward the 
Tuscan on one 
side and on the 
other toward a 
more elaborate 
form in which the 
capital is made 
up of several mem- 
bers, having es- 
pecially a broad 
cylindrical contin- 
uation of the shaft 
interposed be- 
tween the mould- 
ings of thenecking 
and those of the 
capital proper, be- 
neath the abacus. 
Thus, the Doric 
of the theatre of 
Marcellus, built in 
the reign of Au- 
gustus, has a quar- 
ter round instead 


other flat convex 
curve; beneath 
this three or four 
fillets and beneath 
this again the 
cylindrical band which is adorned with rosettes. 
It has always been supposed that this order was 
without a base, but recent explorations have 
brought base mouldings to light. The Doric of 
the ground story of the Coliseum is not very un- 
like that of the theatre of Marcellus, but the 
shaft is not fluted ; it has a well-marked base of 
several members. A still more elaborately modi- 
fied fashion of capital exists in a ruin at Albano. 
In this the quarter round of the capital is carved 
809 


DORIC ORDER 


into an egg and dart moulding, and the small 


-cavetto which forms part of the abacus is also 


sculptured with conventional leaf forms. There 
is, moreover, a large rosette in each metope. 
The Italian architects and writers of the classi- 
cal revival, in adopting this much enriched form 
of the order, were probably more influenced by 
the Column of Trajan than by the small and 
little-known fragment of Albano. It is notice- 
able that in both these cases the shaft is smooth 


I 
ie 


al ibe 


Doorway: S. MARIA, AT TOSCANELLA (LATIUM), IrAty; Earty ITALIAN 


ROMANESQUE. 


and plain. The Doric order, then, as given by 
Vignola, is almost entirely a modern composition. 
The order was but little used among the Ro- 
mans in a form rich enough to distinguish it 
certainly from the so-called Tuscan. 

When the monuments of Athens were brought 
to the notice of European students, toward the 
close of the eighteenth century, it was seen at 
once that the order of the Parthenon and of the 
so-called temple of Theseus, of the temple at 

810 


DORIC ORDER 


Aigina and that at Sunium, were all of a type 
which must have been the original of the Roman 


~ 

» 
N 
\ 


SS) 
A NY PS} 


. : i 
Why _ 


(re i sul T i 


iy, * 


ft Vie. 


ma LO : 
: uh a f _— 
\ 


Doorway: CATHEDRAL OF MAGDEBURG, WESTERN PRuSsSIA; C. 1220. 


Doric as described above. 
the Romans the style was rare and continually 


passed into the al- 
most naked crudity 
of the Tuscan, the 
Doric of the Gre- 
cian buildings was 
found to be the 
prevalent style 
throughout all the 
Greek lands of the 
Mediterranean. 
The distinction be- 
tween the capitals, 
the _entablatures, 
and the shafts of 
Athens, Pestum, 
Segeste, Akragas, 
Metapontum, Tho- 
rikos, Aigina, and 
others which have 


3 a é F 

bag ed } P Ok Saar ol 

es Sh go arte a0 >. ? 
=\ - - a 

‘ 


DORIC ORDER i; rg 

| been from time to time brought to the nation of a 
scholars, although differing among themselves, a 
are of a character which ~ 
marks them unmistakably as 
the favourite mode of decora- 
tion of buildings among the ‘s 
Greeks from the sixth century — 
B.c. to the time, at least, of — 
the Alexandrian conquests. _ 4 
In these Greek examples, the _ 
column is fluted with chan- 
nels separated by arrises and 
without fillets, and there are 
usually twenty such channels ; . ‘a 
there is no base whatever ; 


| | 
. cAI pel} 

pe ee == ey i i 
| i Wi 

7 | yu Y m \, 
AN! \ i if # 
Y 

up re If 

at 


UN 
> ey 


ie 
_ 


DoorRWwAy OF CooMBE CHURCH, 
Oxon; 14TH CENTURY. 


: the capital is a ring whose 
section is a peculiar curve sup- 

posed to be taken from the ; 
sea egg and therefore called 
echinus, struck by hand, and evidently a matter 
of great and curious interest to the Greek build- 


While, however, with 


aaa 
—s = 


5 <i rit on (a 
i i 


ag By fi 1) iL. = . £5>——_——-in— 
pari MUL ny reps DEES Gar ee iy rs HE 
Doric TEMPLE OF THESEUS AT ATHENS. 
(For plan, see COLUMNAR ARCHITECTURE.) 


811 812 


DORMAN DORTER 


ers, and this member is separated from the shaft | triangular in shape, and the roof, which may be 
by annulets and a gorgerin, while the abacus | gabled, hipped, or of penthouse form. Cf. a 
2 similar use of the term Bay Window. (Cuts, 

cols. 815, 816; 817, 818.)—R.S. 
DORMITORY. 
A room or set of 
rooms intended for 
sleeping accommo- 
dation; hence, a 
building in which 
such rooms exist. 
The term is used 
chiefly for accom- 
modations for many 
sleepers at once, 
either in a single 
unbroken interior, Dormer Window oF CHAPEL 
or in small closets nade) Pee IS eg 

or rooms arranged 

under a common roof. It is applied especially 
in one of two ways: (1) toa building connected 
with a college and intended for the lodging 
of the stu- dents, in which case the term is 
stretched *g{ to include rooms for study, and 


ZN, 


DoRMER WINDOW, IN 


THE SPIRE, WIT- DormMER WINDOW OF the like ; and (2) the sleeping accommo- 
NEY, OXFORD- THE DecoraTeD | dations of ms a convent or monas-. tery. 
SHIRE; Cc. 1240. STYLE; S. Mary’s, DOR- na MOND. Sameas Dor- mant 

tek y ° . 


EARLY ENGLISH. OXFORD, Cc. 1300. 3 
DOR- [| TER; DORTOUR. A sleep- 


which rests upon it is a square die without | ing apart- ‘a’ ment; a dormitory ; ‘ especial- 


mouldings or modifications of any sort. This, — lyina ke monastery. o - 
then, is the style which should Li SE om \ 
especially have been called Doric,  pggcmm@=z*». FEET mama i ES 
but the term was generally applied = [230/74 44) elie ge , Rae | 


to the Roman example, and we 
are driven to the awkward expe- 
dient of discriminating between 
Grecian Doric and Roman Doric. 

(See bibliography under Grecian 
and Roman Imperial ; see also that 
under Order.) — R. 8. 

DORMAN. In Great Britain, 
a large horizontal timber ; a large 
beam; a sleeper ; called also dor- 
mant and dormant tree ; also Sum- 
mer Tree (which see). 

DORMANT WINDOW. Same 
as Dormer Window. 

DORMER. A. A sleeping 
room ; a dormitory. 

B. Same as Dormer Window. 

C. Same as Dorman. 

DORMER WINDOW. Origi- 
nally a window ofadormer, A. In 
modern times a window in the ver- 
tical face of a relatively small 
structure projecting from a sloping 
roof. The vertical face may be a 
continuation of the wall carried 
up above the eaves. In common rs ae = Sate 
speech the term is applied to the ree Sac pa a 
whole structure, including the ver- : 
. . . DORMER IN CouRT oF HOTEL Dirvu, BEAUNE (COTE D’OR), 
tical side walls, which are usually FRANCE; 1443. 

813 814 


‘ : cy \ 
\ 


\\ 
RRA 
AW Y a \ ~ 


KN Au 
eee Ne 
WI 


ro ~ ay ‘ : \ sary = > \ : SE 


a 
\ 


a 
—_— 
a scmagh 


a\\\ x AW \ 
“| WM ANWR AN fi 
NN y W WY 
TAR 


\\ RAW 
Ai) PMH 
WER 
‘ AN Y 


wc 
NRRAHCGuH 


AN Ii WENN 


“ ~ \N 


AS 


IS 

Tye dest 
it \ \\ 
yo M 


< \\ ay x : 
oA AK Kaw 


DOTZINGER 


DOSIO, GIOVAN’ ANTONIO ; archi- 
tect and sculptor ; b. 1533; d. after 1609. 
Dosio began as a goldsmith in Rome, 
where he spent three years in the 
atelier of Raffaello da Montelupo (see 
- Montelupo). He was employed by 
‘~ Pius IV. (Pope 1559-1565) to re- 


store antique marbles at the Bel- 
vedere. Returning to Florence 
about 1574, his.first work was 
the Capella Gaddi in the church 
of 8S. Maria Novella. He built 
also the Giacomini-Laderel pal- 
ace (begun 1580), the residence 
of the Florentine Bishop Ales- 
sandro de’ Medici (begun 1582), 
and the Capella Niccolini (begun 
1585) in the church of S. Croce. 
In the competition of 1586 he 
made a design for the facade of 
the Duomo, Florence. 
Geymiiller-Stegmann, Renais- 
sance in Toscana; Borghini, IU 
fiposo ; Mintz, Renaissance. 
DOSSERET (I.). 
ber resting upon the sculptured 
bell of a capital and forming a 
second capital or an abacus of 
unusual thickness. It is gen- 
erally plain or very slightly 
sculptured. 
under Capital. 

DOSSERET (II.). In French 


usage, a relatively small project-_ 


ing portion of a jamb, forming a 
pilaster-like member, for the sup- 
port of a lintel, or the like. 

DOTZINGER, JOST (JO- 
DOQUE, JODOCUS) ; archi- 
tect ; d. 1472. 

After the death of Hans Hultz 
(see Hultz), in 1449, Dotzinger 
succeeded him as supervising ar- 
chitect of the cathedral of Strass- 
burg (Elsass, Germany). The 
cathedral was practically finished 
at this time. His most impor- 


tant work is the baptismal font 


now in the northern wing of the 
transept. In 1455 he under- 
took the restoration of the choir. 
Dotzinger was especially con- 
nected with the reorganization 
and consolidation of the masonic 


corporations of Germany. Be-— 


fore his time the architects and 
stonecutters had formed isolated 
lodges ( Bauhiitte) which had 


riginated in the Benedictine mon- 


asteries and were secularized at the 


DoRMER WINDOW: HOUSE OF JACQUES CauR, BOURGES; 
1443. self. 


815 


same time as the art of architecture it- 
April 25, 1459, he called together 


816 


A mem- 


Cf. Double Capital — 


wey ais! 


p> 


DOTZINGER 


a general convention at Ratisbon (Regensburg, 
Bavaria), which consolidated the scattered lodges 
in one order and established statutes and regu- 
lations for its government. Nicholas Dotzinger, 
probably a son of Jost, was also an architect 
and attended the convention at Regensburg. 
Gérard, Artistes de l’ Alsace ; . 
Grandidier, Essais sur Vég guise 
cathédrale de Strasburg ; Archi- 
tekten und Ingénieur - Verein, 
Strassburg und seine Bauten ; 


Heideloff, Bawhiitte des Mittel 
alters in Deutschland. 


DOTZINGER, 
NICHOLAS. (See 
Dotzinger, Jost.) 

DOUBLE. (See 
Slate.) 

DOUBLE 
CHAPEL. A 
chapel arranged as 
described under 
Double Church. 

DOUBLE 
CHURCH. A 
church constructed 
in two stories, af- 
fording two places 
of worship one 
above the other. 
Also, one of two 
stories, and having 
an opening in the 
upper floor through 
which worshippers 
on one level are en- 
abled to hear the 
service conducted 
above or below. 
Such a_ building 
sometimes formed 
the chapel of a 
feudal residence, 
one story being re- 
served for the lord 
and his family. 
_ ‘The former arrange- 
ment is to be seen 
in the chapel of the 
archiepiscopal pal- 
ace at Reims, a fine 


wi 
building of the thir- ee | | 


teenth century ; in 
the Sainte Chapelle 
at Paris of the 
same epoch; and in 8. Francesco at Assisi. 
Of the latter sort are the chapel of the castle 
of Landsberg, Saxony, and the subject of the 
accompanying illustrations. (Cuts, cols. 819, 
820; 821, 822.) 

DOUBLE CONE. An ornament shaped 
like two cones whose bases coincide, and gener- 

817 


DORMER WINDOWS DETERMINING THE CHARACTER OF A DESIGN. 
Front, CHATEAU OF ECOUEN (SEINE-ET-OISE) ; BEGUN 1545. 


DOUBLE HUNG 


ally forming one of a series connected by their 
apices. This form approximates to what is 
known as spindle-shaped or fusiform; it is 
generally used in series to give a dentil-like 
effect of contrasting lights and shadows. 
DOUBLE FLOOR; DOUBLE FRAMED 
FLOOR. (See Floor.) 


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CouRTYARD 


DOUBLE HUNG. A. Furnished with, or 
made up of, two sashes one above the other, 
arranged to slide vertically past each other ; 
said of a window. Old houses, both in America 
and in England, often have only one of the two 
sashes hung with weights; the other being 
fixed, or, if movable, held in place by means of 

818 


DOUBLE MEASURE 


a button or prop ; such may be said to be single 
hung. 

B. Hung on both sides with cord and pulley ; 
said only of vertical sliding sash. In some 
cases, where windows are narrow, or are divided 


DouBLE CHURCH, SCHWARZRHEINDORF. | 


by mullions into narrow lights, a window box 
with cord, pulley, and weight is furnished on 
one side only, the other side of the sash being 
sometimes fitted with rollers to facilitate its 
movement. Such sash may be said to be single 
hung. (See Sash; Window; Box Frame, under 
Frame.) — R. S. 

DOUBLE MEASURE. 
ure. ) 

DOUBLING. A. A double course of slate, 
shingles, or tiles at the eaves of a roof made by 
two layers. 

B. In Scotland, an eaves board. 

DOUCHE. A bath in which the water is 
directed in a jet or stream, more or less divided, 
upon parts of the body. There are many kinds 
of douches, such as cold douches, tepid douches, 
alternating hot and cold douches (Scotch 
douches), etc. (See Bath ; Bath House.) 

—W. P.G. 
In French usage, same as Cyma 
(See Cyma.) 
819 


(See Single Meas- 


DOUCINE. 
Recta. 


as used in some elaborate constructions, such as 
fortress walls or sea walls. 
dystone Lighthouse of 1759 had the lower part 
of the tower solid, and built wholly of joggled 
and dovetailed stones. — D. N. B. 8. 


boards, —as at a corner, —in which part of 
the thickness of one board overlaps the end 


DOVETAIL 
DOVECOTE. A house or box for pigeons, 
divided into compartments. The term is gen- 


erally confined to the small structures such as 
are raised upon the roof of a barn, or the like. 
(See Colombier.) 


DOVETAIL (n.). Any piece or member hay- 
ing two flaring sides or edges, giving more or 
less a wedge shape, similar to that of the spread 
tail of a pigeon; especially a member, tenon, 
tongue, or the like, having such a form, and in- 
tended to fit a corresponding mortise or recess. 


This form of framing is especially adapted to 


unite parts subject to a tensile strain, the tongue 
being made to flare in the direction opposite to 
the applied force; as to unite the front and 
sides of a box or drawer to prevent their sepa- 
ration under the influence of a pull applied to 
the front. 


In masonry, the device is limited to cut stone 


The celebrated Ed- 


Lap Dovetail. <A dovetail for joining two 


820 


DOVETAIL 


of the other. Thus, the dovetail of the over- 
lapping board is formed, as it were, in the angle 
of a rebate which receives the end of the other 
board. It is frequently formed as a Secret 
Dovetail (which see). 

Secret Dovetail. One cut only part 
through the material so as not to show on the 
face. 

DOVETAIL (yv.). To cut into the form of 
a dovetail or dovetails; to unite by means of 
dovetails and corresponding recesses, or the 


like. Hence, to unite, as at the corners of a 


box, or the like, by means of any similar series 
of tongues and slots, whether shaped like dove- 
tails or not. (Cuts, cols. 823, 824.) 

DOWEL. A. A pin, or similar projecting 
member, to connect two parts together. It 
may be formed on one of the two parts to be 
united and fitted to an aperture in the other ; 
or, more commonly, a separate member, as a 
short rod, or the like, inserted part way into 
each piece. 

B. By extension from the preceding ; same 
as Dook. 

DOWEL (v.). To secure or fasten together 
by means of one or more dowels. 

DOWEL PIN (n.). Same as dowel, A. 

DOWER HOUSE. In England, a dwelling 


: forming part of the dower given legally, or by 


previous arrangement, to a widow. (Compare 
Jointure House, which, however, is not to be 
taken as identical.) 

DOYAC, JEAN DE; architect. 

Doyac was maitre des euvres du rot et ex- 
pert juré de la ville de Paris.. Feb. 21, 1500, 
he undertook, with Colin de la Chesnaye, archi- 
tect of the city of Rouen, the reconstruction of 


the Pont Notre Dame (Paris). 


Leroux de Lincy, Pont Notre Dame. 


i i ; 


oi i 


DRAFTING ROOM 


DRAFT (n.). A narrow dressed border or 
margin along the edges of the face of a squared 
stone, generally of the width of the chisel edge, 
and approximating a true plane surface. It may 
be either a guide or gauge for subsequently dress- 
ing the remainder of the face to the same level, 
or remain as a border surrounding the rough 
central portion. 

DRAFT (y.). A. To cut or dress a draft. 

B. To draw, as a plan or design. 

DRAFTING. (See Drawing.) 

DRAFTING ROOM. A _ room reserved 
for drafting ; that is to say, for the making 
of mechanical. drawings, as by an engineer or 

his employees, an archi- 
} tect, a machinist, or the 
ok like. The primary requi- 
site of such a room is 
light, and it is generally 
thought essential that 
this light should come 
from windows in the walls, 
not too high up. Light 
from skylights may be 
utilized if the well or 
shaft of the skylight be 
not too deep or high, so 
that drafting tables may 
be set at some. distance 
from it horizontally with- 
out ceasing to receive 
the light. In north 
latitude, north light is 
better because more 
uniform; but a room 
should have some win- 
dow through which the 
sun may enter. 


—R.S. 


i 


821 


7 


DRAFTSMAN 


DRAFTSMAN. One more or less skilled 
in drafting ; specifically, one whose business 
it is to draw and prepare plans and designs, as 
for an architect. Also written Draughtsman. 

DRAFTSMANSHIP. Art or skill in draft- 
ing, or of a draftsman. Also written Draughts- 
manship. 

DRAG (n.). An instrument used in dress- 
ing stone. It consists of a plate of steel with 
asawlike or finely serrated edge, which is dragged 
to and fro across the stone in a direction at right 
angles to its own width. 

DRAG (v.). To dress the surface of a stone 
with a drag. 

DRAGGING PIECH; BEAM; TIE. A 
short tie beam at the corner of a building to 


B 


DOVETAILS. 


A, The common form, visible on both faces ofthe corner. #&. Cut only part way through 
one piece, forming a Lap Dovetail. C. Secret Dovetail, entirely concealed. 


receive the foot of a hip rafter and to resist its 
thrust. It generally bisects the angle formed 
by the roof plates, its inner end being secured 
to an angle brace. 

DRAGON PIECE, etc. 
Piece, ete. 

DRAIN. An open or covered (underground) 
channel or pipe for the conveyance or removal of 
water or sewage. Drains are usually circular 
and made of earthenware, porous or unglazed, as 
well as glazed or vitrified. The term ‘house 
drain” is, in the New York Building Law, defined 
as ‘‘that part of the main horizontal drain and 
its branches inside the walls of the building, and 
extending to and connecting with the (outside) 
house sewer.” Inasmuch as the term ‘to 
drain” means to draw off gradually, to remove 
by degrees, it would be more correct to restrict 
the term drain to pipes receiving subsoil- water, 
and to call the pipes removing sewage from 
houses ‘‘ sewers.” (See Area Drain; Drainage ; 
Dry Area.) — W. P. G. 

Barrel Drain. A drain of circular section of 
brick or stone masonry. 

Box Drain. An underground drain of ma- 
sonry, rectangular in section, commonly covered 
with flat stones. 

Catchdrain. A drain to receive and carry 
away the overflow of a canal or other open 
water conduit or open drain. 

DRAIN (v.). -A (trans.). To draw off or con- 
vey away liquids, as rain water or sewage ; hence, 
by extension, to provide or construct a drain. 

823 


Same as Dragging 


DRAINAGE 

B (intrans.). To run off, or to be conveyed 
away, as by a drain. 

DRAINAGE. The removal of surplus water 
from the soil, accomplished by open channels, 
ditches, stone trenches, or by underground pipes 
or tile conduits. They are generally called 
“drains” to distinguish them from sewers or 
conduits for the removal of foul waste water 
(sewage). Unfortunately, this distinction is not 
always made. The word “house drain” is 
often applied to pipe channels which remove 
house sewage (see House Drainage), although 


drains for the house are, more accurately defined, 


pipes removing the surplus of soil moisture, the 
subsoil water, from building sites. An axiom 
of sanitary engineering is that a sewer should 


eZ 


———. 


(S 


SA 


SS 


SS 


&X 


DovVETAILS AS USED IN SwIss 
SOLID-TIMBER CONSTRUC- 
TION TO SECURE THE COR- 
NERS. 


never perform the function of a drain, and, in- 

versely, drains should not be used as sewers. 
The drainage of building sites is a require- 

ment for the salubrity of buildings wherever the 


soil holds an excess of water, or where there are 


springs. It is accomplished by using porous or 
unglazed round drain tiles, made in sizes from 
14 to 6 inches, and in | and 2 foot lengths, laid 
with open joints in order to gather the water, 
the joints being protected against ebstruction by 
pipe collars, or by muslin wrapped around the 
joints. The stone drains formerly used stop up 
and are not self-cleansing. Drains are laid in 
generally parallel lines, at distances from 20 to 50 
feet. Lateral drains, from 14 to 3 inches, are con- 
nected with larger main drains, which should not 
connect with foul water sewers. For detached 
houses, in the suburbs or country, the drain out- 
fall may go to an open road ditch, or to a water 
course. In city houses usually no outlet for the 
subsoil water other than the house sewer is avail- 
able. The subsoil drain must then be properly 
trapped to prevent gases from the soil pipes or 
sewer from gaining access to the drains; the 
trap water seal must be permanently maintained 
by introducing a roof water pipe, or by other 
special devices. 

To secure dry foundation walls, tile drains are 
laid along the footing courses, and the drain 
trench is filled with broken stone and gravel. 
For houses on a hillside, a good plan to secure 
dry walls and dry cellars is to build a drain 
above the upper side of the house, which inter- 

824 


a eet = } a 7 


DRAINAGE 


cepts subsoil and surface water, and conveys it 
around the building toward an outlet below the 
house. 

Excessive moisture in the soil under habita- 
tions, damp foundation walls, and wet cellars are 
causes of pulmonary diseases, diphtheria, mala- 
rial fevers, etc. Therefore, the drainage of a 
house is as important as its sewerage. 

In a wider sense, drainage includes removal of 
storm water from roofs, areas, courts, yards, and 
balconies of buildings. Roofs are drained by 
means of gutters, conductor heads, and leader or 
conductor pipes. Vertical rain water pipes are 
placed either on the outside or inside of houses. 
Outside leaders are of sheet metal (galvanized 
iron, copper, lead), and inside leaders of wrought 
and cast iron. The usual sizes are 3, 4, and 5 
inches. Larger sizes are seldom used. The 
diameter and number of vertical leaders cannot 
be calculated by mathematical formule. An 
empirical rule requires one square inch leader 
area to 60 or 70 square feet roof surface. 
Paved areas, courts, and yards must be drained 
by pipes of sufficient diameter. Jn cities having 
the “separate system” of sewerage, rainfall is 
excluded from sewers. A special pipe system 
for leader and yard drainage is required, or else 
the clean roof water is conducted separately into 
storage tanks or cisterns. In cities having sew- 
ers on the “ combined system,” rain water is car- 
ried off by the conduits for the house sewage, and 
leader, yard, and area drains must be efficiently 
trapped. 

Road drainage signifies the proper removal, 
by paved gutters, road boxes, catch basins, and 
underground conduits, of water falling upon 
roads and streets. 

By extension, the term ‘‘ country house drain- 
age” is used to designate the method of removal 
and disposal of sewage. A house “drains” 
into a cesspool means that the sewage is deliv- 
ered into an underground brick or stone tank, 
where it is temporarily stored. (See Cesspool.) 
Leaching cesspools pollute the water of springs, 
wells, or cisterns, and frequently become the 
cause of typhoid-fever in the country. Water- 
tight cesspools, if not located too near a dwell- 
ing, are sometimes unobjectionable, but the fre- 
quent pumping out is troublesome and expensive. 
Better systems of disposal of the liquid sewage 
from isolated country houses are the surface and 
the subsurface irrigation systems, and the bac- 
terial filter bed system. In the former systems 
the sewage is collected in a small, tight flush 
tank, and discharged by means of an automatic 
siphon device into a drain or conduit leading to 
the sewage field. Here the sewage is distributed 
over the land, on the surface in open ditches or 
channels, or at a distance of twelve inches under 
the surface in porous 2 or 3 inch absorption 
tiles, laid in regular lines with open joints, and 
with a slight fall. 

: 825 


DRAWBORE PIN 


In the bacterial filter bed system the sewage 
is purified by bacterial action in filter beds of ma- 
sonry or concrete, filled with broken stones, coke, 
breeze, or coal.. The sewage, after being strained 
of its coarser substances, is discharged into the 
filter beds, remains for several hours in contact 
with the bacteria attached to the filtering mate- 
rial, and is discharged, after purification, by 
means of automatic siphons, or else gate valves 
operated by hand. 

In an agricultural sense, drainage is the art of 
carrying off surplus water from swampy districts, 
or from hard clay soils, or land subject to exces- 
sive flooding in rainy weather. Agricultural 
drainage is a benefit to vegetation and crops. 

Geo. E. Waring, Drainage for Profit and 
Health ; Elements of Agriculture; Land Drainage 
and Sewerage ; How to Drain a "House ; Methods 
of Sewage Disposal ; Glenn Brown, Healthy 
Foundations for Houses ; William P. Gerhard, 
Disposal of Household Wastes ; House Drainage 
and Sanitary Plumbing ; Sanitary Engineering 
of Buildings, Vol. I.; French, Farm Drainage ; 
Edw. 8S. Philbrick, Disposal of Sewage in Sub- 
urban Residences; Circulars of Department of 
Agriculture on ‘‘ Drainage,” Washington ; Dwight 
Porter, The Removal of Roof Water from Build- 
ings, reprinted in American Architect, Aug. 31, 
1889; M. N. Baker, Sewerage and Sewage 
he a —W. P. GERHARD. 

DRAIN PIPE, Any pipe for use as a 
drain. 

DRAIN TILE. A tile for constructing 
water drains, as in draining land. Usually made 
in two forms; a flat tile to form the bottom of 
the drain, which is covered by one more or less 
semicylindrical in shape. 

DRAIN TRAP. A trap device intended 
to prevent the escape of sewer air from sewers, 
drains, cesspools, or sewage tanks into the house 
sewers and house pipes. (See House Drainage ; 
Trap.) — W. P. G. 

DRAUGHT ; -ING. (See Draft ; Drawing.) 

DRAUGHTING ROOM. Same as Draft- 
ing Room. 

DRAVIDIAN ARCHITECTURE. That 
of an ancient province of the peninsula of 
India, usually considered as occupying the whole 
southernmost part of the peninsula, including 
the greater part of the modern presidency of 
Madras and a part of the protected native state 
of Mysore. The architecture characteristic of 
this district extends in a few rare cases beyond 
its geographical boundaries ; the important build- 
ings, which are considered as belonging to the 
style, are generally assumed to be of the tenth 
and succeeding centuries, coming down, perhaps, 
to the seventeenth century of the Christian 
era. (See India, Architecture of, and the bibli- 
ography appended to it.) No separate work 
seems to be devoted to this style. —R. S. 

DRAWBORE PIN. A slightly conical 
pin, peg, or trenail of hard wood, driven through 
the cheeks of a mortise and the tenon inserted 

826 


in N — a) et Ne ey. at 


4 re ul hee a ee! 
DRAWING 
therein; the hole in the tenon being slightly 


farther from the end than those in the mortise, 
the pin draws the tenon with great force into 


its seat and secures it firmly. Called also 
Draw Pin. 
DRAWING. In the practice of architecture. 


A. The process of representing the form of 
an object on a flat surface, as paper. 

B. The picture or representation so made. 

(For artistic or “freehand” drawing, see 
Study.) 

Two methods are commonly used in archi- 
tectural drawing: right line projection, which 
shows the actual outlines and dimensions of the 
object and its parts (see Projection), and Per- 
spective, which shows the apparent shape of the 
object as it appears, or would appear, to the 
eye. The former method is that used for all 
working drawings as described below: the latter 
principally for studies ; first, for the satisfaction 
of the architect himself of the proposed work, 
who is assisted by the realistic representations 
of perspective to decide more readily on the 
form to be given to the proposed structure or 
any part thereof; secondly, for submission to 
the client, who can, from such pictorial draw- 
ings, know, in advance, what the appearance of 
the finished structure will be. Such perspective 
studies thus, to some extent, take the place of 
models. 

Every scheme for building is embodied in 
drawings made by Right Line Projection, and 
a Specification ; these define all the special con- 
ditions of design and construction involved, the 
latter supplementing by written description what 
cannot be graphically set forth in the former. 
In fact, drawings enable the architect, first, to 
give a definite form to an architectural idea ; 
second, to cause it to be understood by others ; 
and third, to develop the idea into an actual 
work of architecture. These functions are ful- 
filled by three classes of drawings recognized in 
architectural practice: preliminary drawings 
or sketches, general drawings, and detail draw- 
ings. Of these the last two generally constitute 
what are known as working drawings. 

Preliminary drawings are the tentative so- 


called sketches of plans, elevations, and sections, ° 


by which the general character of a design is 
approximately determined. For convenience of 
study they are generally, in England and in the 
United States, drawn to the scale of 4 inch to 
the foot, or, in large work, to a scale of ls inch 
or even ate inch in other countries they are 
drawn to approximately corresponding scales 
according to the metric system. They consti- 
tute a series of graphical experiments, in which 
the architect endeavours to reconcile the best 
general dispositions of plans and elevations, to 
adjust his outlines and masses to the best con- 
ditions of balance or symmetry, correcting them 
when necessary by the revelations of perspective 
827 


- DRAWING oe 


sketches, until he has his scheme of azole 
so thoroughly in hand that he is in onde 
report it intelligibly to his client with approxi- 
mate estimates of cost obtained by comparison 
with other work, or by computation. Then . 
follow such modifications or readjustment as 
may be found necessary or expedient to bring 
it into harmony with the views of the client — 
respecting design and cost. These preliminary — 
drawings illustrate various ways of solving the 
problem in question. When the choice has — 
been made, and the scheme has thus been = 
intelligible and acceptable to the client, it @ 
becomes necessary to formulate this idea in 
general and detailed drawings. Ks 

General drawings are usually on a larger A 
scale. On these drawings, to avoid the danger 
of misreading the scale, and to avoid loss of 
time, all the dimensions are carefully figured, 
and, often by aid of supplementary marginal _ 
diagrams, all the general conditions of structure _ 
are carefully explained. This process also gives 
opportunity to refine and correct the design by 
a more careful study of detail. This class of a 
drawings includes plans of all the stories, eleva- ~~ 
tions of all the fronts, such general vertical sec- 
tions as may be necessary to elucidate the 
design, and such detail, drawn toa still larger 
scale as, with the assistance of the accompany- _ 
ing specifications, may make the whole scheme 
clearly evident to the mind of the builderand 
give him a full and complete comprehension of 
all the structure conditions as they affect the 
vital questions of quality and quantity of mate- 
rials, of character of workmanship, and of cost. 
Upon the clearness and completeness of these 
drawings and specifications depend not only the 
closeness and reliability of the estimates based 
upon them, and that workmanlike precision of. — 
execution which constitutes good building, but 
immunity from those unforeseen contingencies, 
known and dreaded by architect and client alike | 
as “extras.” In case of contract work these 
general drawings, having been identified by 
the signatures of the interested parties, forma 
part of the legal building agreement. They 
generally comprise from six to twelve or more 
sheets, made in manifold by various mechanical 
processes, so that the various classes of work- 
men employed as subcontractors or otherwise on 
the building may be furnished with authenti- 
cated copies according to their needs. (See 
Contract ; Builder.) 

But these, though sufficient to define the 
architectural scheme and generally to guide the — 
builders, need to be supplemented during 
the progress of the work by another and gener- 
ally much more extensive series of drawings, 
known as detail drawings, which often, ac- 
cording to the magnitude or complexity of the 
work, may bring the total number up to several 
hundred sheets. 

828 


DRAWING 


These supplementary detail drawings are 
required for the use of the general and sub- 
contractors, so that the masons, the stone- 
cutters, the iron and steel men, the fireproofers, 
the metal workers, the carpenters and cabinet- 
makers, the marble and tile men, the electric, 
the heating, and elevator people, the plasterers 
and decorators, each being furnished with a 
special set of diagrams and detail sheets, may 
be enabled in the distant shop, factory, or build- 
ing yard, to so provide and shape their material 
that it may be delivered duly at the building 
site, prepared to be adjusted to its proper place 
or function in the complicated organism with the 
least possible delay and the smallest possible 
chance for errors and misfits. These working 
sheets embrace, besides explanatory figured dia- 
grams, numerous details of structural, moulded, 
and carved work drawn at full size. In the 
case of contract work they are not intended to 
impose upon the builders any labour or material 
which has not already been called for in the 
general drawings, a clause in the contract 
protecting them from the possibility of such 
impositions by providing for an appeal in case 
of dispute or disagreement between the con- 
tractor and the architect regarding the fair and 


_ proper interpretation of the general drawings. 


But the architect must be the sole judge as to 
the number and character of the third class 
drawings necessary to secure absolute accuracy 
of workmanship and to protect the integrity of 
his design. But this necessary multiplication 


_ of working drawings in the elucidation of his 


design carries with it, for the architect, a serious 
responsibility ; for the cost of correcting all 


errors occasioned by inaccuracies or oversight 


in the drawings must very properly be borne by 
him. For convenience of reference and record 
copies or tracings of every drawing issued from 
his office are kept on file by the architect. 
Architect’s drawings have been defined by 
the courts as ‘‘instruments of service,” and as 
such they have been held to be the property of 
the architect and not of the client. But asa 


_ matter of common courtesy, if not of practical 


expedience, it is customary to furnish the client 
for his use a full set of general drawings and a 
perspective if he requires them. 

In the administration of an architect’s office, 
where works of importance are carried on simul- 
taneously, the multiplication of drawings would 
become a serious embarrassment if the care of 
them and the accounting for them were not 
subjected to a rigid system. To this end the 
originals or tracings, which are retained by the 
architect, are kept on files properly ordered and 
readily accessible, and a descriptive record is 
preserved, wherein the number and title of each 
sheet is set forth, together with the name of the 
builder or mechanic to whom the copy or origi- 
nal has been issued, with the date of delivery. 

829 


ee a ae ee ee eee. ole 


DRAWING-ROOM 


It is also customary to require by a provision 
in the specification that the drawings, being the 
property of the architect, must not be used on 
other work, and, so far as practicable, must be 
returned to him on the completion of the work 
and before the final payment. 

— Henry Van Brunt. 

DRAWING BOARD. A board especially 
prepared with squared edges and flat smooth 
surface to receive the paper or linen upon 
which a drawing is to be made. Drawing 
boards are usually of well-seasoned soft pine, 
carefully matched and glued, with flush cleats 
at the ends in the smaller sizes and heavy hard- 
wood back cleats in the larger sizes, secured in 
such manner as to allow for shrinkage. The 
drawing paper is secured by drawing pins or by 
gumming the edges to the board. Panel boards 
or framed boards are sometimes used for water- 
colours of moderate size; the paper overlap- 
ping the board on all edges, and secured by a 
frame fitting closely around the board. 

—A.D.F. H. 

DRAWING CHISEL. A chisel-like instru- 
ment having a broad blade with a very sharp 
oblique end. It is used for trimming the ends 
of tenons and for cutting or marking deep inci- 
sions across the grain of the wood, guided by a 
square or rule. 

DRAWING INSTRUMENTS.  Imple- 
ments used in drawing, as distinguished from 
painting ; particularly those used in geometri- 
eal, mechanical (architectural) drawing; the T 
square, straight edge, triangles, curves, rule or 
scale, compasses, dividers, ruling pen, dotting 
pen, and protractor are those commonly used : 
to which may be added such special contrivances 
as the Centrolinead, Ellipsograph, Pantograph, 
Spline, etc. © 

DRAWING PIN. A metal pin used to 
fasten a drawing or sheet of paper, tracing linen, 
or the like, to the drawing board. It has a 
broad, flat head, a very short round shank or 
stem, and sharp point. The head is so bevelled 
or slightly rounded at the edge that the T 
square and triangle slide easily over it. Called 
also drawing tack and thumb tack. 

DRAWING-ROOM. A. A room intended 
for the reception of visitors and the entertain- 
ment of company ; originally withdrawing-room, 
as being the room to which persons withdrew 
for private intercourse ; or, in later times, the 
room to which the ladies withdrew after dinner. 
Compare parlour, with which term there has 
grown to be a confusion, especially in the United 
States, which should be avoided, if possible. 
In large houses, the drawing-room is differen- 
tiated from the sitting room and the morning 
room, and in English town houses from the 
parlour. In America, the term is reserved 
rather for rooms of considerable size, and of 
stately arrangement and decoration. In this 

830 


DRAW PIN 3 
sense, it is applied to the reception rooms of 
the larger hotels and the like. 

B. Same as Drafting Room, which see. : 

—R.8. 

DRAW PIN. The same as Drawbore Pin. 

DRESS (v.). To prepare, shape, or finish by 
cutting or rubbing one or more faces of stone, 
brick, or lumber ; to face. 

Brick is commonly dressed by roughly chip- 
ping to the required form, and then rubbing on 
a smooth surface with sand and water. When 
required to be more elaborately shaped or 
moulded, the dressing is done by chisels and 
similar cutting tools in the same manner as 
stone. These processes are being largely super- 
seded by bricks which are manufactured in a 
great variety of stock patterns, or by machinery 
with which bricks of the usual type may be 
readily and cheaply cut or ground, as for vous- 
soirs. Where only a few bricks are needed, of 
an elaborate shape, they may be had cheaper by 
dressing than by moulding. 

Lumber is said to be dressed when planed on 
one or more faces, and is described or specified 
according to the number of sides which are to 
be so finished. At the present time, the greater 
part of such dressing is almost always done by 
means of machinery in planing mills (see Wood- 
working Machinery), hand working being re- 
sorted to only for small quantities, or to give a 
more perfect and true finish in parts left some- 
what inaccurate and irregular by mill planing. 
Planing, whether by hand or machinery, com- 
monly includes, not merely the dressing of lum- 
ber so as to form true and smooth faces and 
arrises, but also moulding, either for decoration 
or for constructive reasons, and such moulding 
is wholly or in part produced in one operation 
with the simple planing. Thus, floor boards 
are commonly manufactured as a stock article, 
planed on one side, and the edges tongued and 
grooved, while sheathing and ceiling is to be 
had finished in a similar manner, and also 
beaded on one or both edges of the face, or 
even more elaborately moulded. (See Lumber.) 

Stone dressing, while commonly performed 
by machinery, is more often worked by hand 
than either brick or wood ; first, because of the 
uneven texture of many kinds of stone, the 
slow, manual process of chipping is the only 
available means of dressing; second, because 
seldom used in pieces long enough to make 
planing or moulding by machinery expedient ; 
third, because many kinds of surface finish 
called for are very irregular in character. A 
combined process of dressing is, however, being 
rapidly introduced, in which a hammer, punch, 
or other tool is driven and caused to strike 
rapidly by mechanical means, — generally elec- 
tricity, — while it is guided by the workman, 
who can thus, with very little labour, work 
mouldings, and even produce elaborately sculp- 

851 


‘the decorative furnishings, such as moulding 


‘DR em 3 
tured forms. (See Ashlar ; Stone 
DNB, Ss. im 
DRESS CIRCLE. Origingllam in. 
theatres, the first balcony containing the b 
and set apart for the wealthier class of — 
audience, who were supposed to appear in 
ing dress, It usually extended around 
sides of the auditorium, the pit being 
enclosed by it, or extending under it. In m 
ern times, the term is used more or less indi 
criminately to mean a similar part of a theatre 
either on the main floor, or on a balcony : 
the orchestra, and: next in importance t 
latter, and most often without boxes. 
Box; Orchestra ; Parquet ; Pit ; Theatre.’ 
DRESSER. A table, shelf, or set of sh 
upon which vessels for use at meals are ker 
permanently. Originally, the dresser served 
a carving table and place of preparation for 
dishes about to be served; that is to say, 
was there that the dressings of the table 
prepared. In modern usage, almost enti 
confined to a set of plain shelves with or with- 
out doors or sliding glass fronts, and set up in 
a kitchen or serving room. Re 
DRESSING. <A. In general, any one 


keystones, groins, and the like, projecting a 
the general surface of a building. 
B. In a more restricted sense, the mont 
finish or framework around openings ; f 
example, the architraves of doors and Jini 
This is the more common usage in England. — 
DRESSING ROOM. A room for dres 
ing and for the operations of the toilet ; sp 
cifically :— 
A. In a theatre or similar building, a room 
used by a performer, sometimes large and 
elaborately furnished, with a private alcove or 
part screened off for the actual toilet of the actor 
or actress, while the rest of the room is used as 
a reception room for certain privileged visitors. | 
B. In a bathing establishment, gymnasium, —_ 
or the like, a place where the bathers may dress 
and undress, and may leave their clothing while 
bathing or exercising; often a mere closet 
closed only with a curtain or partial door, == 
C’. In a mercantile establishment, as for the . 
sale of ready-made clothing, or a_tailor’s or a 
dressmaker’s rooms, often a mere closet in 
which customers may put on garments. — 
D. Tn a residence, a room attached to a bed- 
room, especially needed where two persons — 
occupy the same bedroom. In the case of a — 
married couple, it is usually held that the dress- 
ing room is the husband’s place of retirement. 
In houses of pretension, and in first-class hotels, ‘s a 
and the like, it is very common for a bath tub — 
and sometimes other conveniences of the same j | 
sort to be provided. — R. S. —— 
DRIFT (n.). A. The thrust or horizontal 
outward push of an arch or vault. 
832 


vo (ee nee eae, ae 


DRIFT 


B. A small tunnel to serve as a guide for 
the excavation of a larger tunnel or sewer. 

DRIFT (v.). In riveting iron work, to 
enlarge a rivet hole laterally so as to bring it 
opposite its corresponding hole; a poor expe- 
dient to correct inaccurate work. 

DRIFT PIN. A tapered steel pin driven 
into a rivet hole to enlarge it. (See Drift (v.).) 

WoIRGH, 


—o 
. 


DRILL. A punch or boring instrument 
operated mechanically to drive holes through any 
hard material, as rock or metal, either by being 
rapidly rotated or by being caused to give blows. 


me SS 
a 


DRIPS FORMED BY MOULDINGS; FROM — 


a. The Piazza dei Mercanti, Milan. 0. The Broletto of Como. 
e and @. From Salisbury. e and 7. From Lisieux, Nor- 
mendy. gandf, From Wenlock Abbey, Shropshire. 


DRIP. Any projecting piece of material, 
member, or part of a member, shaped or placed 
so as to throw off water and prevent its running 
or trickling back to the wall or other surface or 


part. (See Beak; Lip.) 
DRIP LOOPS. (See Electrical Appli- 
ances. ) 


‘DRIP MOULDING. Any moulding shaped 
and placed to form a drip. 

_ DRIPPING EAVES. Sloping eaves pro- 

jecting beyond the walls and not provided with 

a gutter or eaves trough, so that the roof water 

is shed upon the ground. 

DRIPSTONE. A drip moulding or hood 
mould to an arch, especially in Gothic archi- 
tecture. The term is only applicable to exterior 
architecture ; when such a moulding occurs in 
interior work, it should be called a hood mould. 
Its section is convex externally, retreating to 
the wall by bevels and deep hollows. The term 
is sometimes erroneously used of the ornament 
at the ends of the moulding, which is properly 
the boss. 

DROMIC, -ICAL. Pertaining to, or hay- 
ing, the form of a Grecian Dromos ; said of the 
early type of Eastern churches, the plan of 
which is similar to the dromos. In this sense, 
equivalent to Basilican. 

DROMOS. A. In Grecian archeology, a 
race course ; seldom the object of architectural 
elaboration or display. 

833 


DRUMMING 


B. A somewhat enclosed entrance, passage, or 
avenue forming an approach, as between two 
rows of columns leading to an Egyptian temple. 
So called from its similarity to the Greek 
dromos or race course. 

DROP. A. Any one of the guttz under 
the mutules or triglyphs of a Doric entablature. 
(See Gutta.) 

B. Any pendant finish, or ornament, as to 
the lower end of a newel. 

DROVE (n.). A chisel used in stonecutting, 
about 2 inches wide, intermediate in size between 
the inch tool and the broad tool. 

DROVE (v.). To dress with the drove ; 
generally, the third or fourth process in stone- 
cutting. 

DRUM. A. One of the nearly cylindrical 
pieces of which a shaft of a column is built up 
when it is not a monolith. 

B. The vertical wall, circular or polygonal 
in plan, which carries the rounded part of a 
cupola; called also Tambour. The drum 
applies chiefly to the exterior of buildings ; 
thus, in the Pantheon or in the church of 
Hagia Sophia there is no drum; the cathedral 
of Florence has a very high octagonal drum 
pierced with an occulus in each face; and S. 
Paul’s in London has a very lofty drum, which 
may be considered as having three parts, —a 
plain basement, a lofty peristyle crowned by a 
parapet and surrounding a sloping circular wall 


fo i 


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Sua 
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ses 
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et 


DRIPSTONE FROM’S. ERASMUS’S CHAPEL, WEST- 
MINSTER. 


pierced with windows, and an attic, which last 
carries the cupola itself. — R. 8. 
DRUMMING. (See Cross Bridging, under 
Bridging. ) 
834 


DRUM PANELLING 


DRUM PANELLING. A form of door 
construction in which the panels are flush on 
both sides for covering with cloth or leather. 

DRY (adj.). In masonry, built without 
the use of mortar or any cementing material. 

DRYING ROOM (also, drying closet, drying 
loft). A room, or space, for drying, especially one 
set apart for the drying of clothes, and provided 
with artificial heat and vent flue for removal of 
moist air. Drying rooms do away with many of 
the inconveniences incident to the ordinary drying 
of the wash, render laundry operations indepen- 
dent of the weather, and in large institutions 
enable the quick drying of a large amount of 
clothes. They consist essentially of a wrought- 
iron frame, covered with a galvanized sheet iron 
case, in which metal clothes “horses” or racks 
slide. Clothes dryers must be fireproof and rust- 
less. Each vertical rack has a number of hori- 
zontal galvanized iron bars on which the clothes 
are hung. The continually admitted fresh air is 
heated in the dryer by steam or hot water coils, 
by hot air drums, or by gas burners. Ventila- 
tion is essential to remove the expelled moisture, 
the hot air, and the laundry odours. In large in- 
stitutions and in steam laundries drying is always 
accomplished by steam. Racks are generally 7 
feet high, 7 feet long, and occupy each from 64 
to 74 inches space in width. A three- or four- 
rack dryer is sufficient for the washing of a large 
family. For domestic laundries a very handy 
and efficient apparatus is the combined laundry 
stove and dryer. In this a single fire in the 
laundry stove boils the clothes in the wash 
boiler, heats water in the laundry boiler, heats 
flatirons, and furnishes heat for drying the 
clothes. It occupies but little room in the 
laundry, and avoids the smell of washing arising 
when clothes are dried indoors. — W. P. GER- 
HARD. 

DRY ROT. Decay in wood of which the 
primary cause is dampness, and, especially, lack 
of ventilation. If the end of a timber is built 
up too closely in a wall, or enclosed in an iron 
shoe, it will be attacked by this decay, even if 
well seasoned. ae 

DUBAN, JACQUES FELIX; architect ; 
b. Oct. 14, 1797 (at Paris); d. Oct. 8, 1870 (at 
Bordeaux). 

Duban was a pupil of Frangois Debret. (see 
Debret, F.), and the Ecole des Beaux Arts, 
and in 1823 won the Grand Prix de Rome in 
architecture. After acting as assistant of Debret 
at the cole des Beaux Arts he became chief 
architect of that building in 1832. He con- 
structed from his own plans the main building 
of the school, containing the hemicycle, the 
library, etc. He also arranged the interesting 
collection of architectural fragments in the open 
court. He occupied himself with the improve- 
ment and decoration of this building until his 
death. In 1840 he undertook the restoration 

835 


DUC 


of the Sainte-Chapelle, Paris, but gave up this 
work to Jean Baptiste Lassus (see Lassus) in 
1849. In 1845 Duban began the restoration 
of the chateau of Blois, with which he was occu- 
pied twenty-five years. About 1845 he restored 
the chateau of Dampierre for the Duc de Luynes. 
Duban began the reconstruction of the chateau 
of Chantilly, for the Duc d’Aumale, but was in- 
terrupted by the political disturbances of 1848. 
In 1849 he was appointed architect in charge of 
the chateau of Fontainebleau and of the Louvre. 
He made extensive restorations at the Louvre, 
but was superseded by Louis Visconti (see Vis- 
conti) as architect of that building in 1853. 

Beulé, Eloge de Duban; César Daly, Funé- 
railles de Félix Duban; Eugéne Miintz, Guide de 
l’ Ecole nationale des Beaux Arts; Chabat, Ecole 
Nationale des Beaux Artsin Encyclopédie d’ archi- 
tecture. 

DUBBING OUT. The operation of level- 
ling or smoothing a wall of masonry by filling 
up the hollows before the final coat of cement 
or stucco is applied. 

DUBROEUCQ (DE BREUCK), JACQUES ; 
sculptor and architect. 

Dubroeucq is mentioned by Guicciardini (op. 
cit.) as Natif de Saint Omer, gentilhomme 
de race, graveur et tailleur expert et sachant 
bien Varchitecture. He was a native of Flan- 
ders, visited Italy, and established himself in 
Antwerp. For Maria of Hungary, Queen Re- 
gent of the Netherlands, he built a palace at 
Binche and several fortresses. The famous 
Jean Bologne was his pupil. 

‘Desjardins, Vie de Jean Bologne ; Guicciardini, 
Description de touts les Pais-Bas. 

DUC, GABRIEL LE; architect; d. 1704. 

Le Duc studied in Rome. On his return 
to Paris he was associated with Le Muet (see 
Muet), who, after 1654, was made architect in 
chief of the church and monastery of Val-de- 
Grace, Paris. Le Duc succeeded Le Muet 
about. 1658, and built the vaults, the dome, 
all the upper part of the building, and carried 
out the detail of the interior. In building the 
dome he is supposed to have followed the de- 
sign of Frangois Mansart (see Mansart, N. F.). 
Many of his most important buildings have 
been destroyed. 

Ruprich-Robert, L’église du Val-de-Grace. 


DUC, LOUIS JOSEPH ; architect ; b. Oct. 
15, 1802 (at Paris); d. Jan. 23, 1879. 

Duc was a pupil of Percier (see Percier) at 
the Ecole des Beaux Arts. In 1825 he won 
the Grand Prix de Rome in architecture. 
Returning to Paris he was made inspector, un- 
der Jean Antoine Alavoine (see Alavoine), of 
the works at the Place de la Bastille and the 
Colonne de Juillet. In 1834 he became archi- 
tect in chief of this monument, the design for 
which he modified. In 1840 he was appointed 
architect of the Palais de Justice (Paris), the 

836 


PLATE XXVII 


DUCAL PALACE 


belong to an earlier and fortified castle, and the 
Renaissance windows and doggie are for the most 
part insertions in the ancient castle wall. 


That at Urbino, in Umbria; begun about 1450 
and celebrated for the beautiful details of its in- 
terior courtyards and halls. ‘The round towers 


DUCAL PALACE 


reconstruction of which was the chief work of 
Duce’s life. In 1842 he transformed the old 
Cour des Comptes built by Gabriel (see Ga- 
briel, J. J.) into the hétel of the Préfecture de 
police (burned in 1871); in 1845 he began 
the buildings on the Rue de Barillerie; in 
1850 he restored the Tour de ?Horloge. In 
1861 he began the building of the Cour de 
Cassation ; between 1857 and 1868 he built 
the monumental facade on the Place Dau- 
phine; in 1872 he began the restoration of 
the Salle des Pas Perdus, which had been 
burned the previous year; all these buildings 
being portions of the Palais de Justice. His 
plans for the improvement of the Palais de 
Justice won for him a medal of the first class 
at the exposition of 1855, and in 1869 the 
great prize of 100,000 francs given by the 


DUMB-WAITER 


which is generally modernized and used for a 
museum. (3) That of Urbino, in Italy, prov- 
ince of the Marches ; the residence of the old 
Dukes of Urbino, and still in excellent unal- 
tered condition. There is no more interesting 
piece of civic or domestic architecture of the 
Italian Renaissance than this extensive palace 
with its beautiful court and refined interior 
details. (4) That of Venice (for which see 
Doge’s Palace). — R. S. 
DUCCIO, AGOSTINO DI. 
di Duccio.) 
DUCERCEAU or DU CERCEAU. 
Androuet, called du Cerceau.) 
DUCHESS. (See Slate.) 
DUGOUT. A dwelling wholly or partly 
constructed in the ground, preferably in a bank 
or slope. The walls are continued upward or 


(See Agostino 


(See 


ee 


=F 


Duca PALAcE, MANTUA, ITALY. 


Emperor Napoleon III. (b. 1808; d. 1873). 
In 1863 Due was made inspecteur général du 
conseil des bdtiments civils. 


Charles Lucas, in La Grande Encyclopédie ; 
Maurice du Seigneur, in Planat’s Encyclopédie. 


DUCAL PALACE. The official residence 
of a sovereign prince bearing the title of Duke 
(duc, duque, or Herzog). Among the most 
celebrated of the buildings commonly called 
thus are (1) that of Mantua; an extensive 
group of buildings including a medieval strong 
castle and an immense palace begun in the four- 
teenth century, but frequently altered and mod- 
ernized, and containing much work of Giulio 
Romano, which, though not always perfect in 
taste, is full of variety and suggestion. (2) 
That at Nancy; the ancient residence of the 
Dukes of Lorraine, a building of which a large 


part is still of the latest French Gothic, but 


837 


outward from the excavation by utilizing the 
earth thrown out, together with sod or stones, 
or both. The walls above ground, or the front 
where the excavation is in a Slope, are finished 
with sod, stone, boards, canvas, or logs, accord- 
ing to the resources of the locality or of the 
individual builder. The roof is usually of earth 
and sod on poles, with a slight pitch to each 
side, but it may be of any material available. 
During the building of the Union Pacific Rail- 
way the dugout was especially popular. In the 
treeless Missouri Valley and similar regions it 
took the place of the settler’s log cabin of East- 
ern forest regions. Sometimes a species of 
dugout has been made in a vertical bank of a 
creek or arroyo, like a niche, with a blanket 
to serve as a front wall. —F.S. D. 
DUMB-WAITER. A. Originally, a piece 
of furniture for a dining room, consisting gen- 
838 


at 


gs = a ieee 
laa) ~~ ~ a Lie + 


DUNGEON 


erally of a set of shelves arranged to hold dishes 
and mounted upon easy running castors in such 
a way that it could be wheeled to the side of a 
table. In some English eating houses, a dish 
from which the customer is to be served i is in 
this way brought close to him so that he sees 
the carver who is engaged in serving him. 

B. An elevator or lift of a small kind, espe- 
cially one intended for carrying dishes from the 
kitchen to the dining room or serving room above 
or below. — R. 8. 

DUNGEON. A. Sameas Donjon; the more 
modern English spelling before the antiquarian 
movement which led to the adoption, for the 
Keep itself, of the French medizval form. 

B. A prison cell of especially repulsive or 
disagreeable character, as an underground vault 
with but little light. The term is evidently 
that properly applied to the whole structure 
transferred to that part of it which most affects 
modern imagination. 

DUODECASTYLE. Same as Dodecastyle. 

DUOMO. Acathedral church ; the common 
Italian designation ; corresponding to the Ger- 
man Dom and derived like Dom and like our 
dome from the Latin domus, a house, 7.e. the 
house of God. It is applied to none but true cathe- 
drals ; the basilica of 8. Peter’s is not a duomo. 

DUPASQUIER, LOUIS; architect: b. 1800 
(at Lyons, Rhone, France). 

In 1848 he was made diocesan architect of 
the departments of |’Ain and Sadne-et-Loire 
(France), and in that capacity restored the 
church at Brou and the cathedral of Autun. 
Dupasquier built the Hétel des Beaux Arts at 
Lyons and many churches in different parts of 
France. He published Monographie de Notre 
Dame de Brou (Paris, 1842, folio). 


Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 


DUPERAC, ETIENNE ; architect, painter, 
and engraver; b. about 1535; d. 1604. 

Dupérac passed a part of his life in Italy, 
where he made numerous engravings dated be- 
tween 1565 and 1578. These plates are pub- 
lished under the title I Vestigi della Antichita 
di Roma (1575). According to Félibien (op. 
cit.) Dupérac was employed at the Tuileries in 
1599. It is possible that he designed the old 
Pavillon de Flore, the gallery connecting with 
the Pavillon Bullant and the western half of 
the Grande Galerie du Louvre, usually at- 
tributed to Jacques Androuet du Cerceau (II.) 
(see Androuet du Cerceau, J., IT.). 

Mariette, Abecedario ; Andee Félibien, Hntre- 
tiens sur les mes et les ovr ages des plus excellents 
peintres, etc.; Bauchal, Dictionnaire; Robert 
Dumesnil, ne peintre-graveur francais ; Von 
Geymiiller, Les du Cerceau. 

DUQUESNOY, FRANCOIS (FRANCOIS 
PLAMAND, FRANCESCO PIAMMINGO); 
sculptor; b. 1594 (at Brussels); d. July 12, 
1642 (at Livorno, Italy). 

839 


Duquesnoy learned the rudiments from | 
father, Henry Duquesnoy, a Flemish sculptor. _ 
He was recommended by the painter Rubens to f 
the Archduke Albert, of Austria, sovereign of | 
the Catholic Netherlands, who gave him a pen- 
sion which enabled him to visit Italy. He was — 
employed in the decoration of the Baldacchino — : 
at 8. Peter’s. He made a relief representing _ 
a Concert of Cherubim, in the church of Santi — ag 
Apostoli, Naples, a bas- relief of Children Play- ; 
ing, in the royal palace at Madrid, a great ivory 4 5 
crucifix, in the collection of Prince Lichtenstein 
at Vienna, etc. Duquesnoy was remarkably 
skilful in the representation of children. He 
was invited by the Cardinal Richelieu to estab- 
lish a school of sculpture in Paris, but died ab 3 
Livorno (Italy) on his way to France. His 
brother Jéréme, also a sculptor, left much. work — 
in Flanders. be 

Bellori, Le vite de’ Pittori, Scultori et Archtielems ey. 
Moderni; Fetis, Notice sur Duquesnoy ; Mariette, 
Abecedario. ” 

DUQUESNOY, JEROME. (See Duques- 
noy, Francois.) es 

DURAND, JEAN NICOLAS LOUIS; 
architect; b. Sept, 18, 17603; d. Dee. 31, 
1834. 

At the age of sixteen, Durand entered the: a 
atelier of Etienne Louis Boulée, and in 1780 — 
won the second Grand Prix d’ Architecture. 
In 1795 he was made professor of architecture — +. 
in the newly organized Ecole Polytechnique  _ 
(Paris), and retained that position for thirty- = 
nine years. He published Recueil et paralléle __ 
des édifices .. . anciens et modernes (92 
pls. folio, Paris, 1800); Précis des legons 
WV architecture données a Ecole Polytechnique _ 
(2 vols. 4to, Paris, 1802-1805) : Partie gra- 3 . 
phique des cours architecture faits a0 Ecole — 
Polytechnique (vol. 4to, Paris, 1821). 


Rondelet, Notice historique sur J. N. L. Du- eS, 
rand. 


DURANDUS (DURAND); architect. 

The inscription Durand me fecit is found — 
on one of the vaults of the nave of the cathe- 
dral of Rouen. On account of similarity of 
workmanship, Deville supposes that all the 
vaults of the nave were built by him. 

Deville, Revue des architectes de la Cathédrale- 
de Rouen. 

DURANTEL, JEHAN ; architect. 

About 1569 Durantel built the Halle aux 
draps (cloth market) of Paris. Feb. 24, 1578, 
he was called in consultation concerning the: — 
construction of the Pont Neuf in Paris. He: 
appears several times in the records of that work 
in association with the Guillain (see Guillain) 
father and son, Pierre Chambiges (II.), (see 
Chambiges, P., II.), and Jean de Verdun. 

De Laborde, Comptes des batiments du roi;: 
Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 

840 


DURBAR 


‘DURBAR. In India. A. 
tion or audience, hence : — 

B. A hall of audience. 

DURER, ALBRECHT; painter, engraver, 
and goldsmith ; b. May 21, 1471; d. April 6, 
1528. 

The great painter and engraver, Albrecht 
Diirer, in 1521-1522 made designs for the 
decoration of the Rathhaus at Nuremberg. He 
designed metal work and wrote books on pro- 
portion and colour. In the title of his work on 
fortification he is called an architect, Alberti 
Dureri pictoris et architecti preestantissimi 
de urbibus, castellisque condendis, etc., pub- 
lished after his death (Paris, 1535). 

Ephrussi, Albrecht Diirer et ses Dessins ; Kiigler, 
Handbook, German, Flemish, and Dutch Schools. 

DURN. A doorpost in the proper sense of 
the word “ post,” z.e., when formed of a timber ; 
a door frame, when so constructed. — (N. E. D.) 

DURNSTETTER, HEINRICH ; architect. 
(See Egl, Andreas.) 

DUST BIN. A permanent receptacle for 
dust and other refuse, as of a dwelling. In 
large English houses this is treated as a matter 
of importance and as requiring thought in its 
disposition and management. In the United 
States the custom may be more general of using 
barrels or small movable receptacles, and carry- 
ing them away frequently to be emptied. 

It is required that a dust bin should have 
tight doors ; above for the reception of rubbish, 
and at the bottom for its. removal. Also that 
it should be in a very accessible place, and far 
removed from those parts of the house in which 
the occupants spend their time. Even with 
the utmost precautions frequent emptying is 
important. — R. S. 

DUST FLUE; SHAFT. A flue or shaft 
provided for the conveyance of dust or rubbish 
from one or more upper rooms or floors to a 
dust bin or other receptacle in the cellar or in 
an area or outside space reserved ad hoc. It 
should be provided with self-closing air-tight 
doors at every opening. A dust shaft from the 
hearth or grate ofa fireplace is commonly 
‘called an ash chute. 

DUTCH ARCHITECTURE. (See Nether- 
lands, Architecture of the.) 

DUTCH BARN. In Great Britain, a shelter 
less complete and less thoroughly enclosed than 
a barn in the usual sense. Three sorts are 
described: one having a fixed roof but other- 
wise imperfectly covered, as by siding, which 
form is not expected to remain perfectly weather- 
tight ; another in which the roof slides up and 
down between angle posts like the hay Barrack ; 
another which is a mere shed for the temporary 
shelter of a loaded wagon or the like. 

— (A. P. 8.) 

DU TEMPLE, RAYMOND. (See Ray- 
mond du Temple.) 


A state recep- 


841 


EARLY ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE 


DWANG. A short strut for Bridging. 

DWANGING. (See Cross Bridging, under 
Bridging.) 

DWARF (adj.). Lacking in the required 
or customary height ; low or short. 

DWARF DOOR. One 3 or 4 feet high, 
whether complete, or forming the lower part. 
of a divided or Dutch door. 

DWARF WAINSCOTING. In Great 
Britain, wainscoting covering only the lower 
part of the walls of a room, usually 2 feet 
6 inches to 5 or 6 feet high. In the United 
States, a dado of woodwork ; rare, as wainscot- 
ing is there seldom used for the whole wall. 

DWARF WALL. A wall of less height 
than a full story, or which does not rise to the 
full height required for screening or protection, 
and, therefore, is often topped with a fence or 
railing. The Bahut, or low wall, which carries 
the external roof of a Gothic building and the 
eaves proper, is a dwarf wall. 

DWELLING. A building used for residence. 
(See Apartment House; Cabin; Castle; Cha- 
teau ; Cot ; Cottage ; Flat ; Hotel ; House ; Inn ; 
Manor House ; Palace ; Tenement House.) 

DYNAMO. A popular abbreviation of 
dynamo-electric machine. The term is most. 
often applied to that form of the machine which 
is properly called generator. (See Dynamo, 
under Electrical Appliances. ) 

DYOSTYLE. A. Same as Distyle. 

B. In French, having coupled columns, like 
the east front of the Louvre. It should not be 
confounded with Diastyle. 


E 


EAGLE. A. A pediment of a Greek build- 
ing ; the rarely used translation of wtos. Also 
the tympanum or recessed panel of such a pedi- 
ment. 

B. A reading desk or lectern, especially that. 
used by an officiant in a church ; properly applied 
only to one which has the form of a bird. Such 
eagles of brass or similar metal were common 
in the Middle Ages, and the custom of using 
them still continues. 

EAR. Any relatively small projecting mem- 
ber or part of a piece or structure ; whether 
for a structural purpose, as a lug, or merely 
a decorative feature, as an acroterium or 
crosset. 

EARLY ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE. 
The earliest style of Gothic architecture in 
England, so styled by Thomas Rickman (see 
Rickman), and the corresponding style in Scot- 
land. This may be considered as beginning 
with the east end of Canterbury cathedral 
about 1175, and as ending with the accession 
of Edward I. The style next succeeding is the: 
Decorated. 

842 


HARTHEN GROUT 


EARTHEN GROUT. Grout made with 
adobe or other earth. (See Cajon ; Pisé.) 
—F.S8. D. 

EARTHENWARE. (See Brick ; Keramics ; 
Terra Cotta ; Tile.) 

EARTHWORK. A. Work done in remov- 
ing earth, gravel, loose stone, and the like. (See 
Excavation. ) 

B. With the article, a mound, rampart, or 
the like ; used especially in fortification. 

(See Retaining Wall and bibliography under 
that term.) 

EASEMENT. A. A curve formed at the 
juncture of two members, to one or both of 
which it is tangent, and which would otherwise 
meet at an awkward angle ; as where the slop- 
ing portion of a hand rail meets the horizontal 
part, or where a sloping hand rail is curved to 
meet a newel perpendicularly. 

B. (In Law, see Legislation.) 

Level Easement. One made in a horizontal 
plane ; so distinguished from Ramp. 

EASING. Same as Easement. 


East END: CHURCH OF NORTHBOROUGH, NORTH- 
AMPTONSHIRE. 


Type of simplest form. Compare the photographic plates. 


BAST END. The chancel end of a Chris- 
tian church ; so called from the medizeval prac- 
tice of erecting churches with that end toward 
the east, in which direction the priest would 
face when officiating at the altar. (See Apse ; 
Chancel ; Chapel ; Lady Chapel, under Chapel ; 
Choir ; Church ; Orientation.) 

EAST WINDOW. In church architecture, 
a window in the choir end, which is commonly 

843 


a oe i i a Sas,” t) 4 Sey Pah tea, ne el ae ts 
Sa hy bee 5 lary a Hah 545 ail i i ‘ : =f? 4 Yeu 
oh - Lice ; F a, ~. 7 


* ’ 4 
rat 


‘EAVES LATH 


the east end. The term would hardly be used 
for any window in a church having a rounded 
chevet or apse ; but the square-ended churches, 
especially common in England though existing 
elsewhere, often have large and splendid win- 
dows at this point. Some of these are of 
enormous size. That of Carlisle cathedral, 27 
feet wide, has nine lights divided by two larger 
and six smaller mullions, and a great triangu- 
lar head filled with flowing tracery. That of 
Gloucester is of about equal importance, and 
these two windows are of the middle of the 
fourteenth century. — R. 8. 


EATING ROOM. Any room principally 


intended as a place in which to eat meals ; espe- 
cially : — 

A. Such a room in a factory, institution, or 
the like, for the employees or inmates. 

B. In English houses, at about the com- 
mencement of the nineteenth century, a room 
where the ordinary family meals were served ; 
as distinguished from the dining room, which 
was reserved for more formal occasions. (Com- 
pare Breakfast Room ; Dining Room ; Morning 
Room.) 

BAVES. The lower portion of a sloping 
roof near the walls; especially, such a part 
lg 4 3 


i 
xa = 
—————— 


[a 


pit 
Tats 
“a . 


I py eet. 
Sue 
i satcten 10 
. FES x 
3 be oat =» 


Eaves or A HovuseE In SARAGOSSA, SPAIN. 


The corbels, each of two horizontal timbers, carry a plate which 
supports the rafters. 


projecting beyond the walls, and forming an 
overhanging drip for water. (See Dripping 
Eaves.) (Cut, col. 845.) 

EAVES BOARD; EAVES CATCH. A 
feather-edged board at the lower edge of a tiled 
or slated roof on which is laid the lowest course 
of tiles or slates ; designed to give to that course 
the same pitch with those above. 

EAVES CHANNEL. A channel or small 
gutter at the top of a wall to convey the roof 
drippings to spouts or gargoyles; particularly, 
one cut in the topping course or in a corbel 
table serving as cornice. — (A. P. 8.) 

EAVES LATH. A heavy lath or similar 
strip of wood used in cheap work under the 

844 


er ee aT pe ee ee 


ee Ne ee ee a ee ee 


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CNH LSVa 


IWAXX ALWId 


EAVES TROUGH 


lowest course of tiles or slates in place of a 
proper feather-edged Eaves Board. 

EAVES TROUGH. Properly, a trough or 
boxlike gutter of metal or wood, attached to, 
or immediately under, the eaves, to receive the 
roof water and convey it to the spouts or lead- 
ers. Hence, any gutter so situated. 

EBONIZE (y.). To finish, as wood, so as to 
imitate ebony; to stain black. 

EBOR, JOHN DE; ecclesiastic and archi- 
tect. 

John de Ebor, abbot of Fountains Abbey 
(England), began the erection of the abbey 
church in 1209. 

Britton, Architectural Antiquities. 

ECCLESIOLOGY. The study of church 
services, church building, and of the arts and 
practices which pertain to these. 

ECHAUGUETTE. A turret, watch tower, 
or other place, provided for guards or watch- 
men; usually, in medieval fortifications, cor- 
belled out from a curtain wall or from a salient 
angle, and dominating the battlements, either 
open or with a roof. Hence, in modern usage, 
an angle turret springing from a corbel or cul 
de lampe, as in many late Gothic and early 
Renaissance houses in France and Germany. 


EAVES OF A HOUSE IN SARAGOSSA, SPAIN. 


The corbels carry bolsters which support the plate, which 
carries a course of horizontal timbers partly concealed by 
a parallel soffit. The rafters receive no support at their 
ends, beyond the slight steadying effect of the boxing. 


ECHEA ; ECHEIA (ny y«ia) (pl.; not known 
to be used in singular). In Greco-Roman 
archeology, one of a number of bronze or 
earthen vases which, according to Vitruvius 
(V., 5, and an allusion, I., 1), were commonly 
set in cells under the seats of a theatre to reén- 
force the voices of actors and chorus by their 
supposed sonorous properties. The theatre at 

845 


ECLECTICISM 


Aizani in Asia Minor has chambers correspond- 
ing with Vitruvius’s rules, but there is no sign 
of vases and no explanation of the purpose of 
the chambers. (See Durm, Die Baukunst der 
Griechen, in the Darmstadt Handbuch.) 

ECHINUS. A. The circular, cushionlike 
member intermediate between the square abacus 
above and the necking or top of the'shaft below, 
in capitals of the Doric, and hence, a similar 
member in other orders. In the Greek Doric, 
its profile varies from a very convex almost 
hyperbolic curve (Corinth, Selinus) to a nearly 
conical form (Portico of Philip, Delos); in the 
best examples (e.g. Parthenon) it is an extremely 
subtle curve. The Roman echinus is an ovolo 
in section ; in some cases carved with the egg 
and dart; so also in modern and Renaissance 
examples. The Ionic capital also has an echi- 
nus, partly hidden by the volutes ; this is inva- 
riably carved with the egg and dart, both in 
Greek and Roman, as well as modern, examples. 

The word is sometimes inaccurately used 
to signify an ovolo moulding, and even the egg 
and dart ornament. — A. D. F. H. 

ECHO. A sound repeated by reflection from 
some obstructing surface. It is akin to rever- 
beration and residual sound, but the term may, 
to advantage, be reserved for the distinct repe- 
titions of the original sound that occur when 
the reflecting surface is at a considerable dis- 
tance from the source and from the auditor. 
When there are two or more large, reflecting 
surfaces, and the path of the sound is such that 
it is reflected several times, passing the auditor 
and giving rise to several repetitions of the 
original sound, it is known as a multiple echo. 

There are a number of remarkable echoes, 
both architectural and natural, giving many dis- 
tinct repetitions. Contrary to a statement fre- 
quently made, based on imperfect attempts, an 
exact copy of the architectural conditions will 
result in an exactly similar echo. It is a perfect 
and unvarying result of the conditions imposed. 

—W.C.S. 

ECLECTICISM. In modern architectural 
design, the theory and practice of those who 
advocate the free use of principles, forms, and 
details chosen from all the historical styles. 

The consistent and logical growth of the his- 
torical styles of architecture was possible only 
through the concentrated efforts of an intelligent 
race of builders — working up to an ideal, con- 
stantly advancing, yet accepted and definite. 
But modern architects, confused by the enor- 
mous mass of precedent placed at their disposal 
by the art of the photographer, and by knowl- 
edge of the various conditions affecting the 
growth of the styles, which has been revealed 
to them by modern investigation, can have no 
ideal of universal acceptance, upon which to 
unite in profitable emulation, but must have 
many ideals often conflicting and inharmonious. 

846 


EHCLECTICISM 


This serious dilemma, in which the modern 
architect seems to be baffled by the extent and 
precision of his knowledge, has created many 
schools at variance as to the best use to be 
made of this rich inheritance. Some have 
agreed upon the theory that the only architec- 
ture capable of progress is one based upon the 
reconciliation of decoration with construction, 
especially as illustrated by the practice of the 
lay builders of the Middle Ages, and have con- 
sequently created what is known in England and 
America as the Gothic Revival. Others have 
ardently claimed that the only way of ade- 
quately expressing modern conditions of living 
in terms of architecture-was by the recrudes- 
cence of the style which had its rise among the 
most civilized nations of antiquity, which was 
forgotten in the Dark Ages, which was revived 
with the revival of learning, and has since ac- 
companied and illustrated all the civilizations 
since the fifteenth century. These are the 
classicists, who consider that there is no virtue 
save in the application of classic formule to 
modern art. Another class, without serious 
convictions, have been content to practise in 
the style in which they find they can express 
their ideas with the greatest fluency. Others, 
called the eclectics, proposing to meet the ever- 
varying conditions of modern use, materials, and 
methods with as little embarrassment as possi- 
ble from strong predilections for any style, have 
considered that their whole inheritance of archi- 
tectural form— Greek, Roman, Romanesque, 
Moresque, Medizeval, and Renaissance, with all 
their innumerable variants— was equally at 
their service, to be drawn upon without prejudice 
or reserve, according to its present applicability. 
Their belief has been that arbitrary exclusions 
or inclusions in the use of precedents are not 
only narrow and irrational, but fruitless, because 
contrary to the scientific spirit; that the style 
of our time cannot be forced in any direction 
by theory, but must necessarily be subject to 
the same conditions of evolution as our lan- 
guage, and that the hope of modern architecture 
must rest upon a similar basis; that, as the 
long succession of modern fashionable revivals 
of old styles has apparently produced no lasting 
results, we should use all that has come to us 
from the past without arbitrary exclusions, as it 
may be applicable to the expression of our needs 
and minds, thus enlarging our resources of form, 
—our vocabulary, — and trusting that, accord- 
ing to the laws of evolution, only those forms 
which are fit and proper, practically and zestheti- 
cally, will survive in the new environments, and 
become permanent and available features of 
modern style. In other words, they believe 
that true progress is possible, not by working up 
to any one ideal, chosen from the past by what- 
ever process of selection, but by letting a new, 
broader, and far more prolific ideal develop and 
847 


EFFLORESCENCE 


establish itself gradually from a large and 
liberal system of experiment with precedent. 
(See Design, II.) — H. Van Brunv. 

ECOLE DE MEDECINE. In French, a 
medical school; especially one such in Paris, 
a national institution, south of the Seine, in- 
cluding some buildings of our own time, and of 
great interest as specimens of modern designing 
adapted to the requirements of the edifice. 

ECOLE DES BEAUX ARTS. In French, 
a school of fine arts, especially the national 


establishment which occupies buildings on the - 


south bank of the Seine in Paris. Architectu- 
rally, these buildings are not very important, 
though there are facades of different epochs 
from the reign of Louis XVIII. to the reign of 
Napoleon III. (For the school as an educa- 
tional influence, see Architect, The, in France ; 
and School of Architecture.) 

ECPHORA. The projection, as of one part 
beyond another, used by Vitruvius (IIT., Chap. 
III.) in a special sense, as of the projection of 
the base beyond the shaft. | 

EDELIN (EDELINUS) ; abbot and archi- 
tect. 

Edelin was abbot of the monastery of Weis- 
senburg (Hlsass, Germany) from 1262 to 1293. 
He rebuilt the church of his abbey, which still 
exists. He built also a refectory, and established 
subterranean furnaces to warm his monastery. 

Gérard, Les artistes de l’ Alsace. 

EDGE BUTT HINGE. (Same as Butt 
Hinge, under Hinge.) | 

EDGING. The operation of trimming the 


edges, that is, the narrow, upper or lower 


faces of rafters, joists, or ribs to a required 
plane or surface, whether by cutting down or 
furring out ; called also Ranging (cf. Backing). 

EDUCATION OF THE ARCHITECT. 
(See Architect, The, in England; in France ; 
in Italy ; Fellowship; School of Architecture ; 
Societies of Architects.) 

EFFLORESCENCE. A whitish powder, 
formed by slow chemical process, on the surface 
of various substances. The white alkaline 
efflorescence upon brickwork, and to a less 
extent on stone, laid up with the natural 
hydraulic cements, not only produces an un- 
sightly appearance, but it promotes the disin- 
tegration of the surface. The material is in 
some cases a nitrate or carbonate of potash, 
more frequently a carbonate or sulphate of soda. 
If removed, it usually forms again in a short 
time. No absolute remedy for it is known. 
General Gillmore’s experiments indicate the use 
of eight to twelve pounds of any fatty sub- 
stance, thoroughly mixed with one hundred 
pounds of quicklime, which is then slaked and 
incorporated with the mortar made from each 
barrel of natural cement. The cements carry- 
ing aluminate of calcium are the most alterable. 

— W. R. Hutton. 
848 


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EGG AND ANCHOR 


As this efflorescence destroys the effect of 
decorative painting, various devices have been 
used to prevent its passing through the work. 
The only effective one seems to be, covering the 
wall surface, either of the brickwork or of the 
plastering, with tinfoil or some other impervi- 
ous film, as is often done in New York. The 
painted walls of the House of the Faun (which 
see) were covered with sheets of lead before the 
painting was done (see Mau’s Pompeii), and 
this may have been done to stop the efflores- 
cence. — R. 8. 

EGG AND ANCHOR; EGG ANDDART ; 
EGG AND TONGUE. An ornament applied 
to a convex rounded moulding, and consisting 
of a series of peru sunitaly oval projecting 
rounded surfaces of small 
size, each one surrounded 
by a groove and a raised 
rim, between which rims 
are inserted, one between 
every pair of the “eggs” 
with their enclosing ridges, a sharp-pointed 
mémber calculated to contrast in the most 
forcible way with the soft rounded surfaces be- 
tween which it is set. This pointed member is 
called dart, or anchor, or tongue, according to 
its shape, and the name of the ornament is 
sometimes varied accordingly. Ornaments of 
this kind are found in Greek buildings of the 
Ionic style, dating from a time as early as the 
fourth century B.c. It-is there varied from the 
plainest nearly egg-shaped rounds with mere 
ridges following their contour, and others as 
simple taking the place of the ‘“‘ darts” between, 
to a much more elaborate design in which the 
eggs are turned into leaves with midrib strongly 
marked, and the darts between modified in a 
like direction. They are also, even in the 
Erechtheion on the Acropolis, varied in size and 
placing, from the chief ornament of the cap 
moulding and several inches in height, to one of 
many horizontal parallel bands, each as small as 
allows of effective working of the ornament in 
marble. The ornament was taken as the single 
decoration of the Roman Doric capital; the 
ovolo so decorated is the chief characteristic of 
this order. — R. S. 

EGINHARD ; abbot and architect. 

Eginhard was director of the constructions of 
the Emperor Charlemagne (b. about 742; d. 
814). He is supposed to have made the plan 
of the monastery of S. Gall (Switzerland), which 
is still preserved in the archives of the suppressed 
monastery. 

Lenoir, Architecture Monastique. 

EGINTON, FRANCIS ; glass painter. 

EKginton is called the reviver of glass painting 
in England in the eighteenth century. About 
fifty of his works are known. In 1794 he 
restored the great western window of Magdalen 
College, Oxford. He executed Sir Joshua 

849 


Ecce AND DART 
'  MovuLpina. 


EGYPT 


Reynolds’s Resurrection window at Salisbury 
Cathedral. 

Redgrave, Dictionary of Artists. 

EGL, ANDREAS ; architect. 

Bishop Leon Dundorfer laid the first stone 
of the cathedral of Ratisbon (Regensburg, Ger- 
many) in 1275. The chronicles mention as 
architects of the building Andreas Egl, Hein- 
rich Zehnter, Heinrich Durnstetter, Friedrich 
Speiset, and Thomas Roritzer. 

Biilau, Les Trois ages de V architecture gothique. 

EGLE, JOSEPH VON; architect ; b. Nov. 
23, 1818; d. March 5, 1899. 

He was educated at the polytechnic schools of 
Stuttgart, Nuremberg, and Vienna, and attended 
(1839-1841) the Academy of Architecture in 
Berlin. In 1847 and 1848 he served as the 
correspondent of the Allgemeine Bauzeitung in 
North Germany, England, and Italy. He was 
made professor at the polytechnic school in 
Stuttgart in 1850, in 1857 was appointed 
Hofbaumeister, and in 1884 Hofbaudirector 
in Wiirtemberg (Germany). He built the 
Polytechnikum (1860-1865), remodelled the 
royal palace (1864-1867), built the Gothic 
Marienkirche and the new Catholic church, all 
in Stuttgart (Germany). 

Nekrologie in Kunstchronik, March 6, 1899. 

EGYPT, ARCHITECTURE OF. The 
most ancient works of monumental architecture 
are found in Egypt. At some unknown period 
— probably not less than five thousand years 
B.C. — Egypt appears to have been overrun by 
an Asiatic race bringing with them a material 
civilization already well developed, but of whose 
formative stages no vestige has yet been found. 
They founded in their new home a government 
which lasted until the Persian conquest by Cam- 
byses in. 525 B.c., under successive dynasties 
which have been found to correspond substan- 
tially with the thirty enumerated in the lists 
of Manetho (the last four of these being the 
Persian and three others coexistent with it). 
These dynasties form the basis of ancient Egyp- 
tian chronology. The oldest monuments are 
the royal tombs of the early dynasties, chief 
among them the pyramids, which were the 
work mainly of the 4th—6th dynasties. These 
prove the existence, forty centuries B.c., of a 
highly developed mechanical skill, of the use 
of metal, of a considerable knowledge of mathe- 
matics and natural science, and of an organized 
despotism. The territory occupied by this 
people was confined to the narrow valley of the 
Nile ; which, except at the broad lowlands of 
the Delta, is hemmed in between rugged cliffs, 
at once isolating and protecting the empire. 
Early Egyptian art was thus almost untouched 
by foreign influences, but in later ages conquest 
and commerce carried its products to distant 
shores, where they powerfully affected the nas- 
cent arts of all the Mediterranean countries. 

850 


HGYPT 


The history of Egyptian architecture falls 
naturally into three main divisions— the Ancient 
or Pagan, the Christian, and the Moslem. The 
Christian or Coptic period covers the centuries 
from the third to the seventh a.p.; the Pagan 
precedes, the Moslem follows it. 

The Ancient or Pagan Period. This is 
customarily subdivided into the periods of 
(a) the Ancient or Mephite Empire (ten dynas- 
ties, circa 4500-3000 B.c.); (6) the Middle 
Empire, 1 1th—13th dynasties, reigning at Thebes 
from 3000-2100 B.c.; (c) the New Empire (or 
Second Theban), 18th—20th dynasties from 1700 
to 1100 B.c.—the grand age of art and con- 
quest ; (d) the Decadence or Saitic period, 
21st—26th dynasties at Sais, Tanis, and Bubas- 
tis; and (e) the Revival or Ptolemaic period, 
323 B.c. to third century A.D., comprising the 
Macedonian and Roman dominion. The second 
and third of these periods are separated by the 
unproductive epoch of the Hyksos or Shepherd 
Kings — a rude invading race, perhaps Hittites. 
In the Decadence is included another sterile 
epoch, that of the Persian rule. 

Each of these periods has its distinguishing 
architectural character. The extant works of 
the Ancient Empire are almost exclusively sepul- 
chral ; it was the age of pyramids and mastabas. 
In the Middle Empire the earliest of the non- 
sepulchral temples appear, and rock-cut tombs 
take the place of mastabas. The New Empire 
was the Great Age of Egyptian art; a period 
of extraordinary activity in war, commerce, and 
architecture, when rulers of consummate ability 
made illustrious the names of Thothmes, Ameno- 
phis, Seti, and Rameses by covering the land with 
stupendous temples and palaces, and excavated 
those extraordinary tunnel-tombs to which the 
Greeks gave the name of syrinx or pipe. The 
decline was marked by little else than weak 
imitations of earlier achievements; but with 
the Macedonian conquest there came a remark- 
able recrudescence of artistic productivity, to 
which we owe several of the best preserved 
temples in Egypt. 

The Ancient Empire has left us little in the 
way of decorative architecture ; but the struc- 
tural skill displayed in the pyramids and masta- 
bas, and their fine workmanship, raise them 
out of the category of mere building into that of 
architecture. Of the pyramids, — nearly one 
hundred in number between Abu-Roash and 
Meydiim, all of them royal tombs, accompanied 
originally each by its own sepulchral chapel or 
temple, — six are conspicuous for size or pecul- 
iar construction. That at Sakkarah, measuring 
400 by 357 feet on the ground and 190 feet in 
height, is built in steps; while that at Mey- 
dim, belonging to the 3d, or beginning of the 
4th, dynasty, is formed of successive envelopes 
around a steep core standing on a broad base. 
The Dashour pyramid has two slopes, the lower 

851 


HGYPT } 
part being steeper than the upper. The three 
largest at Ghizeh, erected, respectively, by 
Khufu, Khafra, and Menkhaura, of the 4th 
dynasty, are the best known, and the first 
two the largest in Egypt. That of Khufu 
(‘‘Cheops ”) has a base of 764 feet square, and 
was originally 482 feet high ; that of Khafra a 
(‘“‘Chephren”) is 454 feet high on a base of 
717 feet; while the third (of Menkhaura, or 2 
“Mycerinus”) is both steeper and smaller, “= 
being 213 feet high and 253 feet square. a 
Each was originally revetted with polished “i 
granite, and that of Menkhaura still retains a | a 
considerable portion of this casing. The cham- 
bers and passages of all the pyramids have been 
explored in recent years, most of them having 
been, indeed, rifled long ago by the Arabs. Ex- 
act measurements and careful exploration have  — 
proved the sepulchral purpose of the pyramids, a 
and disposed finally of all fantastic theories as 
to their origin and significance. They were : 
carefully oriented, and the first two at Ghizeh 
so proportioned that the perimeter of the base 
closely approximates the circumference of a cir- 


cle having the altitude of the pyramid for its = 
radius. The workmanship is uneven; someof — 
it is marvellous in accuracy and finish, while oan 


other portions are hastily and _ indifferently 
executed. . 

The mastabas were tombs of oblong plan 
with sloping sides and flat roofs, and contained 
a variety of chambers and passages, of which 
some were designed solely to mislead intending ‘g 
desecrators of the tomb. ‘There were in all a 
cases a chapel for funeral offerings; a serdab, 
or secret cell, for images of the defunct, by 
which the ka, or shadowy double of the soul, 
might preserve its identity of existence until 
released from the tomb to enter the underworld = 
of the Sun of Night ; and a well, or shaft, for a 
the mummy. The greatest of these mastabas ; 
is that known as the Mastabat-el-Faraoun. 

The only temples of this period so far dis- 
covered are remains of a few of the pyramid 
chapels, of which the most important is the 
so-called: Sphinx Temple, belonging to the 
Khafra pyramid. It is T-shaped in plan, with 
massive walls, and aisles separated by plain 
square monolithic piers, once sustaining a roof 
of stone lintels, and is accompanied by various ~ 
accessory chambers and a mummy well. 

Middle Empire. The remains of this pe- 
riod are less imposing, but full of interest for 
their architectural forms. Fragments of a tem- 
ple at Bubastis show the clustered lotus col- 
umn, common also in the rock tombs of the a 
period, and derived probably from prehistoric | 
wooden prototypes. The rock tombs were 
chiefly cut in the west bank of the Nile; the 


most interesting are those of Beni-Hassan, 
adorned with open porches of rock-hewn col- - 
umns and an antechamber, or chapel, besides = 


852 


PLATE XXX 


EGYPT, ARCHITECTURE OF 

Egyptian mural architecture, as con- 
trasted with that which is mainly columnar, is 
well represented by this gateway. 


Karnak, among the ruins of ancient Thebes. painted. 
Pylon of the time of Ramses II, covered with 
concavo-convex reliefs which were once elaborately 


ia ee eee 
ee Pee lit eh : 


=F 


UL aha Se 


the serdab tunnels and mummy cell, burrowing 
deep into the cliff. Some of the columns are 
quatrefoiled in plan, of the clustered lotus type ; 
others, called proto-Doric from their superficial 
resemblance to the Greek Doric order, are plain 
polygonal piers with eight, sixteen, or more sides 
and a square abacus. There are also, at Aby- 
dos, a few structural tombs in the form of steep 
brick pyramids, each with a well-marked portal, 
but otherwise uninteresting. In all these vari- 
ous tombs, as also in those of the Ancient Em- 
pire, paintings and painted ornament, intended 
for the sole delectation of the ka, display great 
decorative skill and well-developed powers of 
artistic delineation, hedged and limited by hie- 
ratic traditions and fixed processes. 

New Empire. The most impressive of 
Egyptian monuments aside from the pyramids 
are the temples of the New Empire, especially 
of the 18th and 19th dynasties. During this 
remarkable period of conquest and of archi- 
tectural activity, successive monarchs laboured 
in the erection of a series of temples of a size 
and splendour previously unattempted, and of 
the most extraordinary massiveness and solidity 
of construction. Some of these were sepulchral 
temples, though not adjacent to the royal tombs ; 
such was the Amenopheum, of which there 
remain only two colossal portal statues on 
the Theban plain-— one-of them the famous 
‘vocal Memnon” of antiquity. Such was the 
magnificent mausoleum of Queen Hatasu, at 
Deir-el-Bahari ; the Ramesseum, near by to the 
southwest ; and the temple of Rameses III., at 
Medinet Abu. These did not differ essentially 
in plan from other temples, varying only in 
scale and details. The general type, repre- 
sented on a colossal scale by the temples of 
Karnak and Luxor, persisted unchanged through 
the whole history of ancient Egyptian art. Its 
~ most remarkable exemplifications under the New 
Empire were the Ramesseum, the temples of 
Medinet Abu, Abydos, and Gurneh, the little 
temple of Khonsu at Karnak, and the colossal 
temples of Luxor and Karnak. The latter, the 
most colossal of religious edifices, was begun 
during the Middle Empire by Usurtesen III., 
and continued by succeeding dynasties till the 
time of Evergetes II. of the Ptolemies. It is 
too complicated and peculiar in some of its ar- 
rangements to serve as an absolute type, but 
conforms substantially to the general scheme in 
spite of these peculiarities. 

The essentials of this type were a sanctuary, 
or sekos, the first portion to be built, and the 
smallest, lowest, and darkest part of the whole, 
comprising a small chamber with a number of 
accessory rooms, cells, and passages for the 
priests ; a hypostyle, or columnar hall, usually 
open at the front, and architecturally the most 
elaborate feature of the temple; and one or 
more forecourts, each preceded by a gateway 

853 


i hi el “+i as 


EGYPT 


flanked by pylons. These last were truncated 
pyramidal masses capped by flaring cornices, 
decorated externally with masts for banners, 
with obelisks, and with colossal seated statues, 
and often, also, with huge pictures incised and 
painted, recording the great deeds of the royal 
builder. A plain, unpierced stone wall sur- 
rounded the whole, and sometimes a second 
wall of brick, enclosing a larger area. The en- 
trance through these walls was by pylon-flanked 
gateways, the approach to which was an avenue 
bordered on either hand by colossal sphinxes. 
The courts were adorned on one or more sides 
by colonnades, and served to hold the crowds 
who were not privileged to enter the hypostyle 
hall; only the king and higher priests were ad- 
mitted to the sekos. The court, hall, and sekos 
were the essential features of the plan, and can 
be recognized in the rock-cut temples of Abu 
Simbel and in the tiny temple at Dandour (Nu- 
bia), as well as in the half-structural, half-cave 
temples at Deir-el-Bahari, Gherf Hossein, etc. 

In the structural temples the arch was ignored ; 
the wall, pier, or column, and lintel were the 
only structural elements admitted, and the 
lintels were all of stone. The columns were 
not monolithic, but built up of many pieces, and 
were often of colossal size. There were no 
“orders” ; but, in spite of great variety in details, 
the columns are easily divisible into a few 
general types, such as the single and the clus- 
tered lotus-bud, the campaniform, the palm- 
capped, and the Hathor-headed. The lintels 
were invariably plain, and the only cornice was 
the flaring cavetto-cornice, with sometimes a 
cresting of wre? or serpents. No mouldings 
were used except a kind of torus, and carved 
architectural ornament can hardly be said to 
have existed except in the capitals of the columns, 
flutings on the cavetto-cornice, and the winged 
globe or disk over each gateway. Decoration 
was effected chiefly by paintings, either symbolic 
or pictorial, with incised outlines or forms in 
low relief, and by a decorative use of hiero- 
glyphics. Conventional ornament was chiefly 
confined to the industrial arts, or to the adorn- 
ment of tomb interiors ; it was largely based on 
lotus forms ; but other flowers as well as the pa- 
pyrus and purely conventional forms figure in it, 
treated usually with great decorative propriety. 

This solemn and massive architecture is 
marked by the qualities of simplicity, repose, 
grandeur of scale, and a certain sublimity of 
general effect. Even in ruins the temples of 
Karnak, Luxor, Abydos, Medinet Abu, and the 
Ramesseum, produce an extraordinary impression 
of majesty and grandeur. 

Ptolemaic Period. The later temples, 
erected during the Ptolemaic and Roman rule, 
rival those of the Great Age in splendour, and a 
few of them, as at Phils, are temple groups of 
the first magnitude. The splendour-loving Mace- 

854 


HGYPT 


donian rulers revived Egyptian architecture with 
no admixture of Greek details, but with great 
richness in the capitals and applied decoration. 
An innovation characteristic of the period was 
the insertion of screen walls between the columns 
of the front row of the hypostyle hall, as at 
Edfu, Denderah, and Philz. The simple lotus- 
bud column was generally abandoned for those 
with floral or palm capitals, or quadruple Ha- 
thoric masks, and the pictures and hieroglyphics 
were disposed on the walls with more regard to 
scale and decorative effect than formerly. The 
temples of Denderah (time of Cleopatra) and of 
Edfu are especially well preserved examples from 
this period, but the most imposing and pictu- 
resque group is that on the island of Philz near 


the second cataract, with a temple of Isis, long 


and ornate colonnades, and two small peripteral 
temples, one dating from the time of Nectanebo, 
the other Ptolemaic. At Esneh, Dakkeh, 
Kalabshé, and Kardassy (Gher-tashi) are others 
of less importance in the same general style. 

Besides temples of the common type there 
were also numerous small temples or shrines 
entirely open externally, and others built with 
piers or columns around a small chamber for 
special religious or ceremonial purposes, e.g. the 
mammeisi, supposed to serve for the rites 
attending childbirth. Besides the two at Phil 
mentioned above, there are other examples at 
Edfu, Elephantine, and Medinet Abu. Of 
secular, military, and domestic architecture 
there are few remains of importance: at Medi- 
net Abu the ruins of a pavilion of Amenophis 
III. ; at Semneh in Nubia, of an ancient fortress 
of the time of Usurtesen III.; and scattered 
remains of granaries, forts, and other buildings. 
Pictures and reliefs in tombs and temples indi- 
cate the frequent use of wood for houses, and a 
style of domestic architecture very simple and 
unostentatious externally. 

The Coptic Period. The majestic temple 
architecture of Egypt expired during the Roman 
dominion, and Egypt fell into decay, from which 
it did not revive until the Arab conquest in 638 
A.D. During this long period of atrophy the 
only architectural activity was that of the Coptic 
Christians, who covered the country with 
churches and convents during the fourth, fifth, 
and sixth centuries of our era. The Copts, 
whose name is a corruption of the Greek word 
for Egypt, remain to this day as a survival of 
the higher castes of the ancient Egyptians, as 
the fellahin do of the ancient serfs. Having 
espoused with fervour the Monophysite heresy, 
they were intensely hostile to Byzantine influ- 
ences of every kind, and worked out a style of 
their own which completely ignored alike the 
ancient Egyptian traditions of form and the con- 
temporary Byzantine practice, but profoundly 
influenced the art of the conquering Arabs in 
later centuries. The sweeping destruction of 

855 


oy at Ye ! , 
these early churches and monasteries by the 


Moslems has left us only scanty traces of this 
architecture ; but it was probably fairly repre- 


sented in the earliest mosques, like that of Amru > 


at Cairo, since these were built by Copts, pre- 
sumably in their own prevailing style. The 
plan of the early churches, like that of these 
mosques, was suggested by the forecourt and 
hypostyle hall of the great temples, and com- 
prised an atrium surrounded by arcades and a 


hall beyond, in which arcades likewise replaced 


the colonnades of the temples. The ceilings 
were of wood, the buildings low and insignifi- 
cant. A small sanctuary at the centre of the 
farther side of the hall was vaulted or domed, 
and the arches were generally pointed. These 
early pointed arches the Copts introduced into 
the mosques which they built for the Arab 
conquerors, where they served as a type for the 
arches of all the later Moslem buildings. In 
other words, it is to the Copts that architecture 
owes the earliest systematic introduction of the 


pointed arch, though reinvented later by the 


medizeval church builders of the West. 

The later Coptic churches, including nearly all 
those now extant, were basilican in plan, three- 
aisled, with a domical sanctuary, and galleries, 
small in size and sadly wanting in architectural 
beauty ; their internal effect is further injured by 
the transverse screens which divide the men from 
the women, and they possess little decorative 
detail of interest. It required the wealth and 
power of the conquerors to bring into full play, 
in the mosques, the artistic capabilities of the 
Copts, especially in the decorative treatment of 
surfaces. 

The Mohammedan Period. The general 
history and principles of Mohammedan architec- 
ture are given under that title; the present notice 
is concerned with those features and monuments 
peculiar to Cairo. 
and the neighbourhood, contains practically all 
that is important in Egyptian Moslem archi- 
tecture. 

This style was, for several centuries after the 
conquest by Amru, in 638 A.D., in reality but a 


variant of the Coptic. All the mosques erected 


previous to the Baharite Sultans (1250) were 
alike in general plan, having a courtyard sur- 
rounded on three sides by single or double ar- 
cades (liwans), and with the fountain of ablutions 
(hanefiyeh) in the centre. The fourth side was 
closed by the mosque proper, the prayer-room or 
maksourah, a low hall consisting of several 
transverse aisles separated by arcades on piers 
or columns, open at the front to the court, and 
provided on the farther side —always to the 
eastward — with one or more niches (mihrab), 
indicating the kibleh or direction of Mecca, 
toward which every Moslem prays. The whole 
edifice, including the court, was often surrounded 
by a second or exterior circuit wall, pierced by 
856 


For Cairo, including Fostat — 


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HO AWALOALIHOUV ‘LdADA 


~[09 YF [[VY Joyjoue 0} Surpve] AVMIOOp JoYIAVI oy} UW9eS SI o[pprut oy} UT AVA 


IXXX ALVId 


one or more gates. 


EGYPT 


Such were the mosques of 
Amru (642), of whose original structure hardly 
a trace remains, though its plan survives in the 
present ruinous mosque of that name; of Ibn 
Iuldn (876), in which the Coptic architect dis- 
pensed with columns by the use of brick piers 
with engaged shafts moulded at the corners ; the 
Gama-el-Azhar (969), by the Moghrebi (Moor- 


ish) conqueror, El-Moezz, now a university ; the 


mosque erected by his grandson, El-Hakim ; the 
Gama’n-Noureh (996), and others of later date. 
In all of these the Coptic pointed arch was used ; 
the ceilings were of wood, richly painted ; in- 
scriptions in Cufic characters formed borders and 
friezes in the sumptuous wall decoration of in- 
crusted marble inlay ; and geometric interlacings, 
polygonal and star panellings, and a peculiar form 
of running scroll characterized the ornamentation 
of the interiors. Some of the mosques were of 
great size; the court of Ibu Tuliin is 300 feet 
square. Under the Fatimite dynasty of El 
Moezz (969) the vault and dome first begin to 
appear in mosques and tombs by Coptic archi- 
tects, influenced no doubt. by Byzantine models 
in other parts of the Moslem world, or by Per- 
sian buildings which have not survived to our 
time. The dome was long confined to sepulchral 
buildings ; it was at first given an ovoid section, 
which became pointed under the Baharite Sul- 
tans ; and was erected upon a square plan by 


‘means, not of spherical pendentives, but of a com- 


plex system of corbels and niches of stalactite 
work. ‘These domes were richly carved exter- 
nally, and are the earliest examples of the dome 
used as an external decorative feature. Inter- 
nally, the preoccupation of the Coptic architect 
was to produce an impression, overhead, of mys- 
tery and gloom, rather than of space and breadth ; 
the upper part of the dome was dark, its deco- 
ration intricate and perplexing. In this period 
the minaret also came into use, and during the 
next three centuries was developed into an archi- 
tectural feature of great elegance. Square or 
octagonal in plan, built in two or three dimin- 
ishing stages, marked by external galleries, car- 
ried on rich stalactite corbelling, it was made 
highly ornate in every part. 

All these tendencies were emphasized under 
the Ayfb dynasty (1160-1250) and the Mame- 
luke Sultans of the Baharite (1250-1376) and 
Borgite (1376-1517) lines: a period which co- 
incides closely with that of the Gothic styles in 
Western Europe, and is characterized by a simi- 
lar progression in the direction of lightness, lof- 
tiness, splendour of decoration, and elaboration 
of plan. Many of the mosques, like the great 
monasteries of Christendom, comprised whole 
groups of buildings for hospitals, schools, and 
similar purposes, and a still larger number in- 
clude the founder’s tomb or turbeh. The dome 
was at first confined to the sepulchral chamber, 
but was later used also over the prayer room. 

857 


EGYPT 


Stalactite decoration became more elaborate, 
star panelling more involved, the minarets more 
slender and ornate. The entrance doorway was 
enclosed in a lofty rectangle extending to or above 
the top of the exterior wall and chiefly occupied 
by a colossal stalactite-headed niche bordered 
by arabesques. The hospital-mosque or Maris- 
tan of Kalafin dates from 1284-1305; that of 
El Medany, from 1332; of Sultan Hassan, with 
four barrel-vaulted chambers opening upon the 
court or sahn, like the arms of a cross, to form 
the liwans and sanctuary, with the Sultan’s dom- 
ical tomb beyond the latter (1379). Other im- 
portant mosques are E] Barkik (by the founder 
of the Borgite line), with two domical turbeh 
(tombs) at the ends of the wooden-roofed sanc- 
tuary (1384); El Muayyad (1412); the tomb- 
mosque of Kaid Bey in the Karafah (1470- 
1480), one of the richest of all those in Cairo 
in its internal as well as external decoration, its 
pavements, and its minaret. Another mosque 
by the same Sultan near Ibn Tultin is on a simi- 
lar plan, but now very ruinous. The last of the 
Mamelukes, Ghouri, also built a mosque which 
bears his name and is one of the last of the purely 
Arab mosques (circa 1513). In 1517 Egypt be- 
came a Turkish province under Selim I., and the 
later mosques are generally in the Turkish style, 
based on Byzantine precedents, e.g. Sinan Pasha 
mosque in the Bulak suburb (1571), with broad 
low dome on octagonal drum, and a domical- 
vaulted vestibule enclosing three sides of the 
sanctuary like that of S. Mark’s at Venice. The 
great mosque of the usurper Mohammed Ali in 
the citadel (1815-1821), an imitation of the 
Yeni Djami at Constantinople, though uninter- 
esting in detail, is internally impressive by its 
spaciousness, loftiness, and lavish use of ala- 
baster and painted tiles. 

In general the Egyptian Moslem architecture 
is important rather on the decorative than on 
the structural side, although it presents in its 
domes, minarets, and stalactites, and in the in- 
terlocking voussoirs of many of its arches, much 
structural ingenuity and skill. It is most suc- 
cessful, however, in the masterly use of intricate 
and perplexing geometrical combinations, ex- 
pressed in strong colours, covering interior and 
exterior alike with elaborate ornament so com- 
posed and distributed as not in any way to de- 
stroy the larger lines and effects of the building. 
Stained glass, set in patterns perforated in hard 
plaster, was used with excellent effect in win- 
dows of moderate size ; rich marble was employed 
in pavements and on walls in various forms of 
mosaic and inlay; and the mambars or high 
pulpits next the mihrab, the doors, the mosque 
lanterns, and other accessories were extremely 
well designed and well executed. 

Of the great medieval palaces of Cairo there 
is little or nothing left, though the accounts of 
them in the Arab histories read like fables in the 

858 


EGYPTIAN BRECCIA 


descriptions of their splendour and extent. The 
modern houses are picturesque, built usually 
with a central court on which opens a large re- 
ception hall with a diw4n (divan) on one side, 
while the other three give access to the various 
living rooms. The meshrebeeyeh or projecting 
oriel windows, enclosed by lattice screens of 
turned work, which occupy a large part of the 
upper stories of the street fronts, are elaborate 
and beautiful features of the street architecture. 
(See Moslem Architecture; Mosque.) 

For ancient Egyptian architecture consult Per- 
rot and Chipiez, History of Ancient Art in Egypt 
(the French original should be used, if practicable), 
and the various works of Maspéro, especially his 
Archéologie Egyptienne, a small book well trans- 
lated by Miss Edwards, with additional notes. All 
the works of Mariette, Brugsch Bey (Hgypt under 
the Pharaohs —a translation by Broderick), and 
Flinders Petrie, especially his History of Egypt, 
which gives singularly well the true significance 
of the monuments; also the plates of Jomard’s 
Description de Vv Egypte, Antiquités. On Coptic 
Egypt, Butler, The Coptic Churches of Egypt. On 
Egypto-Moslem architecture, Bourgoin, Les Arts 
Arabes; Franz Pasha, Die Baukunst des Islams 
(in the Darmstadt Handbuch der Architektur) ; 
Gayet, L’ Art Arabe; Prisse d’Avennes, L’ Art 
Arabe ; Texier, Monuments Arabes du Caire. The 
magnificent plates of Prisse d’Avennes (Art Egyp- 
tien and Art Arabe) are of undisputed excellence, 
but the text has never been completely developed 


into a treatise. —A.D. F. HaMLIN. 


EGYPTIAN BRECCIA. Sameas Egyptian 
Breccia Marble, under Marble. 

EIGTVED, NIKOLAI; architect; b. June 
22, 1701; d. June 7, 1754. 

Eigtved began as a gardener in Germany. In 
1729 he served in the Saxon army as lieuten- 
ant of engineers. In 1732 he was sent by 
Christian VI. of Denmark (d. 1746), to study 
architecture in Italy. On his return he was 
made court architect, inspector of the Academy 
at Copenhagen (1745), and finally director of 
the Academy (1751). He built the palace of 
the crown prince (1745), the four palaces of the 
Amalienborg place, the old Royal Theatre, the 
palaces of Christianborg, Fredensborg, Sophien- 
berg, and Bregentved. Higtved began the 
‘‘Marble Church” at Copenhagen, which was 
continued by Nicolas Henry Jardin (see Jardin, 
Weyl): 

Weilbach, Nyt Dansk Kunstner lexicon ; Neckel- 
mann, Renaissance in Danemark : Blatter fiir Ar- 
chitek und Kunsthandwerk, 1895. 

BINHART ; architect, painter, sculptor, and 
statesman. 

He came to the school of the monastery of 
Fulda in Germany in his youth, and was later 
attached to the court of Charlemagne (b. 742 ; 
d. 814) as general superintendent of the impe- 
rial buildings. He built the palace at Aix-la- 
Chapelle (Aachen), Germany, of which the chapel 
remains and has given its name to the town. 

R. Dohme, Hinhart in Dohme Series. 

859 


o< rag fe eS 


2 at: sa 


a . 
>. vik ‘ ; 
en eee ay 
i oe Py. UP tls Wine 
; Wt Ee i ‘e 


ELZIOTHESIUM. An anointing room in 
a bathing establishment (Vitruvius, V., 11). 
(See Unctorium.) = ae 

EL-AKSA. 


and yet it appears that much of the struc- 
ture is Byzantine, and it is thought that this 
work belonged to a basilica built by Jus- 
tinian. a 
ELASTICITY. A. The power possessed — 
by solid bodies of regaining their form after 
deformation which has not been so great as to 
overpass their limit of elasticity. When an 
ivory ball rebounds after falling on a hard sur- 
face it is because the ball seeks to regain its 
perfectly spherical shape, and the surface, as of 
a billiard table, also seeks to return from the 
compression which it has undergone under the 
blow. Ivory has much elasticity, marble some- 
what less; many stones are very elastic, those 
which are the hardest, the most so as a general 
thing ; but wood is of limited elasticity, and a 
bar of it is rather easily bent in such a way that 
it will remain bent, different woods differing 
greatly in this respect. On the other hand it 
has some, and notable instances of this may be 
named; thus, two heavy beams of hard pine 
supported a floor of artificial stone, and when 
the material of the flooring was still wet, yielded 
under its weight nearly 2¢ inches in the mid- 
dle ; but returned to an apparently perfect level 
as the floor dried, thus lifting the whole weight 
of this floor by their elasticity. Iron beams. 
have much elasticity, as is evident from the 
peculiar vibration which a floor composed of 
them so frequently undergoes. 

B. By extension, and inaccurately, flexi- 
bility or the power of adapting itself to irregu- 
lar pressures and strains, said of a building 
or part of a building. It is customary to say 
of the Gothic construction, that it is elastic ; by 
which is meant that it is capable of yielding 
a little without showing dangerous cracks, or 
without risking its solidity and permanence. 
There is also conveyed in this descriptive term 
an idea of that resistance of force by force which 
is peculiar to Gothic building. In this, the 
thrust of one arch is taken up or neutralized 
by the thrust of another arch, and so on until 
the last arch of a series thrusts against a flying 
buttress, which transmits the thrust finally to a 
solid and passive mass of masonry, the outer 
buttress, or to the foundations or the ground. 
In Roman Imperial and some other arcuated 
styles, there is little of this neutralization of 
one active force by another, but all arches have 
their thrust taken up by solid masses of masonry. 

—R. 5S. 
860 


(In Arabic, “The Far” orm 
“The Distant,” probably referring to its mark- 
ing a remote part of what was then the Mo- 
hammedan empire.) A mosque at Jerusalem; 
it is thought to be the oldest Mohammedan ~~ 
place of worship next to the one at Mecca; — 


ELASTIC LIMIT 


ELASTIC LIMIT. The limit of stress up 
to which the material takes no permanent de- 
formation, or from which, being stretched or 
bent, it returns to its original form when the 
stress is removed. —W. R. H. 

ELBOW (I.). An appliance upon which 
the elbow, as of a sitting person, may rest ; an 
arm rest of a choir stall or pew. 

ELBOW (II.). In general, any relatively 
small piece or part of a structure bent or 
formed to an angle, as a pipe, an angle formed 
by two surfaces, or the like. Specifically : — 

A. In English usage, (1) a short return or 
sharp angular change of direction for a short 
distance, in a wall, as for a recess ; (2) in join- 
ery, that portion of the jamb of a recessed 
window between the floor and bottom of the 
shutter boxing. 

B. A piece of pipe formed either by a curve 
or by a mitre joint to connect two sections of 
pipe at an angle. 

The ear or projecting portion of a cros- 
sette to a door—or window —architrave. 
(Rare.) — R. S. 

ELBOW BOARD; RAIL. A board or 
strip forming the inner sill of a window trim, 
or secured to a wall or screen at about the 
height of an arm rest. 
_ ELEANOR CROSS. 
Eleanor.) 

ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES. The fix- 
tures and appointments necessary to electrical 
work in buildings, or which are used when 
needed. After the article Wiring, the other 
terms are arranged alphabetically. (See also, 
under their different headings, Candle Power ; 
Lightning Rod ; and the general terms Annun- 
ciator ; Elevator; Lighting ; Warming.) 


(See Cross of Queen 


ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES 


1. Wiring. 27. Junction Box. 
2. Alarm. 28. Magnet. 
3. Arc Lamp. 29. Meter, Electric. 
4. Attachment Plug. 30. Moulding. 
5. Battery. 31. Netting for Arc 
6. Bell. Globes. 
7. Burglar Alarm. 32. Pump, Electric. 
8. Buzzer. 33. Push Button. 
9. Circuit. 34. Rosette, or Ceiling 
10. Circuit Breaker. Block. 
11. Cleat. 35. Shell, Electric Light 
12. Clock, Electric. Fixture. 
13. Conduit. 36. Socket, Incandescent 
14. Cut-out, Fusible. Lamp. 
15. Door Opener. 37. Spark Arrester. 
16. Drip Loops. 38. Storage Battery. 
17. Dynamo. 39. Switch. 
18. Extension Bell. 40. Switch Board. 
19. Fixture, Combina- 41. Telephone. 
tion. 42. Temperature Regu- 
20. Flexible Cord. lator. 
21. Gas Lighting. 43. Thermostat. 
22. Hanger Board. 44. Transformer. 


Vapor-tight Globe. 

Voltaic Cell. 

Watchman’s Regis- 
ter. 


23. Incandescent Lamp. 45. 
24. Insulating Joint. 46. 
25. Insulating Tubes. 47, 
26. Insulator. 


ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES 


1. Wiring. Considered broadly, the electric 
wiring in a building is the system of conductors 
and auxiliary appliances provided for the con- 
duction and control of the electric current, so 
that it may be properly carried from the gen- 
erating plant to the lamps, motors, or other 
appliances where the electrical energy is used. 

Copper is used for the conductors because it 
has the least. resistance of any of the cheaper 
metals. It has a certain amount of resistance, 
however, depending upon the size of the wire, 
and it is necessary with all installations to take 
into account the strength of the currents in the 
different parts of the system and the distances 
the currents have to travel, so that neither the 
energy required to force the currents through 
the wires, nor the cost of the copper, will be 
excessive. The loss of energy in the wiring is 
serious, not only on the score of economy, but on 
account of the effect on the electrical pressure. 
When lights are operated on the multiple sys- 
tem (see Lighting, Electric), the pressure should 
be approximately the same at the terminals of 
each lamp; but when energy is used in over- 
coming the resistance of the wires, a part of the 
pressure is thus lost, and the lamps give less 
light. Where the wiring is carelessly calcu- 
lated, it may happen that lamps in different 
parts of the system will be giving widely dif- 
ferent amounts of light. 

Besides providing conducting paths for the 
current, these paths must be insulated, so that 
the electricity will not leak back by side paths. 
where it will not be useful. Plaster, brick- 
work, and damp material of many kinds, as 
well as metals, offer fairly good paths for the 
current, so that it is necessary to support the 
conducting wires on porcelain or glass, which 
are nearly perfect insulators, or else cover the 
wire with a substantial rubber insulating cover- 
ing, and then run the covered+wire in tubes for 
protection. All wires in buildings have an in- 
sulating covering, out this is not depended upon 
exclusively unless it is protected from abrasion. 

Since an electric current in passing through 
a short air space causes an electric arc with its 
intense heat, and since electric currents too 
large for the conductors carrying them often 
produce a great amount of heat, it is necessary 
to take precautions so that this heating will 
not occur accidentally and set fire to surround- 
ing material. Much attention has been given 
to the question of safe electrical construction, 
and experience has developed methods now 
clearly appreciated and followed by all compe- 
tent workmen. The rules for safe wiring are 
laid down in detail in what is known as the 
National Electrical Code. This code of rules 
has had a gradual growth. Beginning with 
comparatively few requirements, it has been 
amended and enlarged as the experience of the 
electric companies and the insurance companies 

862 


i Ye > Vel ie 


ve 


ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES 


has brought out more clearly the precautions — 


that are necessary for good and safe service. In 
its present form, the code has been approved and 
adopted by the American Institute of Architects, 
American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Amer- 
ican Society of Mechanical Engineers, American 
Street Railway Association, Factory Mutual Fire 
Insurance Companies, National Association of 
Fire Engineers, National Board of Fire Under- 
writers, National Electric Light Association, 
and Underwriters’ National Electric Association. 

The principles underlying good wiring con- 
struction are simple, but their application to all 
conditions leads to great detail. In general, the 
rules have been designed to prevent destructive 
arcs and excessive current, to keep the effects of 
these accidents local if they happen, and to 
make it easy to repair defects. 

All wiring for incandescent lighting, and con- 
sequently much the greater part of the wiring 
in buildings, is for use with the low pressure 
multiple system. With this system, service 
wires enter the building from the generating 
plant, mains are connected to these service wires, 
branches run from the mains, and taps to the 
lamps run from the branches. Wherever the 


size of wire changes, cut-outs containing fusible © 


strips of metal are inserted, and these strips 
melt and break the circuit if the current be- 
comes too large for the wire to carry safely. 
Switches can be inserted at any parts of the 
‘system to cut out a small or large number of 
lamps or other appliances. The wires may be 
run on non-combustible insulators, or, if not in 
concealed spaces, may be run in moulding. 
Where wiring is concealed, much the _ best 
method is to run the wires in conduit. For 
this, the building is first fitted with a system of 
tubes or pipes, now commonly made of wrought 
iron. These tubes are laid under the plaster, 


and lead the service wires to the mains, the 


mains to the branches, the branches to the taps, 
and thence to the lamps, and wherever wires 
are to be connected to other wires, a junction 
box is provided. The insulated wires are drawn 
through these tubes, and the necessary connec- 
tions made. The tubes are not depended upon 
for insulation, but are simply raceways for the 
wires, protecting their insulating covering from 
injury, and affording a confined channel through 
which a wire may, at any time, be withdrawn 
and replaced by another. 

With electric bell circuits and others of this 
class operated with low electric pressures, the 
highest grade of electrical construction is not a 
necessity, but good construction assures so much 
better service that even with this class of work 
the standard of wiring construction is becoming 
very much like the better grade of electric light 
wiring. 

2. Alarm. <A device operated by electricity 
that attracts attention upon the occurrence of 

863 


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fi Ce a ee | 
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” ‘ 


ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES 
certain events or conditions. 
given by the presence of a person at some defi- 


ay 
4 


- 


An alarm can be © 


mies = 


nite place, the opening of a door or window,a 


change in the temperature of a room, or, in fact, 
any event or condition that can cause two con- 


ductors of electricity either to come together or 


to separate, or that can cause appropriate move- 
ment between a magnet and a coil of wire. An 


alarm system ordinarily consists essentially of an 
electric bell which sounds the alarm, a battery 


or other source of electric current supply, and 
devices at the points where events or conditions 
occur that either close or open the electric cir- 
cuit, and set the alarm in operation. The various 
parts of the system are connected by insulated 
wires run in the walls, or in grooves in the 
floors. Alarm systems differ in detail and com- 
plexity according to the uses to which they are 
put. (See below, Bell; Burglar Alarm.) 

3. Are Lamp. An electric lamp making 
use of the fact that an electric current passing 
through a small space between two conductors, 
such as carbon pencils, causes extremely intense 
light, which is in the form of an are between 
the conductors. Intense heat is also generated, 


and the conductors are gradually consumed. — 
For many reasons, carbon pencils are always 


the conductors used, and they are placed in the 
lamp vertically, point to point. If the carbon 


points come together, the light is extinguished; — % 


and if the points burn away and leave a, wide 
space, the arc becomes ‘‘flaming,” and is de- 


structive to the carbons and parts of the lamp. 
The mechanism of the lamp consequently has 
for its object the maintaining of the are at a 
proper length for the best result. The lamp 


consists of the mechanism for this regulation, | 


carbons held point to point by clamps, a glass 
globe surrounding the light, and a metal frame 
supporting the parts. Double carbon lamps 
have two sets of carbons, and the mechanism 
is such that when one set of carbons has become 
too short for further use, the other set is auto- 
matically connected into the circuit. 

4. Attachment Plug. An appliance to be 
inserted into an incandescent electric lamp socket 
in place of a lamp, or in a special socket flush 
with the wall, and so arranged that flexible con- 
ductors may be attached. Attachment plugs 
are used when it is wished to provide a portable 
lamp or other movable appliance. The portable 
lamp or other movable appliance is attached to a 
flexible cord of sufficient length, and the other 
end of the cord is connected to the attachment 
plug, which is inserted in any convenient wall 
or fixture socket. 

5. Battery. A group of independent sources 
of electricity so connected that they act together 
with cumulative effect. The term as used ordi- 
narily refers to a group of voltaic cells. A 
single cell is commonly but incorrectly spoken 
of as a battery. 

864 


ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES 


- Batteries of voltaic cells are the usual sources 
of electric currents for bells, alarms, and other 
similar household appliances. (See Voltaic Cell, 
below.) 

6. Bell. Electric bell systems consist of 
the bell, a battery which furnishes the electric 
current, push buttons or other devices for closing 
the circuit, and insulated wires connecting the 
different parts of the system. Where a bell 
may be rung from several different places, an 
annunciator is used to indicate the place from 
which a signal has come. An electric bell is 
sounded by the striking of a clapper actuated 
by an electro-magnet or by mechanism set in 
operation by a magnet. In the ordinary form, 
where the clapper has the characteristic rapid 
vibration, the armature of the magnet is arranged 
so that it will open and close the electric circuit. 
A light spring tends to keep the armature away 
from the magnet, but the magnet, when the 
current is passing, is strong enough to move 
the armature. The armature closes the circuit 
when it is away from the magnet and opens the 
circuit when it approaches the magnet, so that it 
is subjected alternately to the pull of the magnet 
and the pull of the spring. ~The armature and 
the attached clapper thus maintain a continuous 
vibration as long as any push button keeps the 
cireuit active. When it is wished to have less 
sound than a bell gives, the bell proper is 
omitted and the clapper or magnet armature 
simply vibrates rapidly, giving a buzzing sound 
that can be somewhat increased by making the en- 
closing case resonant. This arrangement is called 
a buzzer. The electric bell system in large build- 
ings, such as hotels, is often elaborate. With 
the return call system there is a bell in each 
room, in addition to the general bell in the office, 
for instance, so that from either a room or the 
office a response to a signal may be returned. 
An appliance is also provided by means of which 
the bells in all the rooms may be sounded in case 
of fire. Special arrangements can be made in 
the mechanism of the signalling apparatus and 
the annunciator that make it possible to send a 
number of different signals, as in the so-called 
“teleseme” system. Electric bells are some- 
times operated by clockwork mechanism, the 
electric current, in connection with an electro- 
magnet, serving simply to release a catch and 
thus allow the clockwork to sound the bell. 
This method is used with gongs where a con- 
siderable amount of power is required. 

7. Burglar Alarm. An electric alarm that 
is sounded when a window is raised or a 
drawer or door is opened, or when a person 
walks over certain parts of floor or stairways. 
As with ordinary electric alarms, the burglar 
alarm system consists essentially of an electric 
bell, a battery, devices for closing the electric 
circuit, and insulated electric wires connecting 
the different parts.. The devices at windows, 

865 


ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES 


doors, etc., consist of metal contact-pieces that 
are held apart when the window or door is closed. 
If the door or window is opened slightly the 
contact-pieces come together, close the electric 
circuit, and cause the ringing of the bell. The 
contact-pieces may be arranged to allow the 
opening of windows at the top or a little at 
the bottom, for ventilation. On floors or on 
stairways mats are used in which there are 
contact-pieces that are brought together by the 
weight of a person. The alarm bell may be 
placed in a room in the building, or may be 
in a distant building, such as a police station. 
Usually the circuit closed by the contact-pieces 
operates so that the battery becomes directly 
connected to the bell and rings it continuously 
till disconnected by a switch at the bell, even 
though a window or door that has been opened 
is closed again. In connection with the bell is 
an annunciator which indicates the point from 
which the alarm signal has come. The appa- 
ratus is also usually supplied with arrangements 
by which the whole system, or any parts, may 
be cut out of service, and often there is also a 
clock that can be set to cut out the whole 
system, or any part, for any length of time, 
beginning at any hour. 


8. Buzzer. (See Bell, under Electrical Ap- 
pliances, 6.) 
9. Circuit. The loop of conducting material 


forming the path for an electric current. Electric 
currents as ordinarily dealt with move only *n 
closed loops. The circuit is broken and the 
current stopped when the continuity of this 
loop is broken at any point. 

10. Circuit Breaker. The name given to 
a number of different appliances, all of which, 
in one way or another, make a break in an 
electric circuit or maintain a break. The term 
is most commonly applied to a piece of appa- 
ratus that is virtually an automatic switch. 
In its normal position, metal pieces are held 


in contact and the current flows uninterruptedly 


through the breaker. When the current rises 
beyond a predetermined strength an electro- 
magnet attracts its armature, which releases a 
catch, and a spring or weight is then free to 
force the metal pieces apart and thus interrupt 
the circuit. 

11. Cleat. A short strip of insulating ma- 
terial (usually porcelain) employed in fasten- 
ing electric wires to ceilings or walls. A cleat 
is made ordinarily of two parts, one serving to 
keep the wire away from the ceiling or wall, and 
the other serving as a binding strip. The wire 
is clamped between them and held firmly when 
screws are run through both parts into the ceil- 
ing or other support. 

12. Clock. A clock that is either wound, 
operated, or simply controlled by electricity. 
Electric clocks consist ordinarily of only the 
face and hands and a small amount of mechan- 

866 


ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES 


ism by which the hands may be advanced each 
minute by the passage of a momentary electric 
current. Such clocks are controlled by a master 
clock in an observatory or other place where it 
can be kept correct. Each minute an electric 
contact is made and a momentary electric cur- 
rent passes through wires to each of a number 
of clocks, where small electro-magnets cause the 
hands to move in accordance with the correct 
master clock. 

13. Conduit. Tubing provided for the en- 
closure of electric wires. Conduit, in build- 
ings, is usually spoken of as interior conduit. 
It is sometimes of insulating material, some- 
times of bare metal, and sometimes of metal 
lined with insulating material. Where wires 
are run in conduit the tubes compose a general 
system which is completed before the wires are 
drawn in. (See Wiring, above.) 

14. Cut-out, Fusible. An electric protec- 
tive device employing a wire or strip of fusi- 
ble metal which is melted by the passage of 
excessive current and the circuit thus inter- 
rupted. The wire or strip of fusible metal is 
commonly called a fuse. The complete cut-out 
consists ordinarily of a small porcelain box in 
which there are brass connection pieces for the 
attachment of the circuit wires and the fuses. 
The connections are arranged so that the current 
passes through the fusible strip when the strip 
is intact, and the melting of the strip thus 
introduces a break in the circuit. 

15. Door Opener. A device for moving 
the latch of a door from a distance by means 
of electricity. The ordinary form consists of a 
latch specially made for this purpose containing 
a bolt moved by an electro-magnet. Wires 
from the magnet lead to the place or places 
from which the door is to be opened, and push 
buttons at these places close the electric cir- 
cuit and allow a battery to send a current round 
the coils of the magnet. 

16. Drip Loop. A loop made in an electric 
wire at the point where it enters a building. 
The wire is bent down so that the lowest part 
of the loop will be below the point of entrance 
to the building, and accumulated moisture will 
then drip from the wire instead of running into 
the hole through which the wire enters. Mois- 
ture about the wire where it touches other sub- 
stances makes leakage of the current more 
probable. 

17. Dynamo. A machine for transforming 
mechanical energy into electrical energy, or 
electrical energy into mechanical energy. A 
machine that receives mechanical energy at its 
pulley and delivers electrical energy is called 
a generator ; one that receives electrical energy 
and delivers mechanical energy at its pulley is 
called a motor. The generator depends for its 
action upon the fact that when a wire is moved 
past a magnet pole an electric pressure is set 

867 


oo af i il m4 Te RSE ce Sie ' = ey ' oe 


ELECTRICAL APPLI 


~ 


up in the wire, and this results in a currentif 
e 


the wire is in the form of a closed loop. The 


motor depends for its action on the fact that if 
a current of electricity is forced through a wire 
that is near a magnet the wire will tend to 


ANCES 


move either toward or away from the magnet — a 


according to the direction of the current. 
Dynamo-electric machines are constructed so 
that strong magnets are brought into suitable 


relation with coils of wire, and arrangements 


are provided in generators for collecting the 
electricity appropriately, or in motors for lead- 
ing the current into the coils properly. The 


two classes of machines are almost identical, — 


and many may be used either as generators or 
as motors. 

18. Hatension Bell. A secondary electric 
bell arranged to repeat at a distance a signal 
that is also sounded at the principal bell. Ex- 


tension bells are often attached to telephones = 


so that a call will be sounded, not only at the 
telephone, but also in some other room in the 
building. 


19. Fixture, Combination. A gas fixture 


so made that either gaslight or electric light  __ s 


or both may be used. The gas pipe is sur- 
rounded by a casing, and the space between 
the two is sufficient to admit the electric wires. 

20. Flexible Cord. An insulated electric 
conductor made of a number of very small cop- 
per wires wound loosely together. 
of these insulated conductors are twisted to- 
gether, forming a pair of conductors that can 
be treated like a cord and used conveniently 
for pendant lamps and for lamps or other elec- 
tric appliances that are to be moved about. 

21. Gas Lighting. The ignition of gas jets 
by means of electricity. This is accomplished 
by making small electric sparks occur in the 
escaping gas. In theatres or other buildings 
where a large number of jets are to be lighted 
simultaneously, a fine wire runs from a fric- 
tional electric machine or induction coil through 
each of a group of jets and back again to the 
machine or coil. The wire is not continuous, 
but is broken at each jet, and the electricity in 
order to pass must spark through a small air 
space. The gas is turned, on before the elec- 
tricity and is consequently ignited when the 
spark occurs. Except where a number of jets 
are lighted simultaneously, the sparks are usu- 
ally caused by breaking an electric current that 
passes through a coil of wire wound many times 
about a bundle of iron wires. Such a coil 
causes a sudden impulse of electric pressure at 
the moment the circuit is broken, and the spark 
thus formed is much more intense than that 
formed upon the breaking of an ordinary cir- 
cuit. When gas is to be thus lighted electrically, 
the gas fixtures are provided with special fittings 
at the jets for forming the sparks at the proper 
time and place. Sometimes the gas is turned 

868 


Usually two | 


ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES 


on independently, and a pendant is then pulled 

which causes a lever to rise and make and 
break an electric contact just above the aperture 
from which the gas issues. Usually the fit- 
tings are arranged so that a pull on a pendant 
turns on the gas and then causes the spark. 
The second pull turns off the gas. Gas may 
be turned on and lighted from a distance by 
the pressing of a button, but in this case the 
mechanism at the jet is more complicated. The 
electric current which flows when the button 
is pressed causes the armature of an electro- 
magnet to move a lever which in turn opens a 
gas cock or valve. At the same time a suc- 
cession of sparks is formed. The circuit is so 
arranged that when a second button is pressed 
the armature of a magnet causes the gas to be 
shut off and the light extinguished. The two 
buttons are sometimes side by side, but may 
be widely separated; as, for instance, one at 
the top of a stairway and the other at the 
bottom. The lighting button is always white, 
and the extinguishing button black. Electric 
gas lighting arrangements are connected together 
into a general system, one battery and one spark 
coil being provided for the whole. Insulated 
wires are run to each gas jet, and if electric 
light wires are on the same fixture the gas 
lighting wires have the same quality of insula- 
tion as the electric light wires. 

22. Hanger Board. ‘The slab of insulating 
material from which an electric are lamp is 
hung. The board is fastened to the ceiling, 
and usually has mounted on it connection blocks 
for the wires and a switch by means of which 
the current may be cut off from the lamp. 

23. Incandescent Lamp. (See Lighting, 
Electric.) 

24. Insulating Joint. A joint used in 
attaching a combination fixture to the gas 
piping system of the building. The insulating 
joint isolates a fixture electrically by preventing 
connection between fixtures through the metallic 
piping. When these joints are used, if an elec- 
tric wire on one fixture comes in contact with 
the metallic part no trouble is caused unless the 
other wire of the circuit also comes in contact 
with the same fixture, while, without the insu- 
lating joint, if one contact were made there 
would be liability of trouble at any weak place 
in the insulation of the other wire, in any part 
of the wiring system. 

25. Insulating Tube. <A tube made of insu- 
lating material (usually porcelain, glass, or pot- 
tery) used to protect insulated wires from 
abrasion, and to provide effectual insulation 
where the wires pass through walls, floors, par- 
titions, etc. The tubes have a flange on one 
end to prevent their slipping through holes. 

26. Insulator. A non-conducting support 
for electric wires. Insulators are usually made 
in the form of blocks or knobs, and are now 

869 


ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES 


almost always made of glass or porcelain, for 
they must be substantial, should not absorb 
moisture, and should not be affected by heat. 

27. Junction Bow. <A box, usually of iron, 
that is used with the conduit system of electric 
wiring where branches are taken from the main 
wiring. The conduit tubes end at these boxes, 
and it is here that wires are inserted and joined 
to the system of wiring. 

28. Magnet. In practice, a piece of iron 
or steel that attracts other pieces of iron or 
steel, and that is itself attracted or repelled by 
another magnet or by a current of electricity 
passing in an appropriate direction. A piece of 
steel once made a magnet becomes a permanent 
magnet. <A piece of iron or steel may be made 
magnetic by passing round it a current of elec- 
tricity, and metal surrounded by a coil of wire 
through which a current of electricity may be 
passed is called an electro-magnet. If the core 
or surrounded substance is soft iron, which is 
only temporarily magnetized, the magnet may 
be made strong or weak according to the strength 
of the current sent through the coil. The arma- 
ture of a magnet is a piece of iron placed near 
one or both ends of the core where it will be 
strongly influenced by the attractive force. The 
power of the magnet is made available by attach- 
ing the armature to the mechanism to be oper- 
ated. Magnets are extensively employed in the 
various electrical appliances used in buildings. 

29. Meter, Electric. An instrument for 
measuring an electrical quantity such as cur- 
rent, pressure, or energy. <A recording watt 
meter or recording watt-hour meter is the 
instrument placed in buildings for measuring 
and recording the amount of electrical energy 
used. The energy is equal to the product of 
the current, the pressure causing this current, 
and the time during which the current flows. 
In one form of meter a predetermined propor- 
tion of the current is made to deposit metal 
from a chemical solution, and the energy is 
computed from the quantity of metal deposited. 
Other forms are similar in appearance to a gas 
meter. A drum is caused to revolve whenever 
current is used, and it revolves at a speed pro- 
portional to the product of the pressure and the 
current. The time it continues to revolve of 
course depends upon the time the current. is 
being used. The drum movesa train of light 
gears, and indices show the energy consumption 
as a gas meter shows the consumption of gas. 

30. Moulding. A strip of wood nailed to 
a ceiling or wall and arranged to conceal elec- 
tric wires and enclose them so that the insula- 
tion will not be abraded. The moulding is 
composed of two parts, a backing which has 
grooves in which the wire is run, and a capping 
which is nailed on after the wires are placed. 

31. Netting for Arc Light Globes. A 
coarsely woven wire netting that is placed 

870 


Ve Ye. EM gen haa ee ae OS 
5 , ay { 2% 


ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES 


about an are light globe to hold the pieces in 
place in case of breakage. 

32. Pump, Electric. A pump operated by 
means of electrical energy. The pump proper 
is an ordinary power pump, and to this is at- 
tached, either by a belt or by direct coupling, 
an electric motor which furnishes the power. 
The facility with which electric motors are 
started and stopped, the small amount of atten- 
tion they demand, and the possibility of draw- 
ing the energy from a central station make the 
electric pump very desirable in many places. 

33. Push Button. A device for opening or 
closing an electric circuit, consisting of two con- 
tact-pieces of metal connected to the wires of 
the circuit, and a small button which is nor- 
mally held outward by a spring. This button 
can be pushed inward by the finger to bring 
the contact-pieces together and thus close the 
circuit, or in special cases to separate the contact- 
pieces and open the circuit. 

34. Rosette, or Ceiling Block. A small 
circular block, usually of porcelain, that is used 
where a pendant incandescent electric lamp is 
connected to the wiring. It contains brass con- 
tact-pieces for the convenient connection of the 
lighting wires and the conductors running to 
the lamp. When fuses are also provided it is 
usually called a ceiling cut-out or fusible rosette. 

35. Shell, Electric Light Fixture. A cup- 
shaped piece of thin metal that is placed about 
the fixture where it is attached to the ceiling or 
wall. This shell covers the joints, and the 
wires that are led to the fixture. 

36. Socket, Incandescent Lamp. <A brass 
receptacle into which the incandescent lamp is 
fastened. Electric wires are brought into the 
socket and attached to terminal pieces so arranged 
that when the lamp is fastened in the socket, each 
end of the lamp filament is in electrical connec- 
tion with one of the two wires of the circuit. 
In a key socket a small switch makes or breaks 
the electric cireuit and thus turns the lamp on 
or off. 

37. Spark Arrester. A screen usually 
made of finely woven wire that is placed about 
an electric arc lamp so as entirely to enclose 
the arc and prevent the escape of the small 
sparks coming from the carbons. 

38. Storage Battery. <A battery composed 
of electro-chemical cells that are put in active 
condition when an electric current is passed 
through them. When the electric current is 
passed through the cells there is a chemical 
change, the electric energy being thus stored as 
chemical energy. Upon disconnecting the dy- 
namo-electric machine or other source of 
electricity, the chemical condition of the cell 
tends to become as it was originally, and if the 
wires from the cell be attached to lamps or other 
receiving apparatus a current of electricity will 
fiow, the stored chemical energy being trans- 

871 


| formed back to electrical energy. 


ELECTRICAL APPLIAN CE 


‘Sto 
batteries are used to a considerable extent = 
places where a generating plant would not be ; ice 
admissible, as in electric launches or electric car-— 
riages. 
with generating plants, for their use makes it 
possible to run the engines and generators at 
their maximum efficiency for a part of the day, 
the battery furnishing current while the gener- 
ators are shut down. a 
39. Switch. A device for shifting an electric a A 


current from one circuit to another, or for mak- __ 
° . ° . ° e434.) =e 

ing or breaking connection with a to 1a ’ 
Switches are of various forms according to the 


service for which they are designed. A jack- 
knife switch has copper blades that are hinged — 

so that they can be thrown into and held bys 
spring clips when the circuit is to be made, or 


pulled out of the clips when the circuit is to be 2 . a 
A snap switch is a small switch ordi- 


broken. 


narily used to control a few lights. With the — 


common form the handle turns round in one 


direction, a half turn making contact with the 
circuit and the next half turn breaking the cir- 
cuit. <A stiff spring snaps the contacts into 


place so that they cannot be left halfway. A 
flush switch is one made to set into the wall so. 


that the face will be flush with the surface of © 
the wall. 
the current from the lamp to a metallic connec- | 


tion taking the place of the lamp, for as series arc _ Mg | 
lamps are connected the circuit must not be 


broken. A service switch is a switch placed at 
the point where the wires enter the building, — 
and by means of it all connection with the in- 
terior wiring may be cut off. 


40. Switch Board. The board, slab, or u 


frame on which are mounted the controlling ‘and 3 
a 


regulating appliances of an electric plant. 
41. Telephone. An instrument for repro-— 
ducing sound at a distance. In the electric 
telephone the sound moves a diaphragm in the 
sending instrument, which is so constructed that 
waves of electric current are produced corre- 
sponding to the pitch and intensity of the sound. 
At the receiving instrument, which is connected 
to the sending instrument, or transmitter, by 
wires, the waves of current pass round a small elec- 
tro-magnet which attracts a soft iron diaphragm 
in accordance with the frequency and strength 
of the waves and consequently in accordance 
with the pitch and intensity of the sound acting — 
at the sending instrument. The vibrating dia- 
phragm sets up sound waves that produce the 
counterpart of the original sound. To facilitate 
intercourse by means of telephones the instru- 
ments in different buildings are connected by 
wires to a central office, where an operator can 
connect any two lines together. Signals to 
attract attention are produced ordinarily by a 
small dynamo-electric machine placed at each 
instrument and operated by hand. Where the 
872 


They are largely used in connection a 


A series arc light switch simply shifts _ a ¢ 


— oe ee 
‘ 


ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES 


distances are very short the ordinary electric 
bell and push button are often used. Formerly 
it was the common practice to use the earth in 
place of a return wire — only one wire being run 
from the central office to each instrument. The 
telephone, however, is so susceptible to minute 
currents of electricity that as other applications 
of electricity became common it became necessary 
to employ with the telephone a complete metallic 
circuit thoroughly insulated so as to be free from 
stray foreign currents. An independent line 
instrument is one that has a complete line of 
its own running to the central office. An ordi- 
nary party line is common to several instruments, 
and all signals and communications can be heard 
at all instruments on theline. With theselective 
signal party line any instrument selects the sig- 
nals intended for it but responds to no other. 
With these selective signals there is sometimes 


also used a lock-out device that cuts out of com- 


munication entirely all telephones on the party 
line except the one designated by the operator 
at the central office. The so-called speaking 
tube system for use in a single building or group 
of buildings is a small exchange system that 
requires no operator. From each telephone 
there is a line to every other telephone, and the 
proper connection is made at the sending instru- 
ment by the person speaking. 

42. Temperature Regulator. Apparatus 
for automatically opening or closing dampers in 
furnaces, or otherwise regulating heat supply 
according to the temperature of the place sup- 
plied. A thermostat is set to make an electric 
contact when the temperature arises slightly 
above normal or falls a little below normal. 
The electric circuits are arranged so that when 
the temperature is above normal the contact 
will cause a current of electricity to operate a 
piece of mechanism that closes a damper or 
otherwise causes the heat supply to diminish. 
When the temperature falls below the normal 
the action is reversed. 

43. Thermostat. A device actuated by 
changes in temperature and designed to perform 
some action such as opening a valve or closing 
an electric circuit when a certain temperature 
isreached. Thermostats are used in temperature 
regulation and in automatic fire-alarm systems. 
They are virtually the same in principle as 
thermometers, but they act instead of simply 
indicating. They sometimes consist of the ordi- 
nary column of mercury with an electric wire 
running into the bottom of the tube and touch- 
ing the mercury, while at the top of the tube is 
the other wire of the electric circuit. When 
the mercury rises to a point corresponding to 
a certain temperature, contact is made with the 
upper wire and an electric current can flow and 
perform any action desired. Another form con- 
sists of two strips of substances that expand 
unequally when heated. The strips are placed 

873 


ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES 


side by side and joined together so that the bar 
thus formed curves one way or the other with 
changes in temperature. ‘The movement of the 
bar can be made use of to make or break an 
electric circuit, or to move valves that allow 
compressed air to actuate mechanism. 

44. Transformer. An electric appliance 
used in connection with what is called the 
alternating current system, for changing the 
pressure at which electrical energy is delivered. 
Electrical energy is the product of the current 
and the pressure that produces this current, so 
that the same amount of energy may be repre- 
sented either by a high pressure and small cur- 
rent or by a low pressure and large current. 
It is more economical to transmit energy at a 
high pressure because the current is then small. 
Energy at low pressure is safer and more con- 
venient to use. With the alternating current 
system energy is transmitted at a high pressure, 
and at the building where current is to be used 
a transformer is employed to transform the 
energy so that the pressure may be low and 
the current correspondingly greater. 

45. Vapor-tight Globe. A glass globe 
that fits tightly over an incandescent lamp bulb 
and socket, and excludes moisture or corroding 
gases. 

46. Voltaic Cell. An arrangement of suit- 
able metals or other substances in an appropriate 
liquid or electrolyte, by means of which chemical 
energy is transformed into electrical energy. 
Voltaic cells are used in buildings to furnish 
the electricity for the operation of electric 
alarms, bells, etc. There is a great variety of 
cells, the difference being due to attempts to 
improve the effectiveness, the economy of opera- 
tion, the constancy, or the convenience. The 
general principle is indicated by the simple 
combination of a vessel of dilute sulphuric acid 
containing a piece of zinc and a piece of copper 
separated by the liquid. If the two metals are 
joined outside the liquid by a wire, a current 
of electricity will flow. At the same time the 
zine gradually goes into solution in the acid 
and the acid is decomposed, hydrogen being 
given off at the surface of the copper. This 
chemical action ceases when the wire is discon- 
nected, (See Battery, Electrical Appliances, 4.) 

47. Watchman’s Register. <A piece of 
apparatus for recording the hours at which a 
watchman visits different stations in his rounds. 
The system consists of a recording instrument 
or register, a battery for furnishing electric 
current, connecting wires, and devices at the 
different stations which enable the watchman 
to send signals to the register. The station 
devices consist sometimes of simple push but- 
tons, but they often can be operated only by a 
key that the watchman carries. The register 
is moved by clockwork, a diagram usually re- 
volving like the hands of a clock. When a 

874 


ELEVATION 


signal is sent from any station in a building a 
distinctive mark is made on the diagram so that 
the time the station is visited is recorded. 

— RussELy Ross. 

ELEVATION. A drawing which represents 
a vertical right line projection of anything, 
especially the exterior of a building or part of 
a building, on one side, or any part thereof. 
Cf. Ground Plan, under Plan; Plan ; Section. 

ELEVATOR. A. A car or platform to 
convey persons or articles up or down to the 
various floors of a building. It may be raised 
and lowered by hand, steam, hydraulic, pneu- 
matic, or electrical power, or by the force of 
gravity acting on weights. An elevator gener- 
ally moves vertically, but may be arranged to 
run on an incline. Small elevators for convey- 
ing dishes and other small household articles 
are commonly known as dumb-waiters, and these 
are usually operated by hand. Large hand 
elevators are commonly known as hoists or 
hand hoists. (See the term under Office Build- 
ing.) 

B. An apparatus for raising merchandise 
of any kind, such as grain in bulk ; and, by ex- 
tension and more commonly, a building contain- 
ing many grain lifters and large bins for the 
storage of the grain. (See Grain Elevator.) 

—D.N. B.S. 

Screw Elevator. One of the earliest forms 
of elevator, in which the cage is raised or de- 
pressed by the direct action of a screw. In 
later elevators the principle of the screw is 
more scientifically applied in the form of a 
worm gearing, acting on the drum of the eleva- 
tor machine. 

ELEVATOR, ELECTRIC. An elevator 
that is operated by means of an electric motor. 
With electric elevators the car; and to a certain 
extent the hoisting gear, are the same as with 
hydraulic or steam elevators. The electric 
motor simply furnishes the power, but the 
exigencies of operation usually require a spe- 
cially constructed motor and special appliances 
for starting and stopping the elevator. With 
the elementary forms of electric elevators an 
ordinary motor runs constantly and is belted to 
a shaft which in turn is belted to the elevator 
hoisting drum mechanism. By means of tight 
and loose pulleys and open and crossed belts, 
which can be shifted from the elevator platform, 
the elevator can be stopped or moved either up 
or down while the motor runs continuously in 
one direction. This form is simple to install, 
but there is waste of energy if the motor runs 
constantly, even if it is not moving the elevator, 
and it is troublesome to start the motor each 
time the elevator is to be used. Various auto- 
matic starting appliances have been devised for 
use with these belted elevators, but they are 
rapidly being superseded by the direct coupled 
electric elevator. With this, the motor is con- 

875 


Br Ng se as ide @ BR Ae itm oc we 
ik i me oe RO 
S ‘ ae 4 


an 7 
s str] 
as 7 4 


nected directly with the hoisting drum by a 
means of rigid gearing, and the motor is stopped 
or started in either direction according to the 


desired movement of the car. The usual safety 


devices are provided for the car, and brakes at ig . 


the motor act if the electric current is cut 
off or if other trouble occurs. The electric 
elevator is self-contained, and on account of its 
compactness may sometimes be installed where 
other forms would be out of the question. It 
can be operated from a central electric station, 
and in this way. often saves the considerable 
expense of operating a power generating plant 
in the building, and allows the use of an eleva- 
tor in places where a generating plant would be 
prohibitive. The energy consumed by the 
electric motor operating an electric elevator is 
proportional to the load carried, and this fact 
forms the basis for a claim of considerable sav- 
ing over the hydraulic and steam elevators. 
Electric elevators are now constructed of all 
grades, from the dumb-waiter to the passenger 
elevator running over 500 feet per minute. The 
facility with which electric energy can be con- 
trolled makes the electric elevator peculiarly 
adapted for domestic use. One form of passen- 
ger elevator designed for use in private houses 
requires no attendant, but is started up or down, 
or stopped, simply by pushing the proper but- 
ton. Thedoors to the elevator will open and 
close automatically. — RussELL Ross. 
ELGIN MARBLES. The sculptured mar- 
bles brought from Attica, by the Earl of Elgin, 
at the time that he gave up the British Embassy 
at Constantinople, about 1803. They were pur- 
chased by the nation in 1816 at a very low price 
compared with the expense incurred by Lord 
Elgin. The greater part of the collection is com- 
posed of sculptured slabs from the cella walls of 
the Parthenon, fragments of the statues from the 
pediments, and more or less broken metopes ; but 
a few pieces come from the Erechtheion and other 
buildings. The injury done the Parthenon by 
wrenching the slabs of the friezes from the walls, 
in which they had remained intact until that 
time, was so very great that the two ends of the 
building could hardly have been thought ruined 
before that time, although the centre had been 
blown out by an explosion in the seventeenth 
century. It is to be said in defence of the per- 
sons responsible for this ruin that, at the time in 
which the enterprise began, it might well have 
been thought that the sculptures remaining in 
Athens were sure to be destroyed in a few years 


by the Turkish soldiery. The establishment of ~ 


a peaceful government in Greece could not at 
that time have been anticipated. — R. 8. 

ELIAS (HELIAS) DE DERHAM Sader 

or BERHAM) ; canon of Salisbury. 

According to a manuscript quoted by elena 
(op. cit.), Elias de Derham, a canon, was the 
first architect of the cathedral of Salisbury. By 

876 


tid eee 4 as i 


+ 


_-—s« ELIZABETHAN ARCHITECTURE ELLIPSOGRAPH 


bull of Honorius III. (Pope 1216-  |qQEIIeET 
; 1227) the seat of the see a was e i i v 
a: removed from the fortress of Sarum | : Ae sui ne 
(Salisbury) to a plot of ground called a Ang 
the Merrifield, where, April 28, 1220, 
the foundations of the present building 
were laid with imposing ceremonies. 
Leland, Itinerary; Britton, Cathe- 
dral Antiquities. 

ELIZABETHAN ARCHITEC- 
TURE. That of the reign and times 
of Queen Elizabeth in England. It is 
that which grew out of the Tudor 
style mainly by means of the great 
country houses built by noblemen and 
, landholders in England, who, finding 
the country at peace, and violence 
from civil or foreign war hardly to be 
feared, began to build great mansions 
in different parts of the country, with 
gardens and parks attached. | This 
style may be considered as prevailing 
from about 1565 to Elizabeth’s death, 
in 1603; the houses of Bramshill in 
Surrey, Longleat in Wiltshire, and 


“ 


wo Ef 
Hf 


RAN 
AEN 
SOY 


ELIZABETHAN DooRWAY, GAINFORD HALL (DURHAM), 
c. 1600 A.D. 


Wollaton, Notts, may be mentioned as excellent speci- 
mens. (See England, Architecture of, and the bibli- 
ography appended to that article; also, Tudor.) There 
is no special treatise on the Elizabethan style. 

—R. S. 

ELL. Same as L. 

ELLIPSOGRAPH; ELLIPTOGRAPH. An instru- 
ment by which an ellipse of any given size may be drawn 
by continuous motion of a point, as of a lead pencil. 
One form consists of two grooves at right angles to one 

another, a separate rod having two pins, which 
me slide in the grooves, and a point for drawing 
the curve. The pins and the sliding point are 
adjustable, and can be moved along the bar. 


ELIzABETHAN ANGLE TowER, WoLLATON HALL As the pins are brought nearer together, the 
(Norts). ellipse drawn becomes more nearly a circle. 


STi" 878 


a 


vole ve 


ELMES 


A piece of string tied by its ends to two ordi- 
nary pins, which are fixed at the foci of the pro- 


posed ellipse, and a pencil which is retained by ~ 


the bight of the string, may also be used. 
—R.S5. 

ELMES, HARVEY LONSDALE ; archi- 
tect; b. Feb. 10, 1814; d. Nov. 26, 1847. 

A son of James Elmes (see Elmes, James). 
He studied architecture with his father. In 
1836, acting on the advice of B. R. Haydon, the 
painter, Elmes made designs for 8. George’s 
Hall, Liverpool (England), and was successful 
among eighty-five competitors. S. George’s Hall 
was begun in 1838, and completed after Elmes’s 
death by C. R. Cockerell (see Cockerell, C. R.). 
Elmes designed, also, the Assize Courts and Col- 
legiate Institution at Liverpool, and the county 
lunatic asylum at West Derby. 

Obituaries in Builder, Jan. 8 and Feb. 5, 1848; 
Stephen, Dictionary of National Biography. 

ELMES, JAMES; architect; b. Oct. 15, 
1782; d. April 2, 1862. 

Elmes was a pupil of George Gibson, archi- 
tect, and at the Royal Academy, where he won 
a silver medal in 1804. He was made vice 
president of the Royal Architectural Society in 
1809, and surveyor of the port of London at 
about the same time. He is best known by his 
writings, his chief work being A Practical 
Treatise on Ecclesiastical and Civil Dilapi- 
dations (3d ed., 4to, 1829). He published, 
also, Memoirs of the Life and Works of Sir 
Christopher Wren (4to, 1823, and 8vo, 1852) ; 
A Practical Treatise on Architectural Juris- 
prudence (1 vol. 8vo, 1827); ete. 

Stephen, Dictionary of National Biography ; 

Obituary notice in Builder, April 19, 1862. 

ELYAS DE DERHAM. (See Elias de 
Derham. ) 

-EBLYSHE. In Paris; properly Le Palais 
de V Elysée; built in 1718 by the architect 
Armand Claude Mollet or Molet. The building 
was originally the residence of the Comte 
d’Evreux, but was enlarged and much enriched 
in 1773, and then passed into the possession of 
the crown. In 1855 it was again much altered 
under the name of restoration ; and the cutting 
of the street through from the Faubourg S. 
Honoré to the Avenue des Champs Elysées left 
it with its garden isolated on every side. Since 
that time it has been more completely a palace 
than before, and, although it had been previously 
the residence of the first Napoleon at different 
times, and of other sovereigns and princes, it 
was established as the residence of the chief of 
the state at the time of the Republic of 1848. 
Under the present Republic it is used for the 
same purpose, and, therefore, is not much visited 
as a national monument. — R. 8. 

EMBANKMENT. A banking or building 
of a dyke, pier, causeway, or similar solid mass ; 
hence, by extension, the result of such work, 

879 


, r ~ ae = a Pe. ie $e) =) Sora ee ee I 
- 4 ~~ i 3, “0k eee 
f ‘ pant et hae 


- EMPLECTON 


especially in the form of a waterside street. 


The term is used to translate foreign words, 


such as the Italian and Venetian riva, fonda- 
menta, and molo; also, for the French quai, 
for which the English quay is not always an 
adequate translation. (For the London embank- 


ments along the sides of the Thames, see sub- - 


titles. ) 

Albert Embankment. In London; on the 
right or south bank of the Thames, between 
Westminster Bridge and Vauxhall Bridge; com- 
pleted in 1870. 

Chelsea Embankment. In London; on the 
left or north bank of the Thames, above West- 
minster and near Chelsea Hospital; finished — 
in 1873. 


Victoria Embankment. In London; a 


| broad quay with carriage road and footway 


on each side, built along the left bank of the 
Thames from Blackfriars’ Bridge to Westminster 
Bridge, between 1865 and 1870. The granite 
obelisk, called sometimes Cleopatra’s Needle, — 
brought from Alexandria in 1878, stands on this — 
part of the water front. 

EMBATTLE (v.). To form or construct 
with or like battlements, 7.e. with merlons and 
embrasures. The term is applicable alike to 
structures and to mere ornament resembling 
battlements in outline, as an embattled fret. 

EMBATTLEMENT. The same as Battle- 
ment. (Written also formerly embattailment.) 

EMBLEM. A picture, sign, or device em- 
ployed to mark a rank, to distinguish a person, 
to typify some particular political or religious 
body, or the like; thus, a mitre marks the 
episcopal rank. (See Symbology.) — C. C. 

EMBOSSED WORK. In general, deco- — 
rative work in relief, produced, not by carving 
or casting, but by stamping, hammering, press- 
ing with a die, or like use of mechanical force ; 
such as that done in sheet metal by ‘‘striking 
up” from behind. (See Chasing; Repoussé.) 

EMBRASURE. A. An enlargement of a 
door or window opening, at the inside face of the 
wall, by means of splayed sides. Especially, in 
military construction, such an enlargement de- 
signed to afford a more extended range of vision 
from the inside by means of the sloping sides, 
while not increasing the outside opening. 
Hence, — 

Bb. In military architecture, any opening 
through, or depression at the top of, a wall or 
parapet for discharging missiles ; as a loophole, 
crenelle, or the like, because usually so splayed. 

EMPLECTON ; -UM. A kind of masonry- 
used by the Romans and described by Pliny and 
Vitruvius as having the faces worked and the 
core or filling of rubble, bonded more or less 
thoroughly with the face stones. Vitruvius 
(II., 8) speaks of this work as very often done 
carelessly and slightly by the Roman workmen 
of his time. 


880 


ENGAGED COLUMN 


Church of S. Giuliano, at Venice; a smaller raised on a high continuous podium. The statue 
order decorating the doorway and a larger one is the work of Jacopo Sansovino. 


ee sh 
db 


ENAMEL 


ENAMEL. A variety of glass which is used 
especially for decorative work ; either inlaid in 
another surface, as of metal, or forming a mosaic 
with a metal ground or frame to hold it in place, 
or covering the whole surface. By means of 
enamel, decoration of church vessels and pieces 
of domestic use and adornment is made easy and 
effective. The term enamelling, applied to the 
process of laying enamel upon a surface or of 


adorning an object with enamel, is extended to 


mean, in the popular sense, ‘a certain kind of 


finish by means of paint and varnish. (See 
Paint.) 
EN AXE. (See under Axe, I.) 


ENCARPUS. A sculptured festoon of fruit 
and flowers, or, more rarely, of drapery, or com- 
posed of a trophy of arms, or the like. (See 
Festoon ; Swag. 

ENCAUSTIC. Fixed by heat; applied by 
any process to which heat is essential. 

ENCAUSTIC PAINTING. Literally, a 
painting which implies the application of heat 
either during or subsequent to its execution. 
This process is said to have been much employed 
by the Greeks both for mural and easel pictures, 
as well as for ships; nor was its use confined to 
the Greeks. As a mural process it was ulti- 
mately replaced by fresco. Encaustic, or xatots, 
implies a ‘‘ burning,” the colours being mixed 
with wax. Unfortunately the words ‘“‘encaustic” 
and “wax” were often used by ancient authors sy- 
nonymously for “‘painting” and ‘‘colour,” hence 
great confusion and uncertainty. No specimen of 
an important encaustic mural painting by Greek 
artists has been preserved. Greco-Egyptian 
mummy masks of a late period have been re- 
cently discovered, and it is asserted that some 
of these were painted by the encaustic process ; 
others in tempera; others, again, in both tem- 
pera and encaustic. The celebrated head called 
“The Muse of Cortona,” preserved in the mu- 
seum of that town, is said to have been painted 
in wax. Vitruvius gives as a receipt for the 
preservation of vermilion-coloured walls exposed 
to the sun, a final coat of punic wax and oil 
cauterized, and subsequently rubbed with a 
candle and fine linen. The mural paintings of 
Pompeii, Rome, and its environs were probably 
painted in fresco, sometimes in tempera, or in a 
combination of the two methods. For a com- 
plete restoration of the encaustic process, the 
reader is referred to the work by Cros and Henry 
(Paris, 1884), which, if not exact, certainly is in- 
genious. According to these authors the colours 
are melted with wax and resin, then applied with 
a brush, and afterward modelled with heated 
instruments called cauteria. Any wax painting 
when completed may, or may not, be “‘burnt in” 
by the application of heat. The effect of the 
burning is to give a slight gloss to the surface, 
increase the depth of the tone, blend the model- 
ling, and cause the colours to penetrate more 

881 


ENGINEERING 


deeply the wall surface, if the latter be absorb- 
ent. Some authors hold that the Greeks knew 
of the dissolution of wax by a volatile or essen- 
tial oil, such as turpentine ; others deny the fact. 
If they did have such knowledge, they also must 
have painted as the men paint to-day who use a 
wax medium, and the reader is referred to the 
article on Wax Painting. In this case, more- 
over, if heat. were applied, it would have been 
after the picture was completed. 

— FREDERIC CROWNINSHIELD. 
ENCAUSTIC TILE. (See Tile.) 
ENCHASED. A variety of hammered metal 

work in which a pattern in relief is produced by 
punching or hammering down the background or 
depressed portions of the design. (See Chase.) 

ENDIAPER. To decorate with a diaper pat- 
tern. 

ENFILADE. The alignment of all the doors 
between the rooms in a series or suite so as to 
produce a vista. Usually such a series of doors 
were placed near the window walls, though this 
is not now deemed essential. A very remarkable 
example is that of the Palazzo Borghese at Rome 
(1590, by M. Lunghi, the elder), in which dig- 
nity and scale are given to a long series of rooms, 
much cramped by the irregular site, by a vista 
through eleven successive doors connecting them. 

En Enfilade. In French, arranged in series 
or a suite; often used in English with reference 
to the above definition. (See En Suite, under 
Suite.) 

ENGAGED. A. Attached, or apparently at- 
tached, to a wall by being partly embedded or 
bonded into it, as a column, pier, or pilaster. 

4. Framed into or fitting upon or within, as 
the end of a beam or girder into the cap of an 
iron or steel column. 

ENGAGED COLUMN. A round pilaster- 
like member, generally ornamental in character, 
without utility and most commonly built with 
the wall, or as part of the wall whose courses of 
stone are continued through the shaft. Even 
where the engaged column is a piece of costly 
and beautiful material, and is therefore not con- 
tinuous with the structure of the wall, it is to 
be considered as a pilaster with a rounded hori- 
zontal section, rather than as a column. (Cut, 
cols. 883, 884.) 

ENGELBERGER, BURKHARD ; architect ; 
d. 1512 at Augsburg. 

Burkhard Engelberger of Hornberg (Wiirtem- 
berg, Germany) built, between 1467 and 1499, 
the churches of 8. Ulrich and 8. Afra in Augs- 
burg (Germany). In 1494 he was called to Ulm 
(Wiirtemberg, Germany), to strengthen the sup- 
ports of the~spire of the cathedral, which had 
begun to sink. 

Seubert, Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexicon. 

ENGINEERING. The study and pursuit 
of mechanical or constructional occupations 
according to theoretical and strictly scientific 

882 


ENGINEERING 


principles, as distinguished from similar work | 


done by traditional or empirical methods. The 
different branches of engineering differ so widely 
among themselves that the term is hardly ever 
used alone except as expressing, in a general 
way, the occupations followed by a number of 
highly trained men ; much as “ war” or “ agri- 
culture” are used to classify, in a general way, 
other human pursuits. That department of 
engineering which is of interest to students 
of architecture is generally called civil engineer- 


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ENGAGED COLUMNS, TEMPLE OF JUPITER, BAALBEK, SYRIA; 


PART OF INTERIOR WALL OF CELLA. 


ing, though of this only one branch is archi- 
tectural in the sense used throughout this 
Dictionary, namely, that which has to do 
with the building of immovable structures, and 
those, in the narrower sense, covered by the 
common term “built,” to the exclusion of 
bridges, railroad embankments, and the like. 
The term ‘‘architectural engineering ” is in com- 
mon use; but it has been used to signify espe- 
cially the pursuit of those who offer advice, and, 
as it is called, “consultation” ; although the 
term is equally applicable to those who under- 
883 


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ENGINEERING 


steel cage construction for modern building and ~ 


any other structural parts which need scientific - 


treatment. It is to be observed that in archi- 


tecture generally those parts are few. Floors 
are always built much stronger than absolutely 


necessary, and this that they may be rigid and 
not disagreeably subject to vibration and grad- 
ual settlement. 
than absolutely necessary, partly because of the 


building laws of different cities requiring this Be 


on account of safety against fire, or 
the proper protection of flues carried 


terior work, for the sake of a massive ~ 
effect. Roofs, spires, turrets, and the 
like are generally made secure against 
any wind pressure other than a tor- 
nado, because of traditional ways of 
building which are not often aban-— 
doned. An architect may be actively 
employed for a number of years with- 
out ever having had occasion to use 
engineering methods himself or to con- 

sult a professional engineer. On the 
\ other hand, modern iron construction, 


ih 


TAN 


except in its simplest form, as in the 
|} laying of a floor of rolled beams and 
\ the hanging of fireproof flooring and 


\ 


filling to these, is commonly left for the 
plans or specifications, or both, of a 


ww 


f professional engineer ; and that because 
| it is necessary to have a recognized fac- 
i 


Erinem 1 
a ae 


tor of safety, and yet not to overpass 
it too much on account of the great 
cost of the material and workmanship. 

In a general way the division be- 
tween the architect’s and the engi- 
neer’s work may be expressed in this 
way :— whatever is traditional in 
form and in structure, whatever is ad- 
mittedly safe, whatever is known to 
all practical builders as well within 
the limits of danger, comes within the 
architect’s province; and nearly all 
his most important artistical results 
are procured from the treatment of 
such building as this. All that is so 
new or so complex as to require care- 
ful scientific examination based upon 
mathematics is the province of the engineer. 
Some, but not many, modern architects are them- 
selves competent, and, up to a certain point, may 
trust their own computations. Some, but not 
many, engineers have something of that tradi- 
tional respect for beauty and significance of form 
that they may make their own designs for the 
decorative effect of structures which they have 
to carry out. The great majority of either pro- 
fession are men who are greatly in need of the 
aid of those of the other profession, and what the 


| outcome will be is at present entirely uncertain. 


884 - 


Brick walls are built’ thicken 


up in those walls, and partly, in ex. ay 


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I ALVId “AO AVOLOALIHOUV ‘ANVIONA 


wax AL VId 


ENGINE HOUSE 


It is worthy of note that in this combination 
of engineer and architect the world is returning 
to the methods still recognized as common to 
the Romans of the great Empire. As in a large 
public structure of the second century, a vaulted 
basilica, thermz, or the like, the builder fin- 
ished his work with but little more of design 
connected with it than would give a general 
comely shape and proportion to the different 
great rooms and halls, the decorators follow- 
ing him and completing the work with their 
marble linings, their tiling with glass, their 
mosaics, their stucco ornaments, and painting ; 
so the modern structure, business building, 
apartment house, or private dwelling is already, 
and seems likely to remain, equally uncon- 
structional in its architectural treatment. The 
steel cage structure, once built, must be entirely 
concealed and covered by fire-resisting and heat- 
resisting material ; the brick walls are, almost 
without exception, run up plain, and support a 
plain floor of timber or of iron, vertical and hori- 
zontal surfaces alike prepared for complete con- 
cealment by the wainscoting, marble sheathing 
and tiling, plastering, and other superficial 
adornment upon which the original design of 
the architect mainly depends. This is as little 
to be resisted as the modern disposition to use 
long range rifles instead of the rapier and the 
broadsword. It is to be regretted only as we 
regret the disappearance of the sailing ship and 
of the fascinating traditions of old-time sailor 
life. A new school of decorative construction 
may, indeed, arise ; but it is hardly conceivable 
that this will come out of engineering methods, 
nor of the multiplication of buildings requiring 
engineering methods. These can lead only to 
a perfected quasi-Roman system of building 
first, and decorating afterward. Decorative 
construction is probably to be had only in 
cases where engineering methods are deliber- 
ately rejected and traditional ways of building 
are followed exclusively. — R. 8S. 

ENGINE HOUSE. A. In the United 
States, a building primarily for housing a fire 
engine and, in the larger cities, its hose wagon, 
together with the horses and men for its opera- 
tion. 

The inflammable construction prevalent 
throughout the United States has made neces- 
sary very large and efficient municipal fire de- 
partments, with a number of steam fire engines, 
which require very elaborately equipped build- 
ings for their service, with various devices to 
increase the celerity in answering calls. Such 
an engine house has, usually, automatic con- 
trivances which, at the sounding of an alarm, 
release the horses from their stalls, cause a 
clock to stop, and sometimes turn on the elec- 
tric lights in the firemen’s dormitories on the 
upper floors. The building is also usually pro- 
vided with one or more sliding poles passing 

885 


ENGLAND 


through wellholes in the floors, by which the 
men are enabled to descend to the ground floor 
much quicker than would be possible by stairs. 
The wellholes are frequently provided with 
trap doors which also are sometimes controlled 
automatically by the signal mechanism. The 
engine is stationed immediately in front of the 
door with the harness attached and suspended 
above the horses’ positions, so that it may be 
dropped and secured in place almost instanta- 
neously. The water in the engine’s boiler is 
maintained at a high temperature by connec- 
tion with a heater in the building arranged for 
immediate disconnection when an alarm is to 
be answered. Celerity in getting up steam is 
further assisted by oil-soaked cotton or other 
kindling under the fuel which is laid in readi- 
ness beneath the boiler. An engine house may 
sometimes contain also other apparatus, such 
as a water-tower and a search-light machine, 
and may also include the functions of a truck- 
house. (See Patrol-house; Truck-house.) 

B. <A building connected with a railway 
for housing locomotive engines. (See Round- 
house.) — D. N. B. 8. 

ENGINE ROOM. (Sometimes called ma- 
chinery space.) That portion of the building 
devoted to the generation by machinery of 
heat, light, or power, or any of them, and some- 
times including the space devoted to the stor- 
age of coal. The size of the space requisite 
depends on the size and character of the build- 
ing and the character of the machinery in- 
stalled. Under minimum conditions there 
should be devoted 3000 cubic feet of space for 
the purpose, which affords room for the heater 
and the storage of 25 tons of coal; for large 
buildings 5000 cubic feet of space shoul’ be 
a minimum for coal storing. Space should be 
allowed for boilers, if located in the same room, 
on the basis of one horsepower for each 7500 
cubic feet of building with a clear space in 
front of the boilers at least 12 feet long and as 
wide as the boiler; additional space should be 
allowed for the other machinery in accordance 
with its character. A rough approximation 
would be to allow as much space for such 
machinery as is occupied by the boilers and fire 
room, when provision is to be made for electric 
elevators and lighting engines, and three times 
as much when provision is to be made for 
hydraulic elevator and electric lighting engines. 
The height of these rooms should be 10 feet as 
a minimum, requiring the use of specially de- 
signed boilers; 14 feet is good practice for the 
boiler room, and 12 feet for the engine room, 
with the usual type of boiler. — G. H. 

ENGLAND, ARCHITECTURE OF. The 
history of architecture in England begins with 
the history of the English people. The Eng- 
lish, as we know them to-day, with the various 
traits which go to make up their distinctive 

886 


ENGLAND 


character, did not become a definite people, 
homogeneous and distinct, until the eleventh 
century. 

Before that time Britain had been the stage 
on which a constantly changing drama had been 
played, no part of which had permanently 
stamped the whole island, or firmly united its 
people. 

We see first the Britons, a rude, ignorant 
people, but with many hardy virtues, trampled 


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ENGLAND: GALILEE OF DURHAM CATHEDRAL; CLOSE OF 12TH CENTURY. 


down under Rome until they are hardly more 
than serfs. After four hundred years of Roman 
rule, when the native population, tempered by 
Roman civilization, was beginning to blend with 
the Romans, and when the Romans in turn felt 
the influence of the Western life, and there was 
some promise of a new nationality, the Romans 
withdrew, and with them disappeared Roman 
civilization, its arts and its sciences. 

The scene changes again. The Briton, used 
through long years to the protecting arm of 

887 


PP 
Piel i 
a 
Pin an 
ut ae H 


es i TNT their new domain, and 


! i : 3 wily é 


aut 
any i i i fe 
a Be 


| 


ENGLAND 


Rome, fell an easy prey to the wilder tribes of 
north and west, and called on the Saxons. 
These followed the Romans and became at 
length masters of the islands. But among 
these German tribes there were many divisions. 
Angles, Jutes, East and West Saxons, strove 
with each other for the final supremacy, but no 
unity was achieved. Once more the scene 
changes. The Dane came to England to take 


' his share in the government and to do his part — 


toward moulding the 
Englishman. Finally, 
into the midst of this 
strange medley, came 
the Norman. This peo- 
ple, already modified 
by long residence on a 
foreign soil, seemed to 
take naturally to the 
ways and manners of 


intermarriage and the 
quietness of complete 
conquest and unity soon 
made England their 


Englishmen. 

After Henry I., the 
Norman, as a Norman 
and a foreigner, began 
to disappear, and in his 
place came that type 
which we recognize as 
substantially the Eng- 
lishman of to-day. 

The Normans, enter- 
ba iin ing England as conquer- 
Leet ors in 1066, brought 
ai 1 with ther the first real 
ie bi: inate a architecture that Eng- 
il i i land had known since 
! a i Roman days, a style 

| which in domestic work 
was the natural evolu- 
tion of the struggle to 
maintain a hard-won 
footing in France, and 
which in ecclesiastical 
work was a rude devel- 
opment of the Southern 
Romanesque. 

That no traces should remain of the archi- 
tecture of the Romans after four hundred years 
of occupation seems almost incredible ; but it 
must be remembered that the Romans lived in 
camps and in cities. The former naturally dis- 
appeared, and the latter seem to have been 
completely deserted by the native tribes, who 
had no civic aspirations or ambitions. In the 
troublous times which followed the Roman 
evacuation, the cities became deserted ; places 
of refuge, and sources of pillage; there were 

888 


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Pili Hoes cn) 
Hale it 
i ‘ 
Hi 


——— 


| 


-home and themselves 


4 
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4 
. 
* 
a 


’ 
os = eo 


- PLATE XXXIV 


eens 


——— g 


ENGLAND, ARCHITECTURE OF. PLATE II 


Cathedral church, Canterbury, Kent. The 
plate shows the central tower and northwest tran- 
sept from the northwest; the low arches in the 
foreground are those of the cloister, and the 
curious building with double-pitched roof and 
enormous perpendicular window is the chapter 


house. The central tower was built in the latter 
part of the fifteenth century and is called the 
Angel Tower, from a figure which has been re- 
moved, and the Bell Harry Tower, from a three- 
ton bell in the belfry, 


Bae TY ty 


a: 
ENGLAND 


none to protect and none to care for them, and 
so utterly were they ruined that hardly a trace 
of them remained. 

Thus only can we explain the almost entire 
absence of Roman remains, and the absolute 
lack of any sign of the influence of Roman 
architecture, except, possibly, along construc- 
tional lines. 

The centuries between the fifth and the 
eleventh had been of very little importance 
architecturally ; dwellings were of the rudest 
description, and the churches as simple as 
possible, rude stone walls with roof of stone or 
timber. A few distinguishing features of the 
Saxon work are worthy of note, as indicating 
a knowledge of the arch and the vault, learned 


perhaps in Roman days and not quite forgotten, 
and indicating also the prevalence of wooden 


construction, which was evidently responsible 
for certain decorative features. 
used before Norman days, and there is reason 


to believe it to have advanced even beyond the 


purely constructional square reveal, to a reveal 


offset and ornamented ; and the vault, although 


in the earlier examples formed only by converg- 
ing walls, had certainly reached a true barrel 
vault coincidentally with the Norman occupa- 
tion. The square towers, ornamented and reén- 
forced with pilasters, and the basilican plan of 
many of the buildings, of which records remain, 
point to the influence of the Roman churches 
of S. Augustine’s day, and the occasional use 
of diagonal pilasters recalls the early practice of 
spanning an opening with inclined stones. 

Notwithstanding the prevalence of Roman 
influence in S. Augustine’s day, it is curious 
to note that the apse, so invariably a feature of 
the basilican plan, never appeared in the ninth 
century work,— the east end was square. 
Another British or Saxon feature was the lofty 
crypt under the sanctuary. Both these were 
retained in later English work, and became 
marked English characteristics. 

Before the Norman occupied England the 
influence of Romanesque work had crossed the 
channel, so that the last stage of Saxon work 
shows the introduction of the new manner, with 
its more generous use of the vault and its more 
profuse ornament. ; 

Hardly anything remains of the Saxon work, 
certainly none of the important buildings now 
exist ; but a few of the small buildings are in 
fairly perfect preservation, and one may trace 
Roman influence in the early British work, the 
influence of the Gregorian basilicas in the later 
Saxon, and the influence of the Norman in the 
last phase. 

Throughout them all there was but little 
display of ambition or magnificence, and if the 
churches were simple the houses were still more 
so. But in these simple buildings there were 
expressed traits of character which were to 

889 


The arch was | 


ENGLAND 


influence the Norman and mould his archi- 
tecture. The family life, rural life, the monastic 
establishments, all tended to modify the military 
and fortified character of the Norman buildings. 
For a while after the Norman occupation, Nor- 
man keep and castle rose throughout the land 
on continental models. A great square or 
round tower, enclosed by turreted walls, moats, 
drawbridges, and other barricades — everything 
for defence, nothing for comfort and conven- 
ience, such was the common character of the 
buildings. Side by side with these continental 
castles were the manor house and granges ; the 
peaceful homes of those who tilled the soil, who 
owed allegiance to their lord, and were there- 
fore closely allied to the castle and bound to it 
by common interests. Besides these two classes 
of domestic buildings, there were the establish- 
ments of the clergy, which increased very rapidly 
in number and importance. 

Peace brought wealth and leisure, and the 
nobles were not slow to see that the manor 
house afforded a pleasanter and more comfortable 
abode than their gloomy castles. Even abbot 
and prior were glad to enjoy the hospitality of 
their granges; and so presently one sees both 
overlord and prior spending much time in their 
manors, and turning their attention to the needs 
of advancing civilization and refinement. Ideas 
of comfort and convenience thus acquired soon 
modified the castle itself, and the growing power 
and wealth of the clergy found expression in 
monasteries and priories which were far removed 
from the simple primitive forms. It would be 
interesting in this connection to compare the 
ground plans of such a castle as Coucy — one 
must take a French example, as the English par- 
allels nowhere exist intact -— with the plan of 
Charney Bassett Grange. In one is displayed 
the epitome of the feudal system, in the other 
the first modest germ of home life. 

The Church was then, and for many centuries 
after, a power of which we can to-day get but an 
inadequate idea. She ruled the king and his 
nobles as surely as she did the peasant and serf. 
The powers of heaven and hell were in her hand, 
and no prince was so mighty but that he trem- 
bled before her anger. It was but natural, there- 
fore, that the chief expression of architectural 
vitality should be found in the ecclesiastical 
buildings of the Normans. 

The architecture of the Normans was largely 
founded on the Southern Romanesque, but it was 
clearly a distinct phase of that style rather than 
an integral part of it. The structural problems 
which were wrestled with in southern France, 
especially the dome and its supports, played but 
a small part in Normandy, and the proportions 
of the Norman buildings were on lines different 
from those of the true Romanesque. 

Nor is the skill of the carver, which is so im- 
portant an element in the Southern type, much 

890 


HNGLAND 


shown in the Northern type. The carving is 
simple and rude, but strong and effective, as is 
all the work of a primitive and virile people. 

No great ambition as to structural problems, 
nor as to architectural aims, is displayed in the 
work of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, but 


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ENGLAND: LINCOLN CATHEDRAL; PLAN OF CHOIR 
VAULTING, 1225 A.D. 


it has all the charm of the simple, unpretending 
building, which serves its purposes and meets 
the aims of its builders. 


The most marked and important of the Eng- |. 


lish Romanesque bore but little resemblance to 
that of southern France, but was very closely 
allied to that of Normandy. Southern France 
had received early in the eleventh century the 
idea of the dome. The constant intercourse 
between the Southern ports and Constantinople 
makes it both natural and likely that merchants 
should bring reports of the building of S. Sophia, 
and that masons even should travel from the 
East to the West. However this may have been, 
it is at all events clear that the dome, once in- 
troduced, opened possibilities so captivating that 
for two centuries nothing else could claim the 
attention of the builders of southern France. 
At that time there was far less intercourse 
and less sympathy between southern France and 
northern France than between southern France 
and the East. France was still much divided 
both politically and socially, and it is but natu- 
ral that the early and more native tendencies of 
the round arch architecture should have continued 
to develop independently of the dome. SS. Front 
at Périgord, built in the early eleventh century, 
is a domed church on the plan of S. Mark’s in 
Venice. It is pure Southern Romanesque, but 
it has no parallel whatever in England or in 
northern France. Now the dome, concerned pri- 
marily with covering square spaces, and needing 
891 


eee span SERP ALE T= Stay | Mo Ni crite at ae a 
ze : be 1 f A ob eee ee 
2 nh 4 he bes 


; ENGLAND 
for its full effect open areas, was little in touch 
with the Northern system, which was attempting 
to cover the basilican form of nave and aisles. 
The dome, as one sees in the more perfect 
Eastern examples, found its full expression in a 
Greek cross plan, while the barrel vault sought 
length and was based naturally on the plan of 
the Latin cross. In southern France we see a 
tendency to combine the two, a doubtful experi- 
ment which hardly does justice either to the 
dome or the vault ; but in northern France, the 
dome being unknown, everything tended to 
the development of the vault, and the impressive — 


. quality of length. One great difficulty with the 


dome was its exterior treatment, —as it is ob- 
vious that the same dome cannot look well 


| within and yet be a pleasing external feature, — 


but the barrel vault and the crossing give ex- 
cellent bearing for a central tower, which became 
a general feature of the Northern Romanesque. 

The long plan, the central tower, the orna- 
mented arch, and the intersecting vault were the 
essential elements of the Northern Romanesque. 
This was the style which the Normans developed 
in England. 

As has been seen, the architecture of the Nor- 
man, the new style, as it was called, had already, 
before the conquest, found its way to England, 
and Edward the Confessor had begun to rebuild 
his great abbey at Westminster in the new way. 
As compared with the existing Saxon work, it 
was so far advanced, and so much more logical 
and true, that it appealed very quickly to the — 


as 


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ENGLAND: LINCOLN CATHEDRAL; PLAN OF NAVE 
VAULTING, C. 1235 A.D. 


English, and even the builders who were imbued 

with the Saxon methods adopted the ornamen- 

tation of the Norman work. ) 

Thus one finds, in the eleventh century, work 

clearly Saxon, yet with Romanesque features 

and ornament, especially in connection with the 
892 


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rd 


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oe ema 


ate 
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ge in Sigh t J 


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er ey ee eee See tPF re hl ea pee 
@ 4 . . L 7 - "+ Be * 


ENGLAND 


recessed arch jamb ; and side by side with this 
we find Norman work which is closely paralleled 
by that across the channel. The striving for 
effect by making long vistas was even more 
marked in England than in France, and the 
central tower received more attention and be- 


came one of the typical features of English 


ENGLAND: LINCOLN CATHEDRAL; NAVE VAULTING. 


work, which marked all the later periods as 
well. 

Thus we find the great abbey church at Saint 
Albans nearly 465 feet long, and with a central 
tower almost unrivalled in its perfect simplicity 
of mass and outline and the quiet reserve of its 
detail. It is worthy of note, too, that a trait 
which one recognizes as essentially English, not 
exactly parsimonious, yet thrifty and careful, 
led them to employ for this abbey — the most 

893 


ENGLAND 


stupendous in England — the old Roman brick, 
and another English trait, a lack of very fine 
artistic perception, led them to cover this good 
red brick with mortar, that the whole might 
seem like stone, or one great block, rather than 
many pieces. Saint Albans typifies the simplest 
aims carried out in the simplest manner with 


(SEE PLAN.) 


very great success, and is a beautiful example 
of how much can be accomplished with sound 
materials, good proportions, and mass. 

The end of the eleventh century was a very 
active period of building, and abbeys and cathe- 
dral churches were erected all over the land. 

The inspiration came from the churches then 
built or building in Normandy, a country quite 
as much English as it was French. The growth 
in England was free and spontaneous, and very 

894 


ENGLAND 


largely modified by earlier precedent. 
times the English churches were fairly plain 
copies, but in many instances they surpassed 
the originals in size and magnificence, still 
emphasizing the length of the nave and the 
importance of the central tower. The plan was 
invariably arranged for the vault, and the alter- 
nate arrangement of piers, indicating that the 
central vault was double the width of the aisles, 
gave great opportunities for effect, in the con- 
trast between the clustered pier, which carried 
the transverse ribs of the nave and aisle and the 
diagonal ribs of the aisle, and the column which 
gathered on its cushion capital the aisle ribs 
only. The scheme was simple, perfect in its 
constructural expression, and very effective when 
carried out completely. 

In many cases, however, the shafts of the 
great pier rose to receive nothing but a timber 
roof, lack of funds or of courage preventing 
the accomplishment of the vault. 

As the arch opening was recessed and the 
orders carried down the jamb, so was the pier 
recessed to express the structure of the vault, 
the transverse and diagonal ribs, and all these 
recessed orders were made the object of special 
decoration. 

The decoration was simple in form and rude 
in execution, but had the sterling qualities which 
mark the handiwork of an uncultivated but 
vigorous people. Similar ornament was later 
applied to surfaces, and where Saint Albans had 
rejoiced in its plain expanses, plastered and 
whitewashed, Norwich left hardly a stone un- 
carved in its great central tower. Colour was 
by no means despised, notwithstanding the 
whitewashing referred to, and there is evidence 
that the interiors, both those plastered and 
those finished in stone, were enriched with 
colour ; but it was probably crude and raw, and 
only in the dim light of these vast buildings 
could it have been bearable. In the timber 
roof which so often replaced the vault, and the 
timber ceilings which concealed the roof, we 
have the precursors of the fine open timber roofs 
which in the following centuries were brought 
to such perfection. 

The development of the house belongs essen- 
tially to this early period ; privacy and comfort, 
the two first aims of a people reaching toward 
civilization, begin to make their claims. The 
great hall where the lord, his family, and 
retainers gathered together, and where all ate, 
and most of the men slept as well, still remained 
the centre of interest and of architectural impor- 
tance. It was the most vital spot, around 
which everything congregated and which served 
to unite the motley crowd who gathered there 
as one family. But it was soon felt that the 
women and children required some more private 
rooms, and that much work which had been 
carried on in the hall might be better performed 

895 


Some- — 


ENGLAND 


in special rooms ; so the withdrawing room was 
set apart for the lady and her waiting women 
(it was at first a bedroom also), and the kitchen 


was supplemented by the various offices, in which | 


baking, brewing, and all the occupations incident 
to caring for a large establishment were carried 
on 


of the household came separate dining rooms for 
the master and for the servants, separate with- 
drawing and sleeping rooms. This, however, 


belongs to a later period. 


While the house was undergoing this develop- 
ment and expansion of plan, it was also modified 


and changed in its architecture by the gradual — 


developing of Gothic work. 
The first impetus of Gothic came, as did that 
of Romanesque, from across the channel, but, 


like its Norman predecessor, it took on a distinct — 


impress and character at the hands of the Eng- 
lish. They showed no more enthusiasm over 
problems of vaulting than they had over the 
dome, with the result that neither English 
churches nor cathedrals are lofty, nor rich in 
buttresses and pinnacles, the necessary accom- 
paniments of great vaults; but they are simple, 
long, low, with towers and spires whose height 
is emphasized by the low roof line; and they 
are nearly all set amid beautiful surroundings 
of trees and greensward. 


Indeed, this setting of the architecture in | 


England is a thing that one cannot fail to notice 
in all classes of buildings, and it gives to one and 
all a charm which nothing else can give. The 
cathedrals are set on high as at Durham, with 
the town, studded with trees, leading the eye 
down to the sparkling river beneath, or on the 
level stretch of green as at Salisbury or Canter- 
bury; the little churches have their peaceful 
cemeteries, old yews, and ivy ; the great houses 
have their park and gardens and grand old trees ; 
the small houses have their hedges and flowers. 
At every point English architecture has this 
immense advantage of setting. 

During the most brilliant period of Gothic 
the Church was still all important, and in the 
ecclesiastical buildings is found nearly all that 
is of vital interest. The house was slowly 
developing into a more comfortable abode, but 
it was not developing with equal pace in archi- 
tecture. All the wealth and magnificence of a 
prosperous country were lavished on the churches 
and monasteries. 

From the thirteenth to the sixteenth centu- 


ries all the phases of Continental Gothic had. 


their counterpart in England. There was the 
early style marked by the general adoption of 
the pointed arch, window openings still small 
and generally not subdivided, vaults quadri- 
partite, ornament sparse and simple in charac- 
ter, partaking still of the Norman but without 
its robust and coarse qualities. Following on 
896 


With the further subdivisions off tne meee 


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Oe ee eS ee ee, oe ee le 


— ———- | 


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aaa Nicisros 


#eeete 


AXXX ALVI1d 


ENGLAND 


this so-called early English work came the de- 
velopment of buttresses, the decrease of wall 
surfaces and increase of window openings, the 
subdivision of the window, and the develop- 
ment of tracery, and far more profuse use of 
ornament. This period» 
has been generally re- 
ferred to as that of 
the Decorated style. 
The final phase of 
Gothic saw still further 
development of win- 
dow tracery, which, 
passing through flam- 
boyant and flowing de- 
signs, settled into those 
composed largely of 
perpendicular lines, 
which were repeated 
again and again in the 
lines of buttress, para- 
pet, turret, and tower. 

- Both the decorated and 
this later phase, the 
perpendicular, had 
subdivided the vault 
until the simple quad- 
tripartite vault was al-— 
most forgotten, and 
good _ constructural 
precedent thrown to 
the winds, in the elab- 
orate ribs which di-_ 
vided the surface and ~ 
made it but an intri- 
cate network of 
panels. 

When the Reforma- 
tion came and so rudely 
stopped church build- 
ing, it came to a peo- 
ple who were ripe to 
drop Church work. 
Some had felt the bur- 
den of the Church’s 
yoke; they sought a 
personal God, and the 
glories of the Church 
were associated with 
hard memories ; others, 
no longer in touch 
with medieval faith 


age 
5 
s 


RSSy 
OSPR oF Seek OC 


ENGLAND 


To trace the development of Gothic archi- 
tecture in England, one must return for a mo- 
ment to the work which preceded it, and see 
toward what it is leading. 

The Romanesque builders, following the prec- 


(i ome ot i Lum 
"aca ae ae A 


and enthusiasm, found 
more interest in per- 
sonal comfort and 
luxury than in the 
growth of an already too powerful ecclesiasticism. 
Gothic work in England was not the same 
consistent constructional development as it was 
in France, and it will be necessary to examine 
more closely the English work to understand its 
weakness and its strength. 
897 


ENGLAND: NortTH AISLE OF CHOIR, CATHEDRAL OF CARLISLE, CUMBERLAND. 


Circa 1260, except the window at the right and the arches beneath it, which are perpendicular, of 
about 1430. They have been removed in the course of recent restoration. 


edent of the Roman vault, determined the in- 

tersection of their vaults and the line of the 

ribs (where these were used) by the span of the 

arches. This system, where the arch was round, 

made the diagonal intersection, or diagonal rib, 

elliptic. The Gothic builders, at once grasp. 1g 
898 


ENGLAND 


the full functional significance of the rib, and 
using the pointed arch to cover all discrepan- 
cies in span, determined the vault by the span 
of the diagonal rib. This, instead of being 
elliptic, was made generally a round arch, thus 
avoiding the great thrust of the elliptic. The 
emphasis thus laid upon the ribs of the vault 
was the keynote of Gothic work. This it was 
which produced the compound pier in its per- 
fection. The pier on ground plan displayed the 
intention of the builder and indicated the sup- 
ports for the transverse, diagonal, and longitudi- 
nal ribs. 

It would, however, be misleading wholly to 
attribute the compound pier to the study of 
vaulting principles. Before rib vaulting was 
practised or understood, the Romanesque build- 
ers had recessed their arch opening with various 
orders, chiefly it would seem to admit more 
light and to give more pleasing reveals than the 
earlier square jamb ; and the recessed orders thus 
developed had their influence on the recessed 
orders of the pier, as they were adapted to the 
constructive requirements of the true Gothic 
vault. 

It is difficult to say how far the true princi- 
ples of Gothic construction were understood and 
appreciated by the English builders. Many 
buildings originally planned for vaults were left 
without that crowning glory; many of the 
vaults that were built show, on the one hand, 
incompleteness in the actual constructive fea- 
tures, imperfect support for the ribs of the 
vaults, and an insufficient buttressing, or but- 
tresses ill placed; on the other hand a redun- 
dancy of seemingly constructive features, shafts 
which carry no ribs, ribs which have no func- 
tional place in the vault system. 

In all the architectural history of England 
one must be impressed by the fact that archi- 
tecture as a science was not practised in Eng- 
land, but that as an art it called forth the best 
energies of the nation. With science thus par- 
tially divorced from art the higher results are 
unattainable. One will not find in England 
anything comparable to Amiens as a monument 
of Gothic art, but one will find innumerable 
examples which show a sufficient appreciation 
of the principles of Gothic art to lead towards 
results which are full of life and vigour, and 
above all of the spirit of beauty which underlies 
all good work of whatever style or country. 

With the French, Gothic was a scientific 
building, and their superb abilities were directed, 
were concentrated, on the achievement of the 
perfectly balanced vault. To this end wall sur- 
faces were deliberately abandoned, the mass and 
sky line were often sacrificed, but they won a 
deserved preéminence which is possible only for 
those who have a single aim. 

The influence of the French gave the first in- 
spiration for Gothic work, but hardly was this 

899 


-BNGLAND 


early work begun but it was affected by marked 
English traits ; parsimony, or at least careful- 
ness as to expenditure, and carelessness as to the 
scientific questions of construction. Each had 
its disadvantages and its advantages. They led 
to the frequent omission of nave vaults, and this 
in turn gave us the noble timber roofs. They 
led to the avoidance of very lofty buildings, — 
which require great expenditure and great con- 
structive ability, —and this in turn gave the 
long low vistas which have an inexpressible 
charm in the English cathedrals — not awe-in- 
spiring like the soaring French vaults, yet none 
the less beautiful and reverential. They led to the 
multiplying of shafts and vaulting ribs which, 
although constructionally meaningless, yet gave 
us most beautiful results in the elaborate trace- 
ried vaults and carved bosses of the fourteenth 
century, and the still more complicated lace- 
work of the fan vault. The comparative nar- 
rowness of the nave made practicable the tower 
at the crossing, and lowness of the nave accen- 
tuated and gave value to a moderate height in 
the tower. Sometimes the tower was crowned 
with spire as well. The tower at the crossing, 
or the tower and spire, the final glory of a 
Gothic building, received nowhere such devel- 
opment as it did in England, where, as has 
already been shown, it had long been a marked 
feature. Even the later perpendicular towers, 
such as those at Canterbury, or the still nobler — 
towers which abound in Somerset, have great 
charm of proportion and outline, rising nobly 
from the immensely long body of the church, 
and contrasting well with the level ridge. 

Again, this spirit referred to led to the 
almost entire discarding of the chevet, and in 
place of it we find the distinctively English 
square east end. When the square east end is 
increased in length by a lady chapel and the 
long chancel emphasized by double transepts, 
the nave finished with western towers and 
crowned with its central tower, one has a group 
which, however illogical and unscientific, is yet 
marvellously potent in its charm. Of the 
greater cathedrals there is hardly one but is 
fit subject for the painter from any point of 
view. If western towers are lost from the east 
end, the central tower yet remains dominant, 
and neither transepts nor tower are dwarfed by 
the western facade. Seen from every point 
Salisbury and Canterbury and Lincoln are per- 
fect compositions. 

French builders recognized the threefold plan, 
and terminated the nave with a wondrous por- , 
tal and the aisles with vast towers. England 
almost invariably disregarded both plan and 
sections, and built her west fronts as screens, 
which masked, rather than expressed, the build- 
ing behind. This was so false in principle as 
to destroy nearly all the merit that might 
otherwise lie in such a facade as Lincoln or 

900 


PLATE XXXVI 


ENGLAND, ARCHITECTURE OF. PLATE IV “* 


London; central pavilion of the Natural His- architect was Alfred Waterhouse. The building 
tory Museum, at South Kensington; built about is interesting because of the free use of terra cotta, 
1880 to receive the collections other than artistic both within and without. The whole front, in- 
and antiquarian of the British Museum. The cluding the end pavilion, is given as 675 feet. 


ENGLAND 


Wells. Neither western nor transept porches | 


play any great part in England. For the most 
part the doorways are comparatively small and 
insignificant, but they prepare the eye for the 
long and low interior. 

Sculpture did not receive much attention, 
and was neither so well designed nor so well 
executed as in France. So much was this the 
case that in early work the capitals were often 
simply moulded. In fact, throughout medizval 
work, line seems to have played a more impor- 
tant part than modelling. The love of many 
lines gave the moulded cap, the subdivided and 
overdivided shaft, the intricate network of the 
decorated vault and of fan tracery; and the 
moulding and panelling of perpendicular work. 

The introduction of Purbeck marble and other 
similar stones undoubtedly increased the ten- 
dency toward the moulded cap and base; and 
the execution of these led to such complete 
mastery of the theory of mouldings as to en- 
courage the display of this ability. Eventually 
it was overdone and one feels the false note. 
Just so did the French overdo their loved vault- 
ing and produced the wonderful but false vault 
of Beauvais. 

With the fifteenth century, when Italy was 
in the full flower of Renaissance, England was 
developing on new lines and doing work which 
for the first time was simply and solely English. 
The perpendicular phase of Gothic work was, 
except in the principles of the fan vault, no 
true style, for it embodied no new constructive 
principles, and, indeed, dropped many of the 
earlier and sounder principles. It was, there- 
fore, rather a decorative phase than a style, 
but it lent itself most pliantly to the mingling 
of Renaissance ideas which gradually crept in 
from Italy. Furthermore, it was easily adapted 
to the domestic architecture, which was now 
receiving more and more attention. 

To this last period of Gothic England is in- 
debted for many of its most beautiful towers, 
for much very fine woodwork, for innumerable 
good small churches. Carving had lost much 
of its spirit and was more formal and lifeless 
than in the earlier work, and tracery had lost 
much in being confined to perpendicular lines — 
yet for all that there was much to be admired 
and much that has served as inspiration to 
some of the best modern work. 

With the fifteenth century began in Italy the 
great movement in art and letters known as the 
Renaissance — the new birth to life. Such it 
was in truth in Italy; the long-forgotten work 
of Greece and Rome, its philosophy, its science, 
its poetry, its sculpture, and its architecture 
came once moreto berecognized at their true value. 
So deep-seated and enthusiastic was this love of 
the antique, this worship of the beautiful, that 
the beauty inherent in the work which preceded 
Renaissance days was quite lost sight of. 

901 


ENGLAND 


It was impossible that such a movement, in 
the ecclesiastical centre of the civilized world, 
should occur without having its influence on 
England, and one cannot tell how this might 
have resulted if other circumstances had not 
intervened to sever the intimate relations be- 
tween Rome and England. 

The English Church, from its earliest days, 
coincident with the Roman occupation, had 
claimed independence from the Church of Rome, 
and, however perfectly it may have seemed in 
harmony with her during the earlier days of the 
Norman occupation, there was always an under- 
lying spirit which revolted against foreign 
bishops and the rule of Rome. As the Norman 
kings became more and more essentially Eng- 
lish, this spirit grew and increased. The 
wholly unworthy character of Henry VIII. and 
the unworthy cause by no means controvert the 
fact that he had the sentiment of the English 
nation with him when he refused to recognize 
the spiritual control of the Pope, and declared 
England ecclesiastically independent ; nor does 
his wholly unjustifiable claim to be considered 
the head of the Church in any way injure the 
cause which he represented. 

It was this break with Rome which effectu- 
ally stopped the influence of the Italian Renais- 
sance. Before the break came, Henry had 
imported, to work on his palace of Nonesuch, 
a large number of Italian workmen, and from 
the reports of Nonesuch, and also from a few 
sparse remains of that short period, we know 
that the Italians worked in the spirit of Italy, 
untouched and uninfiuenced by the English 
work about them, which must, indeed, have 
seemed to their eyes even more rude and bar- 
barous than the already condemned work of 
the Lombard period in Italy. As a striking 
example of this especial time none is more 
marked than Newton Ferrars, built at the end 
of the fifteenth century for an Italian cardinal. 
It is absolutely unlike the English work which 
is contemporary with it, and which is character- 
istic of early Tudor days. At first glance one 


would attribute it to the seventeenth century. 


The plan, the common H, is the one recogniz- — 
able Tudor feature ; there all resemblance ends. 
The windows are square without mullion or 
transom, there are no bays, no gables, no steep 
pitched roof; instead, a simple classic cornice 
and a low hipped roof. The grounds also, 
with their succession of terraces, — for the house 
is on a hillside, —are also Italian rather than 
English. 

There is therefore no Renaissance in its true 
meaning in England ; the spirit of classic revival 
neither in arts nor in letters had any great influ- 
ence at that time nor until after the Italian 
Renaissance had passed its prime and sunk 
into a form of neoclassic, a distinctly decadent 
style. 

902 


ENGLAND 


‘There is, however, no doubt but that Italy 
had its indirect influence ; the little group of 
Italian artists, referred to above, left in many 
places traces of their handiwork which the Eng- 
lish artisans were quick to imitate, and, although 
ecclesiastical intercourse with Rome was more 
or less broken, there was of course much travel 
on the part of the more highly educated. Thus 
Italian letters and arts had an indirect influence 
on the Tudor style which was the successor of 
the later styles of Gothic. 

The break with Rome was but an incident 
showing a very general trend of thought quite 
opposed to the medieval spirit which had 


reared the cathedrals and made possible these —% 
glorious conceptions of inspired minds. The 


days of the Church’s absolute 
and unquestioned supremacy 
were, for the time, over, and 
with the departure of these 
days went the ability and desire 
to build great temples for the 
service of God. There remained, 
however, a very true piety, and 
a consequently steady demand 
for the smaller places of wor- 
ship which were for the use of 
the individual rather than for 
the glory of a great Church, and 
many small churches continued 
to be built in England. A very 
large proportion of the parish 
churches, which are the delight 
of all who love what is humble, 
lowly, and reverential, belong 
to the fifteenth and sixteenth 
centuries. S. Cuthbert’s at 
Wells, S. Botolph’s at Boston, 
and Haberton church all belong 
to this time, and are, in different 
ways, typical. The fine churches 
of Coventry belong also wholly 
to this period, and are excellent 
examples. : 

One of the actions of Henry, 
most evil in its results, was the 
dissolution of the monasteries. 
These establishments were not fF 
only of great importance archi- 7 
tecturally, but were in many 


SS SS 
2 a ———— 
See \ 
Slee - 


i Ke) a: 


ENGLAND 


ways the mainstays of the civilized life of the 


community. The value of the monastic houses in 
London can hardly be overestimated. They not 
only cared for the people in their spiritual needs, 
but they cared for them in sickness, in poverty, 
and in death. They were closely bound up with 
the great guilds, and served as the hotels, hos- 
pitals, almshouses, and burial societies of the 
whole city. One can hardly imagine the utter 
paralysis of London when these houses were 
destroyed. The London monasteries, though 
the most numerous congregation of houses, were 
but a small part of those scattered throughout 


the kingdom, and their destruction was not only — 


a material and spiritual loss, but a great loss 
architecturally. They embodied some of the 
best work of the times, and cov- 
ered a field which combined both 
domestic and ecclesiastical work. 
ay They were also most especially in 
daily evidence, as familiar exam- 
ples, which is always so precious 
in moulding thought. 

Under all these circumstances 
— the influence of Italy, the break 
with Rome, the freedom of the 
English Church, a desire for an 
independence not wholly in accord 
with medizeval Christianity — it 
is little wonder that church build- 
ings ceased to be the important 
monuments, and that domestic ar- 
chitecture received the chief atten- 
tion of the English. 

But, before considering the de- 
velopment on this line, it will be 
well to glance at the condition of 
the cities, their inhabitants and 
their buildings, public and _pri- 
vate. As far back as the days 
of the Magna Charta, indeed 
much farther back, the spirit of 
independence had been most 
clearly marked. This was shown 
in the various revolts of the no- 
bles against the unlimited power 
of the king, and the revolts of 


ENGLAND: CHURCH oF §S. MARY MAGDALEN AT TAUNTON; CLOSE OF 15TH CENTURY. 


903 


904 


ps, 
r 


ENGLAND 


the towns against the impositions of the no- 
bility. 

The earliest towns had been but the congre- 
gation of people about the household of some 
great lord. Gradually, as the people became 
more numerous, they became powerful, and 
gained from their overlords by force, or more 
often by purchase, rights and privileges which 
became at length the basis of town charters. 
The larger towns owed no allegiance but to the 
king, and one cannot read the history of England 
without being impressed with the power of Lon- 
don and her enormous influence on the growth 
of England, her strength, and her liberties. It 
is not so with Paris, nor do we find a parallel 
in the independent cities of north Italy. These 
_ had no interests which were broader than their 
own community. London was the heart of 
England, whose mighty throbbing made its 
beats felt in every part of the kingdom. 

With the growth of the towns in power and 
independence began the growth of civic build- 
_ ings. The monastic houses already referred to 
were still the important buildings, but the 
powerful merchants and city nobles, who stood 
shoulder to shoulder and-on equal footing in 
these democratic days, were fairly close rivals 
of the ecclesiastics in architecture. The ruth- 
less hand of Henry VIII., and still more ruth- 
less fires, have left but little trace of medizval 
London, yet enough to show that it was a city 
of palaces as well as of churches. The plan of 
the city house was more or less on the line of 
the country house. The great hall was the 
centre, and the rooms grouped around formed 
generally an open or a closed quadrangle. Be- 
sides these there were the great buildings of 
the guilds, which to a certain extent filled the 
place of the modern public buildings. The 
guilds regulated all the details of their respec- 
tive trades and were responsible for law and 
order. They ruled and governed their mem- 
bers absolutely, and, although the apprentice, 
and still more the journeyman, was kept down 
with iron hand, he submitted readily enough 
with the prospect of working his way up some 
day to power and influence. The guilds were 
always staunch supporters and generous givers 
to the Church, but whatever could be spared 
from the Church went into the guild halls. 

Such was the condition of architecture in 
England when the sixteenth century began, the 
great days of church building past, the nation 
quite out of touch with the movement now in 
its flower in Italy, and yet with a strong desire 
for building and a love of the beautiful which 
demanded expression. 

It is but natural that the private house 
should receive the full benefit of this enthusi- 
asm, for the Englishman through five centuries 
had been growing more and more attached to 
his home. The sanctity of the marriage tie 

905 


ENGLAND 


and of the family, the best safeguards of a 
nation, were especially regarded in England. 
The laws of primogeniture insured the perma- 
nency of an estate once established. Associa- 
tions then gathered about the home and made 
it a peculiarly hallowed spot. The majority 
of the great families in England had their real 
homes in the country, where they lived sur- 
rounded by a law-abiding tenantry, going to 
court and to town but occasionally — essen- 
tially different in this from the great Italian 
families, who made their homes in the cities, 
and different again from the French nobles, 
who had hardly at this time given up living in 
fortified castles, and who were often at enmity 
with their own tenants and villages, and often 
at war with their king. 

The English surroundings were eminently 
adapted for the development of a type of house 
which should be in essentials what is needed 
for use in the present day. The plan had 
developed quite simply from the central hall, 
by sending out wings on either side, forming an 
open quadrangle, or, if doubled, the H plan. 
Frequently one wing contained kitchen and 
offices, and the other the living rooms of the 
family. The half-felt influence of Italy un- 
doubtedly tended toward the regularity of the 
plan and a balance of parts, and Italy gave 
England the orders (used for many years with 
a very hazy idea of their true proportion) ; ex- 
cept for these two things there was but little 
to associate the sixteenth century work of Eng- 
land with the Renaissance of Italy, and it is 
somewhat misleading to speak of this and the 
succeeding two centuries as English Renais- 
sance. They had neither the spirit nor the 
knowledge shown in Italy, but they had a 
charm all their own of which England may 
well be proud, and as for names, one may rest. 
content that the name Tudor will always sug- 
gest pleasant associations with simple quiet 
dwellings, built substantially of brick or stone, 
unostentatious, comfortable (according to the 
standard of the day), set among lovely rural 
surroundings with gardens and terraces, alleys 
and walks, and all those sweet and lovely ad- 
juncts which go to make the perfect country seat. 

Gothic still remained a dominant influence ; 
the windows were no longer pointed, but they 
were divided with mullions and transom, and, if 
semiclassic in the section of their mouldings, 
were wholly Gothic in their feeling. The screen 
of the great hall was designed with the orders 
as a basis, but the hall as a whole was none 
the less clearly in touch with the fourteenth 
century. The plaster ceilings, which were so 
marked a feature, were indeed learned from the 
Italians ; but no Italian would have recognized 
his handiwork in the designs, which were none 
the less full of life and vigour and a strong 
decorative sense. 

906 


ENGLAND 


Charlton House and Burton Agnes are famil- 
iar examples selected from a host of buildings 
small and great which testify to the building 
activity and ability of the sixteenth century. 
Apethorpe shows the enclosed quadrangle in 
plan, Audley End and Aston are open quad- 
rangles, Montacute is the H plan, later modi- 
fied to a double E,—a_ plan attributed 
sometimes to a desire to please the great 
Queen, — and all have more or less clearly 
marked the forecourt, the base court, and the 
gardens. 

Knole and Charlton House have beautiful 
examples of long galleries and richly modelled 
ceilings. Moyns Park has in profusion the great 
bays, and Cobham is an excellent example of 
gables and chimneys pleasingly breaking the 
sky line. Blicking and Hatfield have fine stair- 
cases. All this work — one sometimes has diffi- 
culty to remember —is contemporaneous with 
the Palazzo del Te’ and the Villa d’Este. 

There is no lack of ambition toward the clas- 
sic, merely a lack of perfect knowledge. The 
porch in the quadrangle of Cobham, the porch 


of Wroxton, and Cramborne Manor show how. 


eagerly the classic ideas and orders were seized 
upon, and how lavishly and ignorantly they 
were used. Sometimes the most beautiful of 
the old work was ruthlessly destroyed to be 
thus bedizened with the new finery. It was not, 
however, all bad; Blicking and Bramshill are 
examples selected from many where the orders, 
if not faithfully classic, are yet intelligently 
used with an end in view which is well ac- 
complished ; and in most cases there is a cer- 
tain picturesqueness of composition, which, 
in &@ measure, compensates for coarseness and 
extravagance. 

One cannot leave this period without refer- 
ence to the collegiate work. This, although 
domestic in character, had distinctive features 
dependent upon college life. The common hall 
is still the familiar domestic hall; but it is 
expanded and made more dignified. The chapel 
is but an enlarged oratory ; yet there are among 
the college chapels buildings at once beautiful 
and reverential, and wholly unrivalled for their 
purpose. 

It is not to be wondered at that with the 
sixteenth century the energy of England was 
so entirely absorbed by the domestic work. 
Everything tended to this result. The old 
days of perfect unquestioning faith and implicit 
obedience to the Church had passed away. The 
new learning, the study of classic literature, the 
advance in the sciences, the wide dissemination 
of books through the process of printing, all de- 
veloped a critical spirit in the learned, and 
among the lower classes a rude awakening to 
a sense that the old beliefs were filled with 
error, and that they had been victims of im- 
position. 

907 


ENGLAND 


Neither the spirit nor the ready wealth were — 
now present to erect the monuments which mark 
the Middle Ages, and all the energy which had 
been expended in these directions was now turned 
toward the building of houses. 

At this time the Italian Renaissance had not 
only reached its full flower, but was actually — 
declining ; yet hardly more than its shadow is 
seen in England’s architecture. Almost the 
only clear mark of its influence was in the pro- 
fuse use of the orders, which is a tribute rather 
to the ambitions than to the knowledge of the 
builders. The forms of the buildings are still 
essentially Gothic, but the detail was based on 
classic. 

Not until the days of Inigo Jones and Wren 
was there any serious study of the architecture 
of the Italian Renaissance. Hitherto it was an 
indirect influence, a hearsay architecture. It is, 
perhaps, to the very fact of its being so distant 
and imperfect a reflection of the great move- 
ment that much of its charm is due; for the 
builders were forced to think for themselves, 
and use such knowledge as they had acciden- 
tally acquired in connection with their previous 
Gothic training. 

With Jones and Wren began the days of 
Italian books, travels, and studies ; and as the 
art of that country was more and more ab- 
sorbed the distinctive English features were 
more and more obliterated. With them went 
many of the good qualities which had marked 
English work: its sobriety, its directness of 
purpose, its unambitious qualities, and its lack 
of pretentiousness. The new way reached its 
culmination in the superb, foolish, and wholly 
un-English work of Vanbrugh and the men of 
the early eighteenth century. The simple plan 
based on the needs of a country gentleman had 
given place to a plan which, at all hazards, must 
be symmetrical. The plan, so admirably suited 
for Italy, of a great square building with out- 
lying wings connected by open arcades and cor- 
ridors, was widely adopted. The climate, indeed, 
forced them to close the arcades; but the plan 
was popular, notwithstanding its unfitness for 
English life. To fill out a well-balanced plan 
like Holkham, where there were four outlying 
wings, was often a tax on the ingenuity of the 
architect ; and after kitchen and offices and sta- 
bles had been provided for, it was sometimes diffi- 
cult to find uses for the third and fourth wings. 

Holkham was by no means an isolated ex- 
ample; Castle Howard, Mereworth Castle, 
Houghton, are all plans quite as reasonable for 
meeting English needs. They are neither con- 
venient and comfortable, nor so beautiful as 
to be a law to themselves. Of the later 
plans Blenheim is a superb example of folly 
seeking vaingloriously for fine effects, and neg- 
lecting wholly the fundamental aims of sound 
architecture. 

908 


ENGLAND 


If Mme. de Maintenon could exclaim of 
Louis XIV.’s work that everything was done 
for show and nothing for use and comfort, it 
might with equal justice be said of much of 
the grandest work done in England during 
this period. 

If the work had been really magnificent, one 
might forgive its useless show, but both Italy 
and France could easily surpass England on these 
lines. In throwing over one set of principles 
and adopting another there is always the danger 
of losing what is good in the old, and exag- 
gerating the new so as to do scant justice even 


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—- 


ENGLAND 


the standard of the time, beautiful ‘both within 
and without, and quite free from any sign of 
affectation. In the second we have a plan where 
convenience is sacrificed for an external effect. 
The great hall, surrounded by rooms, depends 
for light on clerestory windows, and is dispro- — 
portionately high. The rooms are ill planned 
and ill placed. The exterior, for which such 
sacrifices were made, is after all but a confused 
pile. This was designed at the same period as 
Aston, but had felt the influence of Italian 
study, and is distinctly a self-conscious effort. 
The third example is wholly Italian, a central 


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SS 
eee eee 
Pe 


ies 
A 
bem es 


ENGLAND: BEAUCHAMP CHAPEL, WARWICKSHIRE; LATE PERPENDICULAR VAULTING, — THE First STEP 
TOWARD FAN VAULTING. 


to it. One can readily see how the men of the 
eighteenth century overemphasized their newly 
acquired and much-vaunted learning. These 
remarks apply exclusively to the more important 
architectural works of this period. The great 
bulk of smaller work contained the true English 
common sense and that appreciation of fitness 
which makes most English work worth careful 
study. 

Compare the plan of Aston hall with those 
of Wollaton and Stoke Park. In the first, one 
has the traditional English plan :— The hall 
flanked by its wings, the one for the offices, the 
other for the master’s private rooms; an 
arrangement sensible, convenient, according to 

909 


building flanked by two pavilions which are 
connected with the main building by open col- 
onnades. In one of these pavilions is the 
library, in the other the chapel. The plan is 
illogical, inconvenient, and wholly unsuited to 
England. In this particular instance there is 
the excuse that it was probably designed by a 
foreigner ; but there is no such excuse for the 
many plans which were based on this, and de- 
liberately designed for English needs. As a 
matter of fact many of the more important of 
the houses of this period were built, not for 
English needs, but to show the learning and 
undoubted ability of the designers. While such 
palaces were going up, the tradition of good 
910 


ENGLAND 


domestic work was not neglected ; and the houses 
of many a forgotten architect or builder remain 
to show us how lovely English country work 
has been at almost all periods of her history. 

English architecture has been greatest when 
it has been a time of works rather than of men. 
The earlier days, the great Gothic times, are 
marked by buildings; the finest Elizabethan 
houses are by men practically unknown; with 
Jones and Wren we begin to hear about archi- 
tects, and much of their work lacks the true 
ring. With Vanbrugh and Gibbs, and the 
Adams brothers, we hear a great deal of the 
architects — of the men who did the buildings — 
and the buildings themselves are pretty near 
second class. 

In these very periods when men’s names are 
much heard and talked about, the quietest and 
most charming work is by unknown men. 

After the coming of William and Mary the 
Dutch brought with them a more perfect know- 
ledge of brickwork. That wonderful country, 
the product of a continual strife both against 
natural forces and human foes, had contrived, 
notwithstanding this constant warfare, to keep a 
steady interest in art and an unvaryingly high 
standard of work. Stone was scarce and expen- 
sive, and with brick in nearly universal use the 
Dutch became experts in the manufacture and 
use of the latter material. The fine accurate 
brick which made true joints possible —and on 
which the modern face brick is a parody — was 
first used in England after the Dutch came over, 
and is closely associated with the moulded and 
carved red brickwork which is so generally con- 
nected with the name of Queen Anne. 

The study of the Italian Renaissance had led 
to a more general study and knowledge of the 
classic sources, and by the end of the eighteenth 
century the orders and the various forms of 
classic work were sufficiently assimilated to have 
become almost household words in architecture. 
All trace of Gothic traditions had passed away, 
and we find classic receiving an English touch 
and flavour. In Wren’s day the English archi- 
tecture had received a classic touch, which, 
except in the larger masterpieces of Wren and 
Jones, was a very light touch indeed ; in these 
eighteenth century days classic received an 
English touch, and the two are far apart. 

Architectural books had now become common 
— they are still familiar to all architects, still 
standards in their way —Vitruvius Britannicus, 
Ware's Complete Body of Architecture, the 
books of the Adams brothers, and many others. 
These furnished good sound examples of ancient 
and modern work as precedents, and they fur- 
nished the basis of all the best Georgian work 
and the American colonial work of Virginia and 
New England. 

Thus we come down to modern days. There 
is a somewhat unintelligible gap in English 

911 


- ENGLAND 


architectural history in the early Victorian era. 
The classic seemed to have palled, and there was 
nothing to take its place. The various move- 
ments in France found but faint echo in England, 
and the architectural enthusiasm of the Prince 
Consort hardly tended to elevate the general 
character of the buildings encouraged by him. 


With the middle of the century there came a 


new era. Hitherto in all the movements which 
had successively followed each other and marked 
the changing styles of English architecture, it 
had always been a seeming advance from a less 
cultivated and refined, to a purer and more 
exact science. Each succession of builders or 
architects considered not only that they knew 
more than their predecessors, but that their pred- 
ecessors’ work was bad. The thirteenth century 
bishop, with great zeal, pulled to pieces the 
Romanesque church to rebuild it in the new 
style ; with no less energy did the fifteenth cen- 
tury bishop destroy the thirteenth century work 
to make room for the new way. When the 
study of classic came to England, the Gothic, 
in its turn, was but a rude and barbarous style, 
and similarly Wren’s work seemed poor and 
unlearned to his immediate successors. 

With the gradual decline of classic work 
men began to doubt whether everything in the 
past was really bad or not. The Oxford move- 
ment was but one phase of a general searching 
into the more immediate past. As these men 
inquired whether anything precious had been 
left behind and lost when the connection with 
Rome was so hastily severed, so laymen inter- 
ested in the Church and in architecture began 
to inquire whether there might not be some- 
thing precious in the old church buildings. 
For the first time Gothic was seriously and 
carefully studied — never again to be despised. 
There had been, previous to this, a sort of bas- 
tard Gothic revival and attempts made to build 
on Gothic lines, which but served to cast more 
discredit on the old work; but this new study 
went to the root of the matter, for it was in the 
hands of men who knew and cared for the spirit 
which underlay and which had inspired the old 
work. As the Oxford movement brought out a 
healthy (though somewhat bitter) controversy 
with those who feared a return to Roman rule, 
so the little Gothic movement brought out the 
classicist in force, to the obvious benefit of 
both. All periods in the history of architec- 
ture were now studied, and many periods, very 
precious historically, were brought to light. 
The result of all this research is seen in the 
multiplicity — the terrible multiplicity — of 
styles now in use. Among them all there is, 
however, much that has the sterling ring of 
England’s true metal. There is good sound 
Gothic, full of vigour and life; there is Gothic 
touched with the sixteenth century spirit and 
Italian detail. There is classic, as of Wren, in 

912 


ENGLAND 


its simple robustness, there is Renaissance of 
Flanders and the Lowlands ; occasionally some 
French Renaissance, — but not much, for Eng- 
land has never been much given to French 
ways. There is Tudor, Elizabethan, and Jaco- 
bean — all these and more in Victoria’s days. 

In summing up the characteristics of English 
architecture it is difficult to define with any 
certainty the traits which are essentially Eng- 
lish. On strictly scholastic, constructional, or 
artistic grounds England has no claim to rank 
as one of the great architectural centres which 
have laid down precedents for the world. 

Before Norman days there was no architec- 
ture. The work of the Normans in England 
was both structurally and artistically inferior to 
the great Romanesque of southern France. At 
best it was but an importation from Normandy, 
and little was added to the Continental model 
by English builders. The Gothic builders of 
England cannot claim any great part in the 
development of the vault and its supports, nor 
_ do we find in separate features, or in detail or 
ornament, anything comparable to the great 
masterpieces of France. The days of the Italian 
Renaissance brought no new life to England ; 
not only did she add nothing to the growth of 
the movement, but she was actually unable to 
march in the line of its progress. 

It would seem as if, in making these state- 
ments, one were taking from England all claim 
to merit in her architecture; but there is a 
subtle quality which is concerned neither with 
question of construction nor with the laws of 
art, which is yet a necessary accompaniment of 
perfect quality in either. This quality is almost 
undefinable; one feels its presence and is 
affected by it without being able to determine 
what its elements are. It is the expression of 
a certain straightforward honesty of purpose, 
a simplicity — perhaps almost naif— which 
appeals directly to the heart rather than to the 
judgment and reason. This quality is always 
inherent in the very best work ; and, if present 
in other work which one’s trained judgment 
condemns, it may quite redeem it. It is this 
quality which preéminently marks the English 
work and makes it so lovable. With all the 
wonderful beauty of Beauvais, we feel the lack 
of this quality, emphasized by the false bear- 
ings and the appearance almost of legerdemain 
in the skill which supports the great vaults. 
When the English content themselves with 
simpler problems they lose indeed the glory of 
having nobly attempted great things, but they 
gain a more perfect success in the humbler 
effort. Thus it is that English cathedrals find 
their chief charm in their great length, — for 
which no such courage is required as for height 
and span, — in lofty towers, which gain from 
the comparatively low nave, and finally in their 
beautiful settings and surroundings. 

913 


ENGLISH GARDEN 


It is for the very reasons that have been 
pointed out above that the English have found 
their most perfect success in the humbler and 
less ambitious buildings, and that the small 
churches are so invariably charming, and that 
the large buildings, especially those on classic 
lines, are so often lacking in interest, and so 
generally inferior to Italian and French work. 

Notwithstanding shortcomings and faults, no 
country contains in itself a more precious archi- 
tectural heritage than England ; for, if it teaches 
no great lessons of art, it is yet instinct with 
all those qualities that have made England 
great; and every stone tells the history of a 
people who for all time have stood for freedom 
and justice, for honesty and uprightness. 

Their houses speak of that home life which 
has been the underlying strength of its people, 
their churches tell of the struggle for truth, 
their municipal buildings tell of the dignity and 
freedom of the people who have built their great 
cities, and made England strong and powerful 
for good. Such a record is worthy to stand 
side by side with the greatest. 

—R. Cureston STuRGIs. 

English architecture has not been made the sub- 
ject of complete treatises. In a general treatise by 
an Englishman, such as that of Fergusson, it re- 
ceives proportionately full treatment ; and much of 
Sir Gilbert Scott’s Lectures on Medieval Architec- 
ture is based upon English work. Moore’s Gothic 
Architecture and Gonse’s L’ Art Gothique treat 
English Gothic architecture as derived from that 
of France, in accordance with the views expressed 
in the articles of this Dictionary ; but the later 
Gothic buildings are neglected by both these 
writers, and the important Perpendicular style, 
fan vaulting, etc., have had no historian. The 
early volumes of plates (see biographies of Billings 
and Britton) should be used; those of Billings 
being especially important. Bell’s Handbooks of 
English Cathedrals and other churches (the Cathe- 
dral Series now — 1900 — in course of publication) 
are full of valuable matter. For the Elizabethan 
and later styles, there are several very recent books 
of great importance: Blomfield, English Renais- 
sance; Gotch and Brown, Architecture of the Re- 
naissance in England; Belcher and Macartney, 
Later Renaissance Architecture in England ; and 
Birch, London Churches of the Seventeenth and 
Eighteenth Centuries. The last named three con- 
sist mainly of large photographic plates. The 
recently published work by Feasey, and others, on 
Westminster Abbey is in like manner illustrated 
by large collotype plates. —R. 8. 

ENGLISH GARDEN. A. Same as Jardin 
Anglais; hardly used in English except as a 
translation of the French, or by way of deliberate 
contrast with the formal garden. 

B. With the definite article, a park in Munich, 
Bavaria, of about 600 acres, and laid out in 
large unbroken lawns, surrounded each by dense 
groves of trees, now of great size and beauty. 
The drives and walks are usually screened by 
the trees so that the great lawns show an un- 
broken sward. A branch of the Iser is carried 
through the park in three canalized arms, in 

914 


ENGRAILED 


hen the water runs swiftly. It is one of the 
most beautiful parks in Europe. 
ENGRAILED. Scalloped with concave lines ; 


cut along the edge with a series of small concave 


ENTABLATURE 


sharp tool. By extension, the producing of a 
similar effect by a mordant liquid (as in etch- 
ing); but the term is restricted to such sink- 
ings as are Sere by the taking away of a 

solid material, being dis- 


Hs 


i at U1 at 
| ree 4 a i 
|, Wx 


= Hii 


i ee 


QUQVOGDUSTVRENT PETRUS DPE EPEAT 


ENTABLATURES OF Srx CLASSIC ORDERS. 


1. Tuscan. 
8. Ionic; Roman Modification. 


5. Corinthian. 6. 


curves, usually of the same size. The term is 
especially of heraldic use. 

ENGRAVING. 
making incisions in a hard material with a 


915 


tinguished in this from 
chasing. In architectural 
practice, engraving has to 
do with memorial brasses 
and bronze plates, such as 
are let into the pedestals 
of statues or, if decora- 
tive, on the walls of build- 
ings, where they are used 
especially for record ; and 
equally for incised work 
in stone, which, however, 
when limited to lettering, 
is more often called in- 
‘ scription. 
‘tl ENNEASTYLAR; 
—-STYLE. Consisting of 
nine columns, as a por- 
tico; having a row, or 
rows, of nine columns at 
one or each end; said of 
a temple-like structure, as 
the so-called Basilica of 
Pestum in Italy. (See 
Columnar Architecture.) 
ENNEASTYLOS. An 
enneastyle building. The 


Seen e 
nap imate es ae iors 


2. Grecian Doric. 
4. Ionic, Greek type. 
Composite. 


The art and practice of 


term is modern, made up 
to correspond with hexa- 
stylos, oktastylos, ete. 
ENSINGEN, Ma- 
THIAS VON. (See Ma- 
thias von Ensingen.) 
ENSINGEN, MORIZ 
VON. (See Moriz von 
Ensingen.) 
ENSINGEN, UL-. 
RICH VON. (See Ulrich 
von Ensingen.) 
EN SUITE. 
Suite.) 
ENTABLATURE. In 
Grecian, Greco - Roman 
and neoclassic architec- 
ture, the whole horizontal 
mass of material carried 
upon the columns and ex- 
tending upward as far as, 
and including, the first de- 
cidedly projecting course 
of material, drip mould- 
ing, or the like. It ‘is 
always divided into three 
parts, succeeding one another vertically, except 
that a few very exceptional buildings, or parts 
of buildings, generally small and elaborate in 
their decorative treatment, may dispense with 
916 


(See 


-abaci of the columns ; 


ES Aa eh ORs Re eae eee 


ENTABLATURE 


one of these parts. 
The architrave or epi- 
style is the lintel 
course which rests im- 
mediately upon the 


upon this rests the 
frieze, which in Doric 
architecture is divided 
into the alternative 
members, called tri- 
glyphs and metopes, 
and upon this rests the : 
cornice. This upper- NC WARK 
most member is the : 
front or exterior face 
of the horizontal course 
of stones which is sup- : : 
posed to take the «ge iceatesat ies: 
beams of the roof and | 
also the gutter which 
receives the roof water. 
Where there is no real 
structure of the sort, — 
and the order is a mere 
decoration, the parts 
succeed one another in 
exactly the same man- 
ner, whether the up- 
right members are 


columns, engaged col- 


umns, pilasters, or a 


wall. 

In some varieties of 
the orders, even as ad- 
mitted by the recog- 
nized authorities, the 
architrave is greatly 
diminished in propor- 


ENTABLATURE OF LATE ROMAN EPOCH, BENT AROUND AN ARCH: PORTICO 
IN DaMAScus, SYRIA. 


917 


ENTABLATURE OF A PopIuM; INTERIOR STYLOBATE: BASILICA OF THE 
ANCIENT PRENESTE (NOW PALESTRINA), ITALY. 


tion to the other members, and the 
frieze is proportionally widened. 
This peculiarity occurs especially in 
the Roman form of the Doric order. 

Within the strict regulations 
laid down by the sixteenth century 

writers, there are many minor 
freedoms allowed the designer ; thus 


in the Roman Doric order, 
the architrave is often di- 
vided horizontally into 
two fascias, though more 
often left plain. So in 
the Ionic order there are 
more usually three fascias, 
and this division is re- 
peated in the Corinthian 
order, but with the off- 
set between the fascias 
moulded, or even more 
richly sculptured ; while 
yet in each of these orders 
there are sometimes but 
two fascias. The combi- 
nation of mouldings which 
makes up the cornice may 
918 


HENTABLEMENT 


also vary ; and the placing of the triglyphs in 

the frieze of the Doric order may follow more or 

less closely the original Greek distribution. 
—R.S. 

ENTABLEMENT. Same as Entablature. 

ENTASIS. A convex curvature added to 
the taper of the shaft of a column in the Greek, 
Greco-Roman, or neoclassic style; or to the 
apparently vertical sides of a tower, or the 
generally conical or pyramidal shape of a spire. 
This is one of those Refinements in Design 
(which see) which were hardly recognized by 
students before the present epoch of minute 
examination and comparison. The entasis of 
Greek columns was noticed early in the present 
century, and the measurements chiefly conducted 
by Charles Robert Cockerell, who first estab- 
lished the fact of its existence, and fixed its 
apparent dimensions. The first edition of Pen- 
rose’s remarkable work, The Principles of Athe- 
nian Architecture, in 1854, brought the subject 
to the notice of architects and antiquarians gen- 
erally. His drawings, very carefully engraved, 
made it clear that the swell of the entasis in 
the columns of the Parthenon did not exceed 
3 of an inch on one side; this being applied 
to a shaft 7 feet in diameter at the base, and 
34 feet high. From that time, the term has 
been chiefly applied to the swells in the shafts 
of classical architecture. It is generally held 
that this curve should be imperceptible to the 
eye; but even if this be a correct view, and if 
good taste requires that the entasis should not 
announce itself to a hasty observer, it does not 
follow that its purpose is to correct a tendency 
of straight lines to look hollow under certain 
circumstances. (See the article referred to above 
for the contrary theory.) It appears that an 
effect which is agreeable to the eye without fur- 
ther explanation of its remote cause, is enough 
to account for the free use of the entasis among 
builders who are following natural and whole- 
some traditions. — R. 8. 

ENTERCLOSE. A. Anciently, a passage 
connecting two apartments, as leading from a 
hall to the door of a neighbouring room. —(C. D.) 

B. Anciently, a screen or partition. —(N. 
E. D.) (Compare Spier.) 

ENTRANCE. (For terms relating to the 
doors and passages affording entrance to a build- 
ing, see Atrium, B; Avenue; Court; Court 
of Honour; Dégagement; Entry; Epinaos ; 
Fauces ; Forecourt ; Front Door ; Hall; Lobby ; 
Porch ; Posticum; Prodomos; Pronaos; Pro- 
thyron; Vestibule ; Vestibulum.) 

ENTRANCE HALL. A passage, corridor, 
or other interior division of a building into 
which a visitor enters from the outer air; espe- 
cially (1) that which connects with the principal 
entrance door ; (2) that which succeeds the out- 
side vestibule, if there is such a division. Thus, 
if there is first a small square or rounded division 

919 


EPI 


not much wider than the doorway of entrance, 


and this is succeeded by a much larger division | 


of any shape, the first would be the vestibule 
and the second the entrance hall. (See Hall.) 

ENTRESOL. In French, an intermediate 
story or mezzanine. The term is generally 
confined to such a low story intermediate be- 
tween the ground floor (rez-de-chaussée) and 
the premier étage, or first chief story, and usu- 
ally treated externally as a subdivision of one 
lofty ground story. It is in French city houses 
devoted ordinarily to subordinate apartments. 
(Written also, in English, entersole.) Very fre- 
quently occupied by the occupant of a store 
below. 

ENTRY. Originally, that part of a building 
by which access was had to its interior. Used 
indifferently for the doorway itself, the passage 
to which it leads, the outer porch, or all to- 
gether ; as in Macbeth, II., 1: “I hear a knock- 
ing . . . at the south entry.” Later :— 

A, In England, an alley or unimportant 
street leading to another street or public place. 

B. In the United States (perhaps local), a 
passage in a house; more usually the principal 
passage leading from the front door, but fre- 
quently any passage, and even a staircase hall. 

EOSANDER, JOHANN FRIEDRICH ; ar- 
chitect ; b. 1670, in Gothland, Sweden ; d. 1729, 
at Dresden. 

EKosander travelled in Italy and France, and, 
in 1699, settled in Berlin as court architect of 
the Elector Friedrich III., of Brandenburg. He 
was a rival of Andreas Schliiter (see Schliiter, 
Andreas), and superseded him as director of the 
works at the royal palace (Schloss) in Berlin. 
He enlarged Charlottenburg, and built Mon- 
bijou, Schonhausen (1704), and Oranienburg 
(1706-1709), near Berlin. In 1704 Hosander 
served as ambassador of the court of Berlin to 
Carl XII. of Poland. In 1722 he served as 
general lieutenant in the army of Saxony. 

Seubert, Hiinstier-lexicon; Liibke, Geschichte 
des Barockstiles in Deutschland. 

EPHEBHION ; —EUM. In Greek arche- 
ology, a place for the youths (ephebo?) to exer- 
cise ; hence, in Greco-Roman archeology, any 
place for gymnastic exercises, as in connection 
with Roman therme. 

EPI. In French, the spire-shaped termina- 
tion of a projecting point, as of a roof, and com- 
prising the construction by rafters and a central 
post. Elaborately framed hipped roofs com- 
monly require for their proper construction an 
upright timber at the point where the hip 
rafters meet, which should be carried up above 
the horizontal ridge, and this culminating point 
is especially that which is the ép?. In English, 
the adornment of such a point. Usually these. 
decorations are made of metal, as of lead during 
the Middle Ages, and still in England ; of cop- 
per in the United States ; but at some epochs 

920 


ale 


eS Pe eee 


ee a y 
es eee ee a 


ae 


EPINAOS 


in the history of medizeval and revived classical 
architecture, terra-cotta or faience has been 
used, and a splendid effect of colour obtained in 
this way. — R. S. 


“pr: Wroucut Leap; House oF JACQUES CUR, 


BOURGES. 


EPINAOS. In Grecian archeology, a back 
vestibule, as of a temple; opposed to Pronaos. 
(See Opisthodomus ; Posticum.) 

EPISCENIUM; EPISCENOS. In clas- 
sical archeology, the architectural structure back 
of the stage of a theatre, and which formed a 
permanent scene. In some cases a part only of 
such a structure. 

EPISCOPAL CHAPEL. A. In the Brit- 
ish Isles, a chapel connected with the Established 
Church, as in five cases cited by the Arch. Pub. 
Soc. Dictionary ; viz., 1, any place of worship, 
not a church, belonging to the English Church ; 
2, any place of worship of the Anglican Church 
in Scotland (and presumably of the Episcopal 
Church of Scotland) ; 3, a chapel of ease; 4, a 
chapel consecrated by a bishop for the relief of 
a crowded district, or the like; 5, the chapel 
of an Episcopal palace. 

921 


EQUILIBRIUM 


B. A chapel of the Protestant Episcopal 
Church in the United States of America. Such 
are common in very large parishes ; thus Trinity 
Church parish in New York has (1900) eight 
chapels, most of which are large religious build- 
ings ; such as the well-known old churches of 
S. Paul and S. John, and Trinity Chapel, built 
by Richard Upjohn about 1858. — R. 8. 

EPISCOPAL PALACE. The official resi- 
dence of a bishop ; generally connected with, or 
very near, the cathedral church of his diocese. 
Buildings of this character exist in most of the 
cathedral towns of the continent of Europe, and 
are sometimes large and of great splendour. 

EPISTATON (pl. epistata). In Grecian 
archeology, the entablature, or, in some cases, 
all the mass of masonry above the capitals of a 
colonnade. 

EPISTLE SIDE. That side, as of a choir 
or sacred enclosure, from which the Epistle is 
read, the Gospel being read from the other ; in 
either case from an ambon or reading desk ; also 
of an altar, the distinction being made in the 
same way. This is properly the right-hand side 
as one faces the altar. There are occasional 
exceptions. (See Ambo.) 

EPISTYLAR. Pertaining to, resembling, 
or characterized by an architrave or epistyle. 

EPISTYLAR ARCUATION. Arched con- 
struction spanning the intervals between columns; 
either by the construction of the epistyle as a 
flat arch instead of a beam of stone, or by a 
relieving arch immediately above the epistyle 
and included in the height of the entablature. 
An arcade of the more usual kind would not be 
called by this name. 

EPISTYLE. An architrave borne by col- 
umns ; 7.e. a beam of stone, or in rare instances 
of wood, spanning from column to column or from 
column to wall, supporting the frieze and forming 
the lowest member of a classic entablature. 

EPISTYLIUM. An architrave; the word 
used by Vitruvius. (See Epistyle.) 

EPLAN. That especial plan, as for a large 
country house, whose general outline resembles 
the capital letter EK. It is attained by arranging 
two larger pavilions at the two ends of the main 
building and a smaller one halfway between 
them ; although in English country houses the 
end pavilions have rather the aspect of breaks 
in the main building which seems to be returned 
at right angles at either end, the lines of cornice, 
roof, etc., being continuous or nearly so. It has 
been thought that this plan was sometimes used 
in compliment to Queen Elizabeth. 

EPUREB. In French, a full-size diagram 
worked out on a floor, wall, or other large sur- 
face, from which are traced the patterns or tem- 
plets for vault stones, stair rails, hip rafters, etc. 

EQUILIBRIUM. The state of repose of a 
body under the application of forces which 
mutually counteract each other. — W. R. H. 

922 


UF ie eed a eager 


CA” CUMAATAEREZZZZ 


Sa Be 2 


| @ 


10 15 20 


Scale of Metres 
6 


10 


ERECHTHEUM: GROUND PLAN OF EXISTING REMAINS. 


RESTORED EAST ELEVATION. 


ERECHTHEUM 


The south porch with caryatids is the famous Pandrosium. 


The north porch is on much lower ground. 


924 


923 


ERDE HOUSE 


ERDE HOUSE. Same as Earth House. 

ERECHTHEUM; -ION. A temple or 
group of temples on the Acropolis at Athens. 
The most important monument of the Ionic 
style known to us, and having the most success- 
on application of ‘caryatides, — (Cuts, cols. 923, 

EREMACAUSIS. The slow process of 
combustion of a material, taking place by the 
combination of certain elements with the oxygen 
of the air or water, as the decay of wood. (See 
Decay ; Dry Rot ; Disintegration.) 

ERGASTERION. In Greek archeology, a 
workshop, the term having the large signifi- 
cance of the French atelier. In modern Greek, 
applied especially to an establishment of some 
importance maintained by the government or by 
‘an association. 

ERGASTULUM. In Roman archeology 
(the term being derived from the Greek), a 
place of confinement ; serving also as a work- 
shop ; originally such a place used for slaves 
- who had offended or were considered untrust- 
worthy. 

ERLACH, FISCHER VON. (See Fischer 
von Erlach.) 

ERNULF ; monk and architect; d. 1124. 

About 1080 Ernulf, a French monk, was 
charged by Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury 
(England), with the construction of one of the 
chapels of the first cathedral of that city. After 
the death of Lanfranc, in 1089, he was made 
archbishop of Canterbury. 

Bauchal, Dictionnaire; Britton, Architectural 
Antiquities. 

ERWIN VON STEINBACH (I.) ; archi- 
tect. 

When Conrad von Lichtenberg became bishop 
of Strasburg (Elsass, Germany), in February, 
1273, his cathedral still lacked the facade. An 
inscription which existed on the left portal 
until 1720 ascribes the commencement of the 
work to Erwin von Steinbach. The first stone 
was laid May 25, 1277. His plan included 
only the two lower stories of the facade with 
the rose window. The great screen of the 
third story was a later addition. The spire 
was finished by Hans Hultz (see Hultz, H.) of 
Cologne in 1439. Erwin restored the nave 
after the great fire of Aug. 14, 1298. He 
designed the Chapel of the Virgin (finished 
1316, destroyed 1681), and probably designed 
the tomb of Bishop Conrad. He was succeeded 
by his sons, Erwin (II.) and Hans (Jean) called 
Winlin. 

Gérard, Les Artistes de l’ Alsace. 

ERWIN VON STEINBACH (II.); archi- 
tect. 

The successor of Erwin von Steinbach (I.) 
(see Erwin von Steinbach, I.) as architect of 
Strasburg cathedral was probably his son Erwin 
(II.), who served from 1318 until some time 

925 


ESCUTCHEON 


after 1339. He was probably in turn succeeded 
by his younger brother Hans (Jean) called 
Mink volt 16 impossible now to determine 
how much of the work is due to them, but it 
doubtless included the completion of the great 
rose window and the lower stories of the towers. 

Gérard, Les Artistes de l’ Alsace. 

ESCAPE. A doorway or a passage, private 
stairway, or the like, or all together ; the object 
being to afford private exit to a person who 
desires not to be found in his office or private 
room while he is yet supposed to be there. A 
high official will often desire to avoid persons 
whom he knows to be in his antechamber, and 
requires, therefore, a means of unobserved exit. 

ESCORIAL; ESCURIAL. A palace of 
the kings of Spain, built by Philip II. in the 
sixteenth century. Its proper name is the 


eee 


@eeeeeeoedg eeoeeeoevone 


e 
e 
.. 
oe 
e 
e 
e 
e 


x 
i 0 
Dea 


EscorIAL: GENERAL PLAN. 


Royal Country Seat of 8. Lorenzo of the Escorial. 
It is one of the largest groups of buildings in 
the world, about 580 by 750 feet, and, although 
of necessity having courts within, that area is 
very solidly built over, the church alone being 
of very great size. (Cut, cols. 927, 928.) 
ESCUTCHEON. A. In heraldry, the sur- 
face upon which are charged the devices borne 
by any one as peculiar and distinctive to him. 
The form of the escutcheon is generally shield- 
like, affecting the outline of the knight’s shield 
as employed at any epoch ; but, in the neoclassic 
art of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 
it is often an oval and sometimes surrounded by 
scrollwork, while the escutcheon borne by women 
is lozenge-shaped. The charges should be 
applied to the escutcheon in colour ; but it has 
been recognized at all epochs that a slight 
relief may be made to answer the purpose ; 
thus, a fesse or pale charged upon an escutcheon 
may be represented in sculpture by very slight 
926 


H-SHAPED ESTANCIA 
= yp) plLZe eee 000: 
gael ese pre sar es pea = AZ “MLLtroe 6 


Site Ul Ls Y 


ZZ Ze > 


Set yy, aE: 


eS rE are 


ESCcORIAL. 


relief from the surface or field of the escutcheon, 
—a relief only sufficient to cast a slight shadow 
at its edge. (See Arms.) 

B. By extension, from the above definition, a 
small plate or the like, generally of metal and 
more or less ornamental, used for many specific 
purposes ; as about a keyhole to protect the 
edges and pierced to admit the key ; or inscribed 
with a name or number as a doorplate. — R. S. 

E-SHAPED. Having a ground plan in the 
general form of the capital letter E. (See 
E Plan.) 

ESKIMO ARCHITECTURE. That of the 
tribes occupying the polar shores and regions 
of North America, and to a limited extent 
Siberia, who are called Eskimos or Esquimaux. 
(See Iglu ; Iglugeak; Karmang; Snow House ; 
Tupik. ) 

ESONARTHEX. The inner narthex in 
cases where there is also an outer or exonarthex. 

ESPAGNOLETTE. A contrivance for 
locking casements or French windows, doors, 
and the like, by means of long rods sunk in or 
attached to the inner face of the meeting stile, 
and operated by turning a handle or key. The 
rod is continuous, and, being turned by the 
handle, its hooked ends are engaged in catches 
in sill and lintel. The fastening by means of 
bolts which enter or leave mortises in sill and 
lintel when protruded or withdrawn by a rack 
and pinion operated by a knob, is rather a form 
of crossbolt lock than an espagnolette, although 
the term has been extended, in common usage, 
to cover these as well. Called also Espagnolette 
Bolt. 

ESPLANADE. A large open space, as in 
front of a public building ; differing from a pub- 

927 


(SEE PLAN.) 


lic square in that it especially belongs to, or 
is intended to set off, the building which fronts 
upon it. The treatment of an esplanade is neces- 
sarily somewhat elaborate ; 5 it needs to be planted 
with trees and laid out in promenades, or else 
paved throughout its whole extent, and it may 
be surrounded by a parapet and approached by a 
perron. One of the largest esplanades in Europe 
is that in front of the Hétel des Invalides in 
Paris, reaching from the Seine to the front of 
the principal structure, a distance of a third 
of a mile, while its width is about half as 
great. — R. S. 

ESSENWEIN, AUGUST OTTMAR ; arch- 
itect and archeologist ; b. 1831; d. Oct. 13,1892. 

Essenwein made a special study of Roman- 
esque architecture. From 1856 to 1860 he 
worked at first in Vienna and afterward in 
Gratz (Austria). In 1866 he was appointed 
director of the Germanic museum in Niirnberg 
(Germany). He enlarged the old monastery in 
which the museum is located, and restored 
many medizeval churches in Nurnberg, Cologne, 
Bonn, and elsewhere. He published Die 
Mittelalterlichen Kunstdenkmale der Stadt 
Krakau (Leipzig, 1869, 1 vol. 4to.); Nord- 
deutschlands Backsteinbau im Mittelalter 
(Karlsruhe, 1855, 1 vol. folio); Aunst- und 
Kulturgeschichtliche Denkmale des German- 
ischen Nazional Museums (Leipzig, 1877, 1 
vol. folio). He edited many handbooks for the 
Germanic Museum and made several important 
contributions to the Handbuch der Archi- 
tektur. 

Nekrologie in Kunstchronik, Oct. 20, 1892. 

ESTANCIA. A South American cattle 
ranch ; hence, the buildings of such a ranch. 

928 


ESTEVE Y BONET 


ESTEVE Y BONET, JOSE; sculptor; b. 
Feb. 22, 1791 (at Valencia, Spain). 

He studied sculpture at the Academia de 
S. Carlos (Valencia) and with the sculptor, D. 
Ignacio Vergara (see Vergara, Ig.). In 1781 
he was appointed professor of sculpture, and, in 
December of the same year, director general 
of the School of the Fine Arts. A long list of 
his works, chiefly on the decoration of churches, 
is given by Vifiaza. 

' Vifiaza, Adiciones al Diccionario historico. 

ESTIMATING. The process of judging 
and forming an opinion of anything in advance 
of proof: in architecture, the determination of 
the value of a building or other structure from 
the drawings and specifications or other prelim- 
 Inaries. 

There are various ways of arriving at this 
end, and generally their accuracy is in propor- 
tion to their thoroughness in detail. The meth- 
ods of builders in estimating for proposals (the 
lowest of which will usually be accepted and 
_ become a contract) are the most accurate. In 
this the various items (see Bill of Quantities) 
are priced according to the experience and judg- 
ment of the builder. Sometimes the contractor 
in each trade makes a subestimate, and finally 
-all the trades are combined in a summary of 
totals, and the grand total, with profit and 
general charges added, becomes the proposal or 
bid. Skill in estimating depends upon a due 
appreciation of values, which are modified by 
variable markets of materials and labour ; and 
by local conditions of accessibility, weather, 
haste, and other matters. 

Among architects a method frequently used 
is the “cubic foot measurement.” This, when 
properly applied, is accurate and reliable. The 
price per foot is decided upon by reference to 
the known cost of similar buildings in similar 
locations, with the addition or deduction of 
proper amounts for features newly presented 
or omitted. 

The basis of a good estimate is observation 
of precedent. This is equally true of the com- 
plex and of the simple methods of estimating. 
The preparation of a schedule of items is mere 
clerical work ; the determination of the price 
per unit of measurement is the essential thing, 
and a price based upon a mere opinion is often 
delusive. Therefore precedent should be fol- 
lowed even when only partially applicable. For 
example: If an office building of usual equip- 
ment has cost 264 cents per foot complete with 
one stone front, this known price may be used 
for an estimate for a building somewhat simi- 
lar, but with three stone fronts, by pricing the 
cubic size at 264 cents and adding the value of 
the extra stonework in comparative amount. 

It is evident that interior structures of floors 
and partitions of similar usual kind, at similar 
usual distances, are of similar value per cubic 

929 


ETAGE’ 


foot. Hence, all buildings having this simi- 
larity of features, from the twenty-story office 
building to the two-story wooden cottage, may 
be so estimated. But many edifices have not 
this character ; churches and museums, for in- 
stance, have walls which enclose spaces varying 
much in proportions; and for such buildings 
the cubic foot estimate is unreliable. A better 
method in these cases is to make a detailed 
estimate of one of the bays or subdivisions 
which generally characterize such a design, and 
multiply it as required, and add for extra 
features. Another method, good, but not gen- 
erally used, is to take the cubic measurement 
of the solids of walls, floors, roofs, etc., and 
price by a figure obtained in a similar way 
from an existing building. Churches are some- 
times roughly estimated, by the accommodation, 
since edifices of similar proportions of width to 
height will vary in size and cost, very nearly as 
the number of seats contained by them; but 
this affords a very indefinite estimate. 

Small houses are often estimated by the foot 
superficial of ground covered ; but this is only 
another form of the cube estimate presuming 
a practical similarity in height. (See Cost of 
Buildings.) — Ropert W. Gipson. 

ESTOUTEVILLE, GUILLAUME D ; car- 
dinal, abbot, and architect ; d. 1482. 

After 1450 he built, or caused to be built, 
part of the abbey of Mont St. Michel on the 
coast of Normandy, as it exists to-day. 

Corroyer, Description du Mont Saint-Michel. 

ESTRADE. A platform or dais; primarily 
one destined to receive a throne or bed of state, 
and hence any space reserved for such purpose, 
whether raised or not. It is now also applied 
to any raised platform for a desk, for a band of 
music, or for other like purposes, but not to the 
stage of a theatre or music hall. 

ESTRIA, HENRY DE. (See Henry de 
Estria. ) 

ESTUFA. (Spanish, a hothouse). A kind 
of hot chamber constructed by American Indians, 
especially by the Pueblos. It was first employed 
by the Spaniards of the sixteenth century and 
passed into common use. It has been largely 
superseded by the more appropriate word, kiva, 
from the language of the Moki. Not a sweat 
house or sweat lodge. (See Kiva.) —F. 8. D. 

ETAGE. In French, a story, as of a build- 
ing; not necessarily one having a floor divided 
into compartments, but applied as well to one 
consisting merely of a row of windows, an arcade, 
or other separate horizontal architectural treat- 
ment. The word is rarely used in English ex- 
cept in connection with the special names of 
different stories, for which see the subtitles. 

It is to be noted that in France a building is 
said to have only one story if it has a premier 
étage and no more stories than that above the 
rez-de-chaussée, or above the rez-de-chaussée 

930 


ETEX 


and the entresol. This usage is not strange to 
Englishmen, whose first story is generally at 
least one flight of stairs from the ground floor, 
but it is unfamiliar to Americans, who, if un- 
travelled, find it hard to conceive of a one-storied 
building as having three superimposed lines of 
important windows, with the most important at 
the top. — R. 8. 

Bel Etage. The principal or most impor- 
tant story, corresponding with the Italian piano 
nobile. 

Deuxitme Etage. The story above the Pre- 
mier Etage. 

Premier Etage. The first in order of the 
important stories of a building; that is to say, 
the story first above the rez-de-chaussée, or 


Te ae PS Oe ere ee re) = ry 
oo he A Beda yr a ery 5 Panes! we AT, . J ry 


ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE 

They may be divided into two classes: Ist, 
those which, erected in stone and of admirable 
construction, have in part lasted to our day; and 
2d, those built in ephemeral materials which 
have long since passed away, and of which we 
are able to form conjectural restorations only, 
based on the writings of historians, on the large 
collections in various museums of the terra cotta 
tiles and other protective and decorative portions 
of the roofs, and lastly on the evidence given in 
the designs of their tombs, which were intended 
apparently to be copies of actual structures. 

To the first class belong the roads, the walls 
of their towns, and the arched construction of the 
entrance gates to their towns, and of their clo- 
acee, or subterranean drains for the passage of 


ETRUSCAN ToMB AT CERVETRI (THE ANCIENT CHRE OF THE ETRUSCANS). PLAN. (SEE SECTION.) 


ground floor, unless there be an entresol. (See 
Etage, above.) 

ETEX, ANTOINE; sculptor; b. March 20, 
1808 (at Paris); d. July 14, 1888. 

tex was a pupil of Pradier and Ingres. He 
made the colossal groups of “‘War” and “ Peace” 
on the Arc de Triomphe de l’ Etoile (Paris). 

Maurice du Seigneur in La Grande Encyclo- 
pedie. 

BTIENNE; architect. 

Supervising architect (maitre de l’église) of 
the cathedral of Rodez (Aveyron, France), the 


reconstruction of which he began between 1289 
and 1294. 


Bauchal, Dictionnaire. 


ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE. The re- 
mains of Etruscan architecture are comparatively 
so few that, were it not for the very important 
part they play in the foundation of Roman ar- 
chitecture, they might be passed over. 

931 


water. The construction of their walls does not 
differ much from that found in the earlier Greek 
work known as Cyclopean, a similarity due more 
to the nature of the material at hand than to 
necessarily any common origin between the two 
peoples. This is further evidenced by the fact. 
that both cyclopean and polygonal masonry and 
squared-stone masonry were employed at the 
same period. Where, however, a distinctively 
new element comes in, known to the Greeks but 
rarely employed by them, is in the regularly 
voussoired arch in stone, as found in the Cloaca, 
Maxima at Rome and in the gates of Perugia, 
Falerii, Volterra, and other places. The use of 
the arch in crude or unburnt brick as a construc- 
tive expedient dates from time immemorial ; but 
it is in the employment of stone and the cutting 
of the same to form regular voussoirs, sometimes. 
even for skew arches as at Perugia, that the 
Etruscans would seem to have been the pioneers. 
The finest and most perfect example is that found 
932 


Se aa ea ee 


ob te OL eg Ue ll el ae een al ae “2 6" ha i. ee 
1: ollie he Age fo. ae 
* is ps al \ ’ 


ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE 


in the Cloaca Maxima in Rome, dating from the 
sixth century before Christ, a barrel-vaulted 
sewer built to drain the Forum and other val- 
leys. This tunnel is about 11 feet wide and 
from 12 to 14 feet high, the vault being formed 
of three concentric rings of masonry, about 2 feet 
6 inches each in height, of regularly voussoired 
stones. Dennis refers to an earlier example on 
the Marta at Gravisce, near Corneto, in which 
the voussoirs were 5 to 6 feet in height, showing 
that at a very remote date the science of arch 
construction was known to the Etruscans. 
Coming to the second class, we gather from 
meagre descriptions in Vitruvius (Chap. VIL, 
Book 4) that the Etruscan temple had three cel- 
las, the centre one wider than the others in the 


proportion of 4 to 3, and a tetrastyle portico of 


columns in front. As the intercolumniation was 
from six to seven diameters of the columns, the 


epistyle was in timber, 


and consisted of “coupled Bs 


ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE 


says, ‘‘ In front of these, members are fixed, and 
over these the tympanum of the pediment either 
of masonry or timber,” and makes no mention of 
the terra cotta ornaments of which so many have 
been found, and which, by their variety and their 
beauty both in colour and form, give a far higher 
conception of the beauty of their temples than 
has hitherto been ascribed to them. This might 
have been surmised from the rich decoration found 
on the sarcophagi and tombs, both modelled in 
imitation of actual structures. The discovery in 
late years made in Civita Lavinia, or Lanuvium, 
of a large collection of terra cotta ornaments, 
now in the British Museum, and at Arita of the 
greater portion of the roof covering of a temple, 
now in the museum of the Villa Papa Giulio in 
Rome, have thrown additional light on the sub- 


ina 
i 
i 


a 
an 


a 
e 


" i Mic 
ae 


: | : 
a 


: 


i 
ii 


So 


—s 


i 
| 


| 


Se 


| 
Hi } hi 


uy 


a ————— 


Erruscan Toms AT CERVETRI (ANCIENT C@RE). LONGITUDINAL SECTION. (SEE PLAN.) 


beams having a space of two inches between 
them, and of such height as the magnitude of 
the work might require.” Above these and rest- 
ing on either the epistyle or the wall, were the 
roof timbers, ‘‘distributed so that the water may 
drip on three sides.” The ridge piece, therefore, 
did not run through, and the pediment existed 
only on the main front. There were also widely 
projecting eaves, equal in projection to one quar- 
ter the height of the column. Whether the mu- 
tules referred to by Vitruvius were horizontal or 
followed the rake of the rafters, as in Greek Doric 
work, isnot known. ‘The great projection of the 
eaves and the weight of the superincumbent gut- 
ter, antefixze, and pendant slabs of terra cotta 
would seem to necessitate the existence of a tie 
beam. The proportions given show that the 
Etruscan temples, when compared with Greek 
and Roman examples, must have had a somewhat 
squat appearance; as they were, however, always 
built on an eminence, this would not be of much 
importance. Vitruvius, speaking of the mutules, 


933 


ject. The principal features found, and they 
are based on a similar design in both cases, con- 
sist of (a) portions of a pediment consisting of a 
bold cavetto moulding decorated with flutings of 
Egyptian character, a bead 1 inch in diameter, 
a fascia 5 inches in height, with a Greek fret in- 
cised and coloured on it, and a torus moulding 3 
inches in diameter, the whole measuring about 
18 inches in height; (6) a sunk gutter, with co- 
rona, similar in design and colouring to the lower 
portion of the pediment moulding, viz. bead, fas- 
cia, and torus moulding; (c) the flat tiles and 
the semicircular covering-joint tiles, with ante- 
fixee of semicircular form, decorated with heads 
under a niche recess with fluting; and (d) pen- 
dant slabs about 2 feet square, the upper portion 
decorated as a frieze with flowing ornament, the 
lower portion like a pendant fringe, and decorated 
with ornament in relief on the front, and incised 
and coloured ornament on the reverse, showing 
that its inner face was exposed at the back. The 
holes in these tiles suggest that these pendant 
934 


ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE 


slabs were hung on the fascia board which termi- 
nated the ends of the rafters or tie beams. The 
soffit of the gutter shows that these slabs were 
set back 3 inches behind the torus moulding, 
and Dr. Murray of the British Museum assumes 
that they were hung also along the front of the 
temple. Unfortunately the junction at the an- 
gle of the pediment and the gutter has not been 
found in either example, but a winged griffin, 
which probably constituted the acroterium at the 
angle, was found at Arita. Numerous slabs from 
other temples are in the British Museum, and in- 
variably the lower portion is fringed and painted 
at the back. These remains, and the numerous 
examples of rich colour decoration found in the 
Etruscan tombs, suggest that the Etruscan tem- 
ple, in its character and colour, must have been 
of considerable beauty. 

The Etruscan tombs were of two kinds, lst, 
those consisting of immense tumuli, one of them 
near Chiusi being 845 feet in circumference, the 
chamber inside being of small dimensions, con- 
taining stone benches shaped like a bed, on 
which the bodies were placed and the arms and 
other relics of the deceased. These chambers 
were covered over with vaults, built in horizontal 
courses like the tomb of Atreus at Mycene. 
In the rock-cut tombs, where a greater width 
could be obtained, the ceilings were carved in 
imitation of the house in which the occupant 
lived, and it is from these we obtain an insight 
into their domestic architecture. The chamber 
represents the atrium of the Etruscan house, 
which corresponds to the description given in 
Vitruvius of the simpler type of the Roman 
atrium, viz. the caveedia displuviata, in which 
there was a comparatively small opening at the 
top of the roof, sloping down on all four sides. 
This is clearly shown in the example at Corneto, 
where a representation of the rafters is carved 
on the slope descending on all four sides. There 
are other tombs at Cervetri, in one a horizontal 
roof with rafters ; in a second example the ceiling 
slopes on two sides, the ridge piece and rafters 
being carved in relief. In the third, additional 
support is given by square piers with volute 
capitals, and in the centre the opening of the 
atrium displuviatum. Recesses round the walls 
suggest the side chambers of the original house, 
here utilized as cubicles. In this latter well- 
known tomb, the walls and piers are carved 
with representations of the household utensils 
as they might have been hanging in the house. 
As a rule, those Etruscan tombs are decorated 
with friezes of figures in procession or dancing, 
drawn with much vigour, recalling the decora- 
tion of the Greek vases. In the Etruscan 
cemetery of the ancient Felsina near Bologna, 
the excavations undertaken since 1870 have 
brought to light a large number of tombstones, 
some upright and shaped like the Greek Q, 
others spherical on a square base. The former 

935 


EXCAVATION 


are richly carved with ornamental borders, and 
vary from 3 feet 6 inches to 6 and 7 feet in 
height. 


George Dennis, The Cities and Cemeteries of 
Etruria, 3d ed., Murray, 1883; Sir Richard 
F. Burton, Htruscan Bologna, 1876; and the col- 
lections in the British Museum, in the Papa Giulio 
Museum, Rome, and in the Museo Civico, Bologna, 
not yet illustrated or described. 


—R. Puent Sprers. 


EUCHARISTIC WINDOW. Same as 
Hagioscope; one of several names proposed in 
Great Britain. — (A. P. 8.) 

EBUPALINOS ; engineer. 

According to Herodotus (Historia, III., 60), 
Eupalinos, son of Naustrophos, of Megara, 
Greece, constructed the aqueduct of Samos 
about 630 B.c. 


Brunn, Geschichte der Griechischen Kiinstler. 


EUPOLEMOS ; architect. 

Eupolemos built, about 420-416 B.c., the 
temple of Hera at Argos in place of the old 
building which was destroyed in 423 B.c. 

Waldstein, Excavation at Argos. 


EURIPUS. In classical archeology, a canal 
or ditch, especially in an amphitheatre or circus. 
Such ditches were used to separate the seats 
of the spectators from the arena, probably for 
safety ; but they were not always present. 

EUSTYLE. In classical intercolumniation, 
having the columns spaced in a way which was 
thought the most generally advantageous or 
effective. Hence, primarily, arranged with 
uniform spacing, or, as in Vitruvius, III., 2, 
having the columns uniformly spaced except in 
the middle, where a wider opening is left. In 
modern writing, it is generally assumed that the 
term signifies, so spaced that the columns shall 
have a clear space of 21 diameters between 
them at their base. (See Intercolumniation.) 

EWERY. <A. A room set apart for ewers 
and bowls; particularly, in a royal palace, a 
closet or napery where the ewers are filled and 
towels kept and attended to. 

B. Anciently, the Scullery of a religious 
house. 

EXCAVATION. The digging out or re- 
moval of earth or rock, whether for grading the 
surface, for cellars under buildings, or for 
trenches for foundations, sewers, pipes, etc. 
Where large quantities of material are to be 
excavated, powerful machinery moved by steam 
is employed. For ordinary operations the pick 
and shovel are chiefly used. Where there is 
room to use them, the earth is loosened with 
the plough and moved, if for short distances, 
with the horse-scoop. Soft and shelly or loose 
rock is excavated with pick and bar or, if too 


hard, is blasted with gunpowder or some form. 


of dynamite. In the excavation of a cellar, the 

surface is loosened with the pick in layers over 

the entire surface, if the excavation is large, 
936 


i 
| 
| 


EXCAVATION 


or a trench is excavated to the proposed depth, 
and the earth is undermined and detached in 
blocks which in falling are broken up, and can 
be shovelled at once into carts. For the re- 
moval of the material, an inclined roadway is 
left by which carts can descend to be loaded. 
When this is not possible, the earth is carried 
out in wheelbarrows, on inclined planks or skids, 
and emptied into a cart on top, if the place of 
deposit is remote. Or it may be necessary to 
shovel the earth into large buckets which are 
lifted by derricks, or the material is taken out 
in stages or “lifts.” For this process, benches 
are made on the sides of the cut, the excavator 
throws the earth with his shovel upon the 
lowest bench, another workman on this bench 
throws it to the one above, and so on until it 
reaches the surface. In deep trenches of con- 
siderable extent a trenching machine is used. 
This consists of a long frame which is placed 
lengthwise over the trench and carries a hoist- 
ing engine, and near the top of the frame metal 
tracks, on which the material raised from the 
trench in large buckets is transported, either 
to refill the trench behind it, or to a dump, 
whence it can be removed if necessary in carts. 
In country places or in open ground, the sides 
of the excavation may be made with a certain 
slope of + to 4, depending on the material, and 
no other protection is needed. In city build- 
ings it is generally necessary to support the 
sides, which are made vertical, with sheeting 
or sheet piling, consisting of planks 2 to 4 inches 
thick placed vertically against the bank, where 
they are held by one or several horizontal wal- 
ings or rangers, which in turn are supported by 
props or shores. These extend from side to 
side of a narrow excavation. 
is wide, the shores are inclined and abut against 
a pile or other support in the bottom of the 
excavation. 

In stiff dry clay, the sides of the cutting will 
stand without support for a considerable depth ; 
sand is usually without cohesion and needs 
support; the soft wet clays require sheet 
piling, which in this case may be nothing more 
than ordinary sheeting planks sharpened to an 
edge at the bottom and driven with mauls. 
Quicksand is sometimes so fluid that it cannot 
be held with sheet piling, and rises in the 
bottom. In some cases this has been over- 
come by the use of the freezing process. The 
ground to be excavated, and for 5 or 6 feet 
outside of it, is frozen by means of pipes driven 
into it, through which the freezing mixture 
circulates. When solid, it can be excavated 
with the pick and the masonry foundations 
built. 

If water appears in the foundation it may 
be removed, if the quantity is small and unim- 
portant, by bailing, or by steam or electric 
pump, or by means of an “ejector,” which is a 

937 


If the excavation 


EXHIBITION BUILDING 


conical pipe through which a current is set up 
by the injection through an interior pipe of a 
jet of water or steam under great pressure. 
(For Excavation by means of caissons, see 
Foundation.) In the excavation of earth from 
foundation cylinders, a form of clamshell dredge 
is used, — three or four spoon-shaped cups on 
short stems, hinged together and spread apart, 
are lowered into the cylinder. The hoisting 
gear, being attached to the long ends of the 
stems, closes the cups as they are lifted filled 
with earth. Earth is sometimes excavated and 
carried away by means of a water jet, but this 
belongs rather to the province of the engineer 
than that of the architect. — W. R. Hutton. 

EXCHANGE. A public building used prin- 
cipally as a place of meeting for merchants or 
other business men (compare Bourse). The 
Royal Exchange in London was built in 1844, 
and has a well-designed Corinthian portico deco- 
rated with sculpture and a large square court 
surrounded by a peristyle. The Merchants’ 
Exchange of New York was built in 1844 as 
a private enterprise ; but the building and land 
was afterward sold to the government of the 
United States, which adapted it to the purposes 
of a customhouse for the port. 

EXCUBITORIUM. A. In Roman arche- 
ology, a sleeping place or guardhouse for a post 
of vigiles, or watchmen, especially in the city 
of Rome. 

B. An apartment for the night watchers in 
a medizval monastery, whose duty it was to 
call the monks to their nocturnal devotions. 

EXEDRA ; EXHEDRA. In classical arche- 
ology, a place partly enclosed and roofed over, 
and provided with seats ; also, a covered room 
or hall opening from a colonnade, and arranged 
as a lecture room or courtroom ; an outhouse, or 
shed ; a hall for meetings. In English usage, 
usually a semicircular, or nearly semicircular, 
raised seat, the back of which forms a low wall, 
and especially one of considerable size and of 
some pretensions. This sense is derived from 
the rounded apses of the Roman basilicas, which 
were fitted with a permanent seat, and served 
regularly, or on special occasions, for courtrooms. 
(Compare Hemicyclium.) 

EXHIBITION BUILDING. In a special 
sense, a building erected for a temporary exhi- 
bition of considerable importance. In addition 
to the great international exhibitions, London 
1851, New York 1853, Paris 1855, London 
1863, Paris 1867,- Vienna 1873, Philadel- 
phia 1876, Paris 1878, Paris 1889, Chicago 
1893, and others, there have been a great num- 
ber of minor, but still very important, exhibi- 
tions to which thousands of people have thronged 
from many parts of the world. Each of these 
has involved the erection of large buildings for 
the Industrial Arts, for the Fine Arts, specifi- 
cally so called, and for many special depart- 

93 


EXHIBITION ROOM 


ments, such as Mining, the Fisheries, Electricity, 
the Military and Naval resources of a govern- 
ment. Similar buildings have been needed for 
special industries, and even for private firms, 
who have obtained the privilege of occupying 
a portion of the ground, either by liberal pay- 
ments or by the promise to erect decorative 
pavilions to be filled with interesting exhibits. 
The subject is, therefore, vast, and analytical 
treatment at present impracticable. It is to 
be noted, however, that many of the modern 
methods of building, which are so novel as to 
be generally disregarded by architects in the 
design of churches, residences, and the like, 
have found their best expression in these tem- 
porary structures. Thus, the Pavilion of the 
City of Paris of the Paris Exhibition of 1878 
was an admirable structure of light ironwork 
with the spaces between the uprights and the 
horizontals filled with brickwork, and both 
brickwork and ironwork treated in a decorative 
sense ; with, moreover, four great doorways of 
wonderfully interesting decorative composition, 
showing a bold and most agreeable use of un- 
glazed tiles in relief, and enamelled tiles in 
brilliant colour. The larger buildings have 
often included applications of ironwork with 
glass and tile to the forms of the cupola, and 


the groined or cylindrical vault on a great scale, . 


and with infinite promise of future advancement 
in the same direction. There have also been 
examples of interiors built in a purely construc- 
tive way, and according to the strictest meth- 
ods of engineering science, to which beauty of 
form and of proportion has still been given, as 
in the case of the famous Galerie des Ma- 
chines of 1889. 

Much rich decoration in sculpture and in 
colour has also been given to some of these 
buildings, but this has almost entirely disap- 
peared, only a few pieces of sculpture having 
been removed and preserved elsewhere. — R. 8. 

EXHIBITION ROOM. A room for the 
advantageous display of objects of art, indus- 
try, or commerce. Its two most important 
requisites are ample lighting and space, prop- 
erly disposed, on the one hand, for the cases 
containing the objects exhibited, and on the 
other, for the convenient circulation of visiting 
crowds. For some classes of objects overhead 
lighting is needed ; for others, lateral lighting ; 
while the proper arrangement of wall cases, 
table cases, shelvcs, frames, etc., must vary 
with every different sort of objects to be shown. 
(See Cabinet ; Gallery ; Museum.) 

EXIT. A gateway or doorway intended to 
serve only for persons leaving a building or en- 
closure, especially when prepared for use when 
a great crowd is dispersing. In some public 
buildings, such as theatres, there are exits for 
ordinary communications and others especially 
prepared for use in case of alarm. 

939 


EXPANSION 

EXONARTHEX. An outer narthex, ves- 
tibule, or arcade in front of the narthex of a 
basilican or Byzantine church. By some writ- 
ers the term is interpreted as applicable to 
the whole atrium, or antecourt, in front of the 
church ; but it is more properly restricted 
to the outer passage of a double narthex, as 
in Hagia Sophia, at Co (See 
Narthex.) 

EXPANSION. The act of growing larger 
and the condition of being enlarged, especially 
as caused under the influence of heat. 

All bodies possess the property of being ex- 
panded by heat, but in different degrees. The 
following are the rates of linear expansion of 
the metals and materials in ordinary use in con- 
struction for changes of temperature from 32° 
to 212° Fahrenheit, or from zero to 100° Cen- 
tigrade : — 


Brass 0.00187 to 0.00216 
Bronze . 0.00184 

Copper . 0.00170 to 0.00184 
Gast Irons sas 0.00111 

Wrought Iron and Steel . 0.00110 to 0.00125 
Soft Steel . 0.00103 

Lead 0.00290 

Zinc. 0.00294 
Slates 0.00104 

Dry timber, along the grain . 0.00035 to 0.00056 
Brick, common : . 0.00355 

Brick, fire . 0.0005 

Cement : 0.0014 

Glass 0.0009 

Granite . 0.0008 to 0.0009 
Marble . 0.00065 to 0.0011 
Sandstone . 0.0009 to 0.0012 
Terra Cotta 0.00045 


Between the limits of 32° and 212° F. (0° 
to 100° C.) the expansion due to temperature 
is nearly proportional to the number of de- 
grees; but above this the rate of expansion 
increases sensibly with the temperature. 

Of the use of the above list the following is 
an example: Given a cast-iron beam 50 feet 
long, subjected to a rise of temperature of 80° 
F.; the rate of expansion for cast iron for 180° 


is 0.00111; and for 80° tui 


180° 

0.00049333. This, multiplied by the length 
of the beam, 50 feet, or 600 inches, gives 
0.296 inches for the increased length of the 
beam due to temperature. If the variation of 
temperature were taken in degrees Centigrade, 
the number of degrees would be divided by 
100° instead of 180°; otherwise, the operation 
would be the same. The expansion is given in 
the same terms as the length: feet give feet, 
inches give inches. ‘ 

If the beam is prevented from expanding, a 
stress is induced equal to the pressure which 
would shorten the beam as much as it would 
be expanded by the rise in temperature, as 
represented by the following rule: Let a rep- 
resent the rate of expansion per degree; ¢ the 


940 


EHXTENSION 


number of degrees the temperature is changed ; 
E the modulus of elasticity of the material ; 
then f = atH, f being the stress per unit of 
section of the beam. 

For steel H# is 27,000,000 to 29,000,000 
pounds to the square inch ; therefore, for a beam 
50 feet long of steel under a rise of temperature 

, ° 
of 60° C., pa x 27,000,000. 
.". f= 19,440 lbs. per square inch of section. 
’ A reduction of temperature causes contrac- 
tion at the same rate as the increase of tem- 
perature causes expansion. 
—W. R. Hutton. 

EXTENSION. A. A building added to 
another for the purpose of enlarging it; though 
_this may be in a peculiar way, and have a spe- 
cial purpose. Thus, a conservatory may be an 
extension to a house which has not had such an 
appendage before. Hence, — 

B. In local usage, probably only in the 
United States, a relatively small portion of a 
building, projecting from the main building, 
even if erected at the same time. 

EXTENSION BAR. A removable fixture 
for a pair of compasses for use in describing large 
circles. A compass-pen or pencil being inserted 
in one end, the other is inserted in one leg of a 
pair of compasses, in place of the point. 

EXTENSION BELL. (See Electrical Ap- 
pliances. ) 

EXTRA. In building by contract, any piece 
of material or of work outside of the terms of 
the contract, and to be paid for apart. In most 
forms of contract it is provided that extras are 
to be ordered only by the superintendent. When 
ordered, the terms are agreed upon between the 
builder and the superintendent. 

EXTRADOS. The external surface of the 
voussoirs composing an arch or vault; and hence, 
also, the exterior curve or boundary of the visi- 
ble face of the arch. It is usually a curve con- 
centric with that of the intrados, though not 
invariably so. By an erroneous usage the term is 


941 


EZHUAHUAG 


sometimes applied to the top of masonry finished 
to a horizontal line above an arch. 

EYCKEN (EYKEN), JAN VAN DER; 
architect. 

One of the architects employed on the great 
church of 8. Gudule, in Brussels, Belgium. He 
disappears from the accounts of the building in 
1494, 


Kramm, Hollandsche Kunstenaars. 


EYE. <A. Same as Oculus. 

B. One of the smaller, more or less triangular, 
openings between the bars of Gothic Tracery. 

C. The circular, or nearly circular, central 
part of a volute, as in an Ionic capital. 

D. In drainage and pipe laying, an opening 
in the side of a larger pipe for the insertion of a 
smaller one. 

EH. Rarely, same as Chil de Boeuf. 

EYE BAR. A tension member of an iron or 
steel truss, wrought with an eye at each end, 
through which passes the pin forming the joint. 
(See Pin Joint, under Joint.) 

EYEBROW. A. According to the Arch. 
Soc. Pub. Dictionary, “aname sometimes given 
to a fillet.” 

B. In American usage generally, a low dor- 
mer, for light or ventilation, on the slope of a 
roof, having no vertical sides or cheeks, the roof- 
ing being carried over it in wave line, suggesting 
the name. 

EYE FORM. The vesica piscis, or “ fish- 
bladder” outline, used in symbolical sculpture, 
mosaic, etc., in tracery of the late Decorated period, 
and in French and German flamboyant tracery. 

EYELET. A small opening for light and air, 
or for the discharge of missiles, in the wall or 
parapet of a medieval castle ; usually widening 
toward the interior, or backed by an embrasure. 
The opening was usually round or square, or 
else extremely long and narrow ; sometimes with 
a cross slit, or enlarged at the centre or ends by 
a round aperture for the discharge of firearms. 

EZHUAHUAC. An Aztec penitential 
building. 


942 


OTHER WORKS ON ARCHITECTURE 


PUBLISHED BY 


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EUROPEAN ARCHITECTURE 
A Historical Study 


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DEVELOPMENT AND CHARACTER OF 
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 


By CHARLES HERBERT MOORE 


Second Edition, Rewritten and Enlarged. With Ten Plates in Photogravure 
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The new edition embodies a large amount of fresh material gathered at first hand from the monuments. 

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VOLUME I, VoLuME II, 
CHAPTER CHAPTER 
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Ill, Cellar and Retaining Walls. X. Plate and Box Girders, 
IV. Walls and Piers. XI. Graphical Analysis of Strains in Trusses. 
V. Arches. XII. Wooden and Iron Trusses, 
VI. Floor-beams and Girders. XIll, Columns. 
VII. Graphical Analysis of Transverse Strains. ‘Tables, Index, 


MODERN. PERSPECTIVE 


A Treatise upon the Principles and Practice of Plane and Cylindrical Perspective 


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The Article ‘‘Construction’’ of the Dictionnaire Raisonné de l’Architecture Francaise 


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THE CASTLES OF ENGLAND 


Their Story and Structure 


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